Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period

of time (more than thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time. The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In summer,
the mercury occasionally touches 50°C in some parts of the Rajasthan desert, whereas it may be around 20°C in Pahalgam in Jammu and
Kashmir. On a winter night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and Kashmir may be as low as minus 45°C. Thiruvananthapuram, on the other
hand, may have a temperature of 22°C.----In the Thar Desert the day temperature may rise to 50°C, and drop down to near 15°C the same
night. On the other hand, there is hardly any difference in day and night temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar islands or in Kerala.

The annual precipitation varies from over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm in Ladakh and western Rajasthan. Most parts of the
country receive rainfall from June to September. But some parts like the Tamil Nadu coast gets a large portion of its rain during October
and November. In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal contrasts are more in the interior of
the country. There is decrease in rainfall generally from east to west in the Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to variety in
lives of people – in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear and also the kind of houses they live in.

Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally
decreases from the equator towards the poles. As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less
dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers. The pressure and wind system of any area depend on
the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus, it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence on
climate: As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the people experience extreme weather
conditions. This condition is known as continentality (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters). Ocean currents along
with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas, for example, any coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be
warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore. High mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may also cause precipitation if they
are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of mountains remains relatively [Link] The Tropic of
Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kachchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country,
lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates. Altitude India has mountains to the north, which
have an average height of about 6,000 metres. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The
Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this
subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia. Pressure and Winds The climate and associated
weather conditions in India are governed by the following atmospheric conditions: • pressure and surface winds; • Upper air circulation;
and • Wester eastern cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones. India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate
from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern. Hemisphere. They blow southwards, get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis
force, and move towards the equatorial low-pressure area. Generally, these winds carry little moisture as they originate and blow over
land. Therefore, they bring little or no rain.

The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry
winds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior
Asia, as well as, over northwestern India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves from the
high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-
pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the warm oceans,
gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India

The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in rainfall pattern Four main seasons can be
identified in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather season, the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some
regional variations

The cold weather season begins from mid November in northern India and stays till February. December and January are the coldest
months in the northern part of India. The temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of Chennai, on the
eastern coast, is between 24°– 25° Celsius, while in the northern plains, it ranges between 10°C and 15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights
are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall. During this season, the northeast trade
winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season. Some amount of
rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they blow from sea to land. In the northern part of the country, a feeble
high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the
Ganga valley from the west and the northwest. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and
feeble, variable winds. A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of cyclonic disturbances
from the west and the northwest. These low-pressure systems, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into
India, along with the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the
total amount of winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is small, they are of immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops. The
peninsular region does not have a well-defined cold season. There is hardly any noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during
winters due to the moderating influence of the sea….

Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northwards. As such, from March to May, it is hot weather
season in India. The influence of the shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature recordings taken during March May at
different latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau. In April, temperatures in
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May, temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the northwestern parts of the
country. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the oceans. The summer months experience
rising temperature and falling air pressure in the northern part of the country. Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure area
develops in the region extending from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and southeast.
Circulation of air begins to set in around this trough. A striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot,
dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India. Sometimes they even continue until late in the evening. Direct
exposure to these winds may even prove to be fatal. Dust storms are very common during the month of May in northern India. These
storms bring temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is also the season for localised
thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West Bengal, these storms are known
as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’. Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common especially, in Kerala and Karnataka.
They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to as ‘mango showers.

Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season) By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the
trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans.
They cross the equator and blow in a south westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon. As these winds
blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity of 30
km per hour. With the exception of the extreme north-west, the monsoon winds cover the country in about a month. The inflow of the
south-west monsoon into India brings about a total change in the weather. Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats
receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite
of lying in the rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country. Mawsynram in
the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east
to the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall. Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have
‘breaks’ in rainfall. Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In other words, the monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are
interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. For various reasons,
the trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward, which determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the
monsoon trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas,
there are longer dry spells in the plains, and widespread rain occur in the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers. These
heavy rains bring in their wake, devastating floods causing damage to life and property in the plains. The frequency and intensity of
tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration of monsoon rains. These depressions form at the head of the Bay of Bengal
and cross over to the mainland. The depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is known for its
uncertainties. The alternation of dry and wet spells varies in intensity, frequency and duration. While it causes heavy floods in one part, it
may be responsible for droughts in the other. It is often irregular in its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes disturbs the farming
schedule of millions of farmers all over the country.

During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough
over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon winds weaken
and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The months of October-
November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies
and rise in Mawsynram, the wettest place on the earth is also reputed for its stalagmite and stalactite caves. temperature. While day
temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the
weather becomes rather oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, the mercury
begins to fall rapidly in northern India.

The low-pressure conditions, over north western India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated with
the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India
cause heavy and widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones arrive
at the coasts of Odisha, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and
cyclones. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL Parts of western coast and northeastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low in the
interior of the Deccan plateau, and east of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive low rainfall? A third area of low precipitation is
around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region. Owing
to the nature of monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year. Variability is high in the regions of low rainfall, such as
parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to be affected by
floods, areas of low rainfall are drought-prone …. MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND You have already known the way the Himalayas
protect the subcontinent from extremely cold winds from central Asia. This enables northern India to have uniformly higher temperatures
compared to other areas on the same latitudes. Similarly, the Peninsular plateau, under the influence of the sea from three sides, has
moderate temperatures. Despite such moderating influences, there are great variations in the temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The seasonal alteration of the wind systems and the
associated weather conditions provide a rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much
typical of the monsoons. The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire agricultural calendar and the life of the people, including
their festivities, revolve around this phenomenon. Year after year, people of India from north to south and from east to west, eagerly await
the arrival of the monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the whole country by providing water to set the agricultural activities in motion.
The river valleys which carry this water also unite as a single river valley unit