Table of Contents

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 3
A. General Objective ................................................................................................... 3
Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................... 3
Overview ..................................................................................................................... 4
Pretest ......................................................................................................................... 4
Learning Contents .......................................................................................................... 5
Brief Historical Development of Agriculture in the World ............................................. 5
Agriculture During the Different Eras and Ages ............................................................ 6
Agriculture as an Economic Factor in Capitalist and Non-Capitalist Countries ............... 8
Agriculture as a Science, an Industry and a Profession ................................................... 9
Agriculture as a Science includes research and development on: ................................. 9
Agriculture as an Industry ......................................................................................... 9
Agriculture as a Profession ....................................................................................... 10
The BSA Program ...................................................................................................... 10
Duties and Competencies of an Agriculture Graduate .................................................. 10
Perform the tasks in the technical and scientific fields with confidence and creativity .. 10
Diagnose and analyze strengths and limitations, opportunities, threats in the practice of
agriculture profession ............................................................................................... 11
Conceptualize and formulate systems-oriented strategic plans and programs for
agricultural development .......................................................................................... 11
Monitor and Evaluate Plans and Programs in Agriculture ......................................... 11
Advocate agricultural laws, rules, regulations and related policies .............................. 12
Practice and promote public safety in the use of agricultural technology ..................... 12
Implement agricultural development compatible with resource conservation. ............. 12
Develop communication skills and strategies ............................................................ 12
Develop and cultivate collaborative and productive work attitude towards the
agriculture profession. .............................................................................................. 12
Provide leadership and vision in identifying, creating and pursuing opportunities in
agricultural development .......................................................................................... 13
Practice ethical interpersonal relations with employers, subordinates, peers, clients and
the general public. ................................................................................................... 13
The Major Fields of Agriculture .................................................................................. 13
 Performance of Philippine Agriculture (2021)............................................................... 14
Synthesis ....................................................................................................................... 15
Evaluation ..................................................................................................................... 15
References16
 MODULE 1
AGRICULTURE: ITS GROWTH AND DEVLOPMENT

Introduction
Agriculture is one of the oldest human activities. It is still a "primary” industry and very
important especially to poor people. It has multiple functions, and not just for food
production, hence, it is very valuable. It has undergone considerable changes associated with
development in society as a whole. The progress in science as well as in technologies had a
major effect on agriculture from the 19th century onwards.
For example, chemistry has created fertilizers for plant nutrition and pesticides to
protect plants against insect pests and diseases; biology (genetics, physiology) has enabled an
improvement in the productive capacity of plants and animals, engineering has reduced
human efforts and increased human working capacity through the invention of agricultural
machineries for farm mechanization, electronics and computer science revolutionized the
working of agricultural farms: robotics, microcomputers and biotechnology through tissue
culture and genetic engineering ensures a very rapid intensification of production.
Meanwhile, the Green Resolution with its new farming technologies initially increased
productivity of individual farmers. However, with the last two decades, it has caused much
environmental degradation and its much-heralded productivity gains have proven to be
unsustainable. In the Philippines, hunger and poverty prevail especially in the rural areas.
As of 2018, 57.8% of the rural populations were poor and 5.6% of children with ages
five and below were malnourished. Eradicating absolute poverty is becoming the single
biggest challenge of development work today. The Asia-Pacific region poverty rate declines
from 75% to 26.40% still can be found in highly marginalized rural agricultural communities

A. General Objective
After thorough discussion of the learning contents, the student must have obtained
a general idea on what agriculture is, how important it is not only in feeding the population
of the whole world but as a source of livelihood or income.

B. Specific Objectives
At the end of this module, the student must be able to:
1. Know by heart the brief historical background of agriculture
 2. Differentiate agriculture from other sciences;
3. Understand fully the goal as well as the contents of the BSA program
4. Learn the various duties and competencies possess; and,
5. Explain the current status of the Philippine agriculture and its contribution to
the society
C. Overview
This module is composed of major topics that will eventually inform the
students and make them understand the growth and development of agriculture. The
importance of agriculture as a course and as a profession will be tackled. The duties
and competencies of an agricultural graduate will be elucidated to more or less guide
and set the minds of the students on what would be their expectations as they proceed
with their degree program. This will also serve as an eye-opener among the students
on what role they will portray after finishing their course in agriculture.
Further, the contributions of agriculture to the society as a whole and among
individual farmers will be discussed. Ideas on how to overcome constraints of
production will be discussed vis a vis the actual status of production in the country and
a special focus to the student's barangay/community.
D. Pretest
1. Where do you think agriculture originated? Is it from the richest countries in the world
like the United States of America or Europe?
2. What are the top five (5) export commodities of the country? What are their
contributions to the Gross National Product?
3. On a regional basis, what are the top five regions producing rice in the country? What
is the average yield per region? What region has the lowest yield?
4. In terms of livestock, what are the top three (3) regions having the highest production?
What region in the country has the lowest production?
5. In your barangay/community, what was the average yield of palay per hectare? Do
you know the rate of fertilization used?
6. What are the other crops grown in your community/or your family aside from rice?
Do you know the income realized by your father?
 7. Under the "bridging program", give the top five priority skills that you want to
learn most. Why?

Learning Contents
Brief Historical Development of Agriculture in the World
Evidences point to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East as the site of the earliest
planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Later,
agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were
developed and made great strides in the past century. The Haber-Bosch method for
synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to
overcome previous constraints.
Since its development 10,000 years ago, agriculture has been characterized by
enhanced productivity, the substitution of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding. and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied
with a range of political issues including water pollution, bio-fuels, genetically modified
organisms (GMO) tariffs, and farm subsidies.
In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of
mechanized agriculture, and an increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable
agriculture.
Scholars proposed a number of theories to explain the historical development of
farming as follows:
• Oasis Theory – as summarized in the book "Man Makes Himself” by Vere Gordon Childe,
from the original proposal by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, the theory maintains that as the
climate got drier, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close
association with animals which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds.
However, the theory has little support from contemporary scholars, as the climatic data for
the time does not support the theory.
• The Hilly Flanks hypothesis proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that
agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Tauros, and Zagros mountains, and that it
developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the region.
• The Feasting model by Bryan Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious
displays of power, such as throwing feasts to exert dominance. This required assembling.
large quantities of food which drove agricultural technology.
• The Demographic theory was proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and
Kent Flannery. They describe an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the
carrying capacity of the local environment, and requiring more food than can be gathered.
Various social and economic factors help drive the need for food.
• The evolutionary/intentionality theory, advanced by scholars including David Rindos
has the idea that agriculture is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans, starting
with domestication by protection of wild plants, followed by specialization of location and
then domestication.

Agriculture During the Different Eras and Ages

• Neolithic Era
Identifying the exact origin of agriculture remains problematic because the
transition from hunter-gatherer societies began thousands of years before the invention of
writing. As early as the Holocene period (ca. 9500BC), in the Levant region of the Fertile
Crescent, cultivation of specific food plant had been traced. It was at the same period that
the eight-so-called founder crops of agriculture appeared, namely wheat (emmer and
einkorn), hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax.
The domestication of different crops was documented as follows:
o 7000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia
o 6000 BC farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile River
o About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East,
probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop.
o Maize was first domesticated, probably from Teosinte, in the Americas
around 3000-2700 BC
o In Europe, there is evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep,
goats and pigs that suggest a food producing economy in Greece and the
Aegean by 7000 BC.
o Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian Peninsula suggest
the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC
 o Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by
stone walls, date to 5500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the
world
o The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BC.
o In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8000 BC, followed by the
beans mung, soy and azuki
o In the Sahel region of Africa local rice and sorghum were domestic by 5000
BC.
o Evidence of the presence of wheat and some legumes in the 6th millennium
BC have been found in the Indus Valley.
o By 3500 BC cotton growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the
valley. By 3000 BC farming of rice had started. Other monsoon crops of
importance of the time were cane sugar
o By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of the staple diet in
Mohenjodaro near the Arabian Sea. By this time the Indians had large cities
with well-stocked granaries. Three regions of the Americas independently
domesticated corn, squashes, potato and sunflowers.
• Roman Era
Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving
serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. They had four systems of farm
management: direct work by owner and his family, slaves doing work under supervision
of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant
divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant. There
was a great deal of commerce between the provinces of the empire, all the regions of the
empire became interdependent with one another, some provinces specialized in the
production of grain, others in wine and others in olive oil, depending on the soil type.
• Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East
developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including:
1. irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles,
2. the use of machines such as norias,
 3. the use of water raising machines,
4. construction of dams, and reservoirs
5. location-specific farming manuals were developed
6. wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton,
artichokes, aubergines, and saffron
7. bringing lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas
to Spain.
The invention of three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages, and
the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved agricultural
efficiency. After 1492, the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread
exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and animals
that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New
World and vice versa.
Perhaps most notably, the tomato became a favorite in European cuisine, and
maize and potatoes were widely adopted. Other transplanted crops include pineapple,
cocoa, and tobacco. In the other direction, several wheat strains quickly took to Western
Hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South
Americans. In the expansion of plantation areas, crops including sugar, cotton, and indigo
were introduced

Agriculture as an Economic Factor in Capitalist and Non-Capitalist

Countries
The distinction between capitalist from non-capitalist countries nowadays has become
blurred with the most powerful communist countries like China and Russia embracing
capitalism or some degree of it. It may therefore irrelevant now to discuss the economic
contribution of agriculture in capitalist and non-capitalist countries. However, some general
distinct comparisons may be made between the two as regards agricultural production.
DIMENSIONS CAPITALIST NON-CAPITALIST
COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
Ownership of Farms Private persons or State-owned
corporations
Purpose of Profit; market-oriented; Basically, for domestic
Production export of surplus consumption;
 Management Self-initiated; democraticState-controlled;
bureaucratic
Mode of Production Intensive; greater output Extensive - lesser output
per unit area; highly per unit area; labor-
mechanized intensive
Cost of Production Generally low per unit of Generally high per unit of
product product

Agriculture as a Science, an Industry and a Profession

• Agriculture is the science and art of raising crops and animals with the use of
resources like land (soil), water, materials such as inputs and the available
technology.
• An agricultural farm is an agricultural production unit implementing factors of
production with the intention of earning a profit for the farmer.
Agriculture as a Science includes research and development on:
• Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, fertilization rates,
appropriate farm inputs, etc.)
• Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g.,
selection of drought resistance crops and animals, development of new
pesticides, yield-enhancing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-
vitro cell culture techniques, biotechnology, etc.)
• Transformation of primary products into end-user products (e.g., production,
preservation and packaging of dairy and other crops).
• Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil
degradation, waste management, bioremediation).
• Production ecology relating to crop production modeling.
• Traditional agricultural systems or subsistence agriculture
Agriculture as an Industry
• Agriculture is an industry as it covers a lot of enterprises that create products
and provide employment
• Agriculture also affects other agri-dependent industries such as food processing,
feed and food manufacturing, fertilizer production, pesticide manufacturing,
and,
 • Agriculture is the base of economy of most developed and developing countries.

Agriculture as a Profession
Most Filipinos think of agriculture as merely planting of crops or raising
animals. With the appropriate educational qualification, a lot of professional
careers in agriculture are available such as researchers, scientists, teachers, food
technologists, feed and food nutritionists, sales managers, bank appraisers,
agricultural statisticians, farm managers, farmer-scientists, agri-consultants, etc.
The creation of Republic Act 8435 popularly known as the Agriculture and
Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA Law) of 1997 mandates the agriculture
graduates to take the Agriculturist Licensure Examination (ALE) to professionalize
agriculture and be at par with other professions.

The BSA Program

• The Bachelor of Science in Agriculture is a degree program designed to prepare
professionals with general competencies in carrying out the 2 science, art, ethics,
management and entrepreneurial business in the production, processing and
marketing of plants, animals and other organisms utilized for food, fiber,
recreation, biomedicine, industrial and other purposes within the context of
integrated and sustainable agriculture resource systems.
• With the above premise, an agriculturist refers to a person who has the competence
to scientifically diagnose and pursue opportunities, design and implement
appropriate strategies, manage resources. Also, he/she should be able to provide
scientific, technical and policy advice in implementing programs that would
promote agricultural development.
Duties and Competencies of an Agriculture Graduate
Perform the tasks in the technical and scientific fields with confidence and creativity
1. Apply concepts, principles and methodologies
2. Enhance working knowledge through technical and scientific exposures
3. Conduct innovative research to generate good agricultural practices and
desirable products
Diagnose and analyze strengths and limitations, opportunities, threats in the practice of
agriculture profession
1. Keep abreast with developments in agriculture
2. Analyze, interpret and utilize technical and socio-economic data to evaluate
opportunities and constraints
3. Recommend appropriate actions and strategies
Conceptualize and formulate systems-oriented strategic plans and programs for
agricultural development
a. Examine the inter and intra dependence of systems within the context of
agricultural development
b. Map out strategic plans using technical, scientific, market and other sources
of information
c. Prepare workable agricultural plans, programs and feasibility studies.
d. Formulate alternative measures to solve potential problems in implementing
agricultural plans and programs
Manage resources effectively and efficiently
1. Conduct resource inventory by employing recent qualitative and
quantitative tools.
2. Assess and analyze the enterprise using techniques that will establish
strengths, limitations, opportunities and threats.
3. Develop strategies and alternatives within the context of sustainability.
4. Formulate and implement resource management plan for improved and
sustained productivity.
5. Assess the overall efficiency and sustainability of agricultural plans and
programs.
6. Recommend and disseminate best management practices developed from
the enterprise
Monitor and Evaluate Plans and Programs in Agriculture
1. Conduct performance audit to assess the progress and accomplishments of
the enterprise and recommend measures to ensure sustained use of the
resources available in the enterprise.
2. Design benefit monitoring and evaluation system for plans and programs.
 3. Formulate verifiable performance indicators of agricultural plans and
programs.
4. Take corrective actions promptly.
Advocate agricultural laws, rules, regulations and related policies
1. Know and analyze existing agricultural laws, rules, regulations and related
policies.
2. Identify policy impacts and gaps.
3. Formulate recommendations for policy reforms.
4. Design and implement strategies for advocacy.
Practice and promote public safety in the use of agricultural technology
4. Apply good management practices in the workplace for safety.
5. Promote consciousness in the application of agricultural technology among
workers for public safety.
Implement agricultural development compatible with resource conservation.
1. Explain the interrelationship of agriculture and environment.
2. Identify best management practices and promote their applications in
specific sectors of the agriculture industry.
3. Promote resource conservation and sustainable use of resources
Develop communication skills and strategies
1. Convey ideas and information clearly and effectively.
2. Apply the principles and use different forms and types of communication.
3. Develop the ability to access, retrieve, process and disseminate information
4. Prepare, review, analyze and evaluate technical and scientific reports,
proposals, researches and concept papers and respond promptly.
5. Update oneself of the recent trends on information and Communication
technologies (ICTS).
Develop and cultivate collaborative and productive work attitude towards the
agriculture profession.
1. Demonstrate the values of self-respect and integrity.
2. Innovate for improvement of the agriculture profession.
3. Develop self-reliance and practice teamwork and networking with high
performance and quality.
Provide leadership and vision in identifying, creating and pursuing opportunities in
agricultural development
1. Identify, collect and integrate important data and information on specific
agricultural situations.
2. Evaluate data/information using appropriate statistical and decision-making
tools.
3. Identify rational alternatives to solve specific problem, close critical gaps or
pursue opportunities.
4. Synthesize relevant information to understand the emerging global
agricultural scenario.
5. Pursue program of action with enthusiasm and determination.
6. Practice leadership qualities and display social concerns
Practice ethical interpersonal relations with employers, subordinates, peers, clients and
the general public.
1. Observe professional ethics and standards.
2. Respect the rights of others and recognize their accomplishments.
3. Demonstrate emotional intelligence/maturity
4. Motivate others to participate actively in PRC Accredited Professional
Organization (APO) and other agriculture-related association activities and
comply with their policies and obligations.
The Major Fields of Agriculture
The new BSA program (CHED Memorandum Order 23 s, 2021) is a
competency-based curriculum. Skills needed for the establishment of an enterprise
must be learned and at the same time, to be able to pass the assessment in terms of
the National Certificate as mandated by the Technical Education and Skills
Development (TESDA).
An embedded "Certificate in Agricultural Science" will be awarded after the
second year upon completion of all the required subjects and competencies for the said
certificate. Aside from this, there are six (6) potential National Certificates (NC Level)
that may be acquired as follows:
• NC I Agricultural Crops Production
• NC II Horticulture
 • NC II Animal production
• NC II Slaughtering Operations
• NC III Horticulture
• NC III Agricultural Crops Production
Competencies not acquired during the regular semester from the various
subjects enrolled will be done during summer called the "bridging program". Hence, it
is expected that students who obtained a certificate may opt to work for a while to earn
for his studies and later returned to finish the degree.
A university or college offering the degree program may follow the general tract
or the highly specialized tract or with specialization. The possible major areas are:
Agricultural Economics, Animal Science, Crop Protection, Crop Science and Soil
Science.
Performance of Philippine Agriculture (2021)
In the year 2021, agriculture went down by -1.7%. Crop and fishery subsectors
posted output increases while livestock and poultry subsector went down. At current
prices, the value of agricultural production amounted to PhP 1.99 trillion or 5.2% more
than the previous year due to the increased in prices despite the decrease in production.
Crop production grew by 2.3%. It shared 57.1% in the total agriculture and
fisheries production. Palay and corn posted expansions in production at 3.5% and
2.1%, respectively.
Livestock production, which contributed 14.3% to the total agriculture and
fisheries production, decreased by -17%. Downtrend in production was exhibited by
hog at -20.8%.
Poultry production, which accounted for 13.4% of the total agriculture and
fisheries production, decreased by 0.3%. Chicken egg production increased by 9.1%.
Lastly, fisheries production posted a 0.1 increment. It contributed 15.1% to the
total agriculture and fisheries production. An increase in production were recorded for
mud crab (alimango) by 19.2%, followed by tilapia by 11.8%, cavalla (talakitok) by
9%, milkfish by 6%, squid (pusit) by 4.9%, big-eyed scad (matangbaka) by 4.1%,
grouper (lapu-lapu) by 3.8%, and blue crab (alimasag) by 3.7%.
 At current prices, the value of production in agriculture and fisheries amounted
to PhP 1.99 trillion in 2021. This was 5.2% higher than the previous year’s level.

Synthesis
The module brought about discussions on the historical development of
agriculture including theories that created the practice of agriculture. The new BSA
program, the duties and competencies that must be acquired and then potential National
Certificates that the students can get aside from the embedded Certificate in Agricultural
Science awarded after completion of the requirements after second year were presented.
At the latter part, the performance of the agriculture sector has been presented and
discussed giving emphasis on the contribution of the sector to the society. Indeed, it was
timely to present as early as the first module the statistics on agricultural performance so
that the students will know the importance of their degree and continue to enroll in the
program.

Post test
1. What was the feature of your curriculum? What are the National Certificates under
TESDA which you could apply for assessment?
2. Give four duties of an agriculture graduate. What are the competencies required for
the said duties?
3. Which subsector of agriculture contributed the biggest share in terms of productivity
and value? Which crops do you think contributed the biggest in terms of production?
4. What was the average farm gate price increase of the commodities in all subsectors
of agriculture? Why there was an increase?
5. In general, subsequent increases of production occurred in the agriculture sector as
a whole, why is it that we experienced recently rice shortage in the market? Why do
you think it happens?

Evaluation
After taking the post test, your score must be above 80%, otherwise your
professor will give you some activities to enhance further your knowledge on the topics
where you obtained low marks. Enjoy your work, and then proceed `to the next module.
References
• CHED. 2021. CMO No. 23 s. 2021. Diliman, Quezon City.
• Philippine Statistics Authority, Value of Production in Philippine Agriculture and
Fisheries 4th Quarter 2021.
• Perez F.O., 2010. Introduction to Agriculture: A Modular Approach
• Basic Statistics 2021.ADB Statistics and Data Innovation Unit
 MODULE II
AGRICULTURE AND THE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Land has been man's habitat and living space. It is where most of his sustenance and
much of his fuel, clothing, and shelter has been drawn. Since land in itself is so diverse, its
uses are equally diverse. The land may be used for growing food or timber, for housing,
airports, golf courses or playing fields, manufacturing industry and many other uses that
reflect the complexities of modern life.
There are different standpoints from which land use may be considered. Thus, the mature
of land use in an area is a function of the factors of land production within the prevailing
social and political constraints, physical nature of land and its location, available capital and
its distribution by the availability and cost of labor, social and political climate in which they
operate and availability of transport.
A. General Objective
This module will expose the students on the interconnectivity of each component
of an ecosystem and the indicators of sustainability.
B. Specific Objectives
At the end of the discussion, the students must be able to:
1. Describe an ecosystem where agriculture is a component
2. Relate the components of an agro-ecosystem and their interactions
3. Differentiate the various system's properties and relate how these properties serve as
indicators of sustainability
4. Know the various impacts of agriculture to the environment
C. Overview
This module will introduce the interconnectivity of the various components of an
ecosystem relating its properties and their measurements to give an initial glimpse on how
sustainability be attained. Since agriculture occupies the biggest land area in terms of land
use, its impact to the environment is tremendous. The impacts either positive or negative
will be discussed to serve as a warning for the students to protect the environment with
the practice of green productivity strategies which will be taken in the core or highly
specialized courses they will enroll.
Pretest
1. How will you differentiate land from soil? Name some components of the land and the
soils around you.
2. Give some indicators of productivity of a farm or an agroecosystem. When do you say
that the farm is economically viable? What is the ultimate measure?
3. What do you mean by "environment friendly practices in the farm? What are some
indicators of a farmer who is "environment friendly"?
4. In general, how do you dispose your waste either at home or at the farm (if your parents
are farmer)?
Learning Contents
1.0 Land as an Ecosystem
The land is considered as an ecosystem; hence, the general concepts of ecology are
essential background in understanding agriculture as a whole.
• An ecosystem is defined as a recognizable, defined area of the Earth, sharing
common structural features and being maintained by specific interrelated biotic and
abiotic processes. Most importantly, within an ecosystem the living and the non-
living components work together to establish relatively stable and predictable
features that make it possible to identify that area (Van Loon, et. al., 2005).
Man comes at the end of the food chain, consuming directly in the form of vegetable
products such as cabbage, eggplant and tomatoes, or cereals like rice and com, or in the
form of meat or milk produced by animals that fed on vegetables materials.
• In using land as an ecosystem, man seeks to manipulate the ecological processes in
such a way that as much as possible, the ecological potential and energy flow are
channeled into plants or animals perceived as a valuable or useful to man for food,
clothing, or timber.
Further, man intervenes to act as a manager of the ecosystem, removing some
components that he regards as useless "sink of the energy, promoting or fostering those
other components which he thinks are positive. In using land, the almost invariably
simplifies the ecosystem by removing or suppressing the components for which it has no
use to him and imposing a single-species plantation crop or a field of rice.
 • In its ecological sense, land maybe regarded as a renewable or "flow" resource. This
is because crops can be taken from the same area of land year after year so long as
the land is properly managed or husbanded in this respect, a "flow" of goods can be
produced indefinitely, thus, land is a resource like water power or wind or solar
energy
1.1 Properties of an Ecosystem
• Stability
This is the ability of the system to maintain some form of equilibrium in the
presence of perturbations. In a farm or agroecosystem, this is exemplified by
constancy of production under a given set of environmental, economic, and
management conditions.
• Resilience
This is the ability to maintain or re-establish structure and behavior when
disturbed or the rate of return to equilibrium after disturbance. In agroecosystem, this
is the ability to maintain productivity in the face of stresses or disturbances.
• Self-organization
This is the ability to maintain itself through mutually reinforcing interactions
or cybernetic feedbacks.
• Diversity (Complexity)
Diversity refers to the number of species or biotic richness of an ecosystem
while complexity refers both to the number of system components and the number and
nature of their interactions. This is considered as the structural or functional variability
of an ecosystem.
• Efficiency (Productivity)
This describes the output per unit of input applied in the system. Ecological
efficiency, on the other hand, is the conversion of food resources to biomass by
organisms.
.
• Equitability
This represents the evenness of both product distribution and access to inputs
with an ecosystem. In an agroecosystem, the products are not limited to the final and
 subsequent income generated among producers, but include the sum of goods and
services shared among the communities.
• Sustainability
This is not the paradigm for development, but it simply refers to the ability of
an ecosystem to maintain structure and functions indefinitely or the long-term
stability.
1.2 Agriculture and the environment
The highest land use in terms of area is agriculture. At the global scale, it is the most
significant land use in terms of environmental impacts. The modern agricultural practices
and techniques, backed by the application of machine power and the input of vast
amounts of energy from fossil fuels transformed agricultural production tremendously,
but at the cost of environmental consequences.
1.2.1 Impacts of agriculture to the environment
1) Fertilizers
• The use of fertilizers has grown tremendously. The application of phosphorus
and potassium has enormously increased, but that of nitrogen has increased
ten-fold compared with the post-war levels.
• There is evidence that nitrate levels in both rivers and ground water have
increased as a result of increased use of N fertilizers. Perez (2002) found that
nitrate levels in the rice fields of Nueva Ecija range from as low as 1 ppm to as
high as 16 ppm nitrates, the latter being greater than the maximum permissible
level (MPL) of 10 ppm. Nitrates in drinking water pose health hazards
especially in women as this may cause the "blue-baby syndrome".
• Eutrophication is another impact of N & P fertilizer application. In this
phenomenon, phytoplankton and other aquatic plants become more abundant
and when the increased mass of OM decomposers, the dissolved oxygen (DO)
content of the water maybe depleted.
• Under anaerobic conditions, foul odors are generated, fish populations are
greatly affected and the aesthetic quality and recreational value of water bodies
are reduced.
2) Farm Chemicals
 • Pesticides or the use of chemicals to control pests and diseases and herbicides
for weeds have increased parallel with the use of the fertilizers. These include
other related chemicals used in such as insecticides, fungicides, agricultural
production bactericides, molluscicides and others.
• It is estimated that about 70-90% of the crop grown areas of world received
pesticides during the production period. Pesticides play a vital role in modern
intensive agriculture for without their use, cereal crop production would fall
estimated at 24% to 45.
• Pesticides are the focus of the much controversy and concern nowadays
especially insecticides as these are toxic to wide range of organisms affecting
even those non-target species. They are also extremely persistent and tend to
become concentrated in the higher parts of food chains.
• Another effect is that some insect pests developed resistance, and increasing
doses of new types of chemicals are required to achieve pest control
3) Farm Wastes
• Large scale animal production produces huge waste and is one of the problems
of agriculture. Despite that these contain valuable plant nutrients, the scale of
production and its concentration in small areas, along with the nature of
farming systems, means that this useful source of nutrient cannot always be
used on the farm on which it is produced.
• When waste. materials enter the water channels, problems arise because when
organic materials decompose, oxygen is taken up to the detriment of aquatic
life. Nutrients like N and P when added to water bodies increase the nutrient
load resulting to eutrophication.
4) Soil Erosion
• Soil erosion which is the wearing away of soil particles either by water or by
wind is the major environmental effect which attracts the greatest attention
because of the chain of damages it creates. Sometimes erosion maybe beneficial
when it redistributes soil from unworkable slopes to workable level ground, or
when it removes the weathered, nutrient depleted material from the soil surface
 thus, exposing the more fertile, less weathered material below (Sanchez and
Buol, 1975).
• Its undesirable consequences are sedimentation, siltation of rivers and to other
water bodies, eutrophication, decreased soil fertility and ultimately low yield.
5) Drainage
• Because of the pressure of population increase, wetlands are being drained and used
for crop or animal production. However, a great debate on whether to drain these
ecosystems or retain their functions and services are ensuing Hill (1976) summarizes
the impacts of drainage as follows:
• affects aquatic organisms
• change in water temperature and chemistry
• change in stream discharge
• affects channel form and sediment load
• impact on vegetation and wildlife
• reduction of wetland acreage
• change in ground water table and the water content of the soil, and
• change in other soil properties
2.0 Environmental and Social Issues in Agriculture
According to the World Bank (2007), programs and projects in agriculture are
underpinned by a diverse set of goals and objectives, including:
• poverty reduction
• natural resource management
• local economic development
• social and gender equity, and,
• good governance
However, when combined, some of these goals and objectives can lead to trade-offs in
which environmental values and particular groups are disadvantaged as a result of planned
interventions.
As presented in ARD Discussion Paper 31 (World Bank, 2007), the main
environmental concerns are:
2.1 Resource degradation
Land degradation happens if there is:
• Overgrazing
• intensive cultivation
• Fires
• Improper water
• Improper waste management
• Improper irrigation causing salinization and water logging
As a whole, over-exploitation of any natural resource may damage stocks,
whose recovery maybe lengthy. Therefore, proper planning and management is
necessary to make sure that the use is based on sustainability principles.
2.2 Pollution
Pollution is the main concern in areas of intensive cultivation. The causes are:
• Agrochemicals such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides
• Poor waste management from livestock production including improper
manure handling, slaughter houses, and food processing plants
Nowadays, a number of modern pollution control techniques and
technologies are available for use to protect the environment.
2.3 Loss of habitats and biodiversity
• Vast natural areas (especially forests) have been cleared and wetlands have been
drained for agriculture. Natural water resources taken for irrigation may
destroy water habitats also.
• Fencing, competition with livestock, habitat degradation, disturbances,
poaching and hunting may deplete wildlife.
Restoration of habitats shall be the concern of all to reduce past
environmental degradation. For long term purposes, nature conservation areas
should be defined and proper planning for effective resource management must be
in place.
2.4 Increase in natural risks
 • Greenhouse gases emitted to the air caused the "greenhouse effect which is a
major cause of climate change.
• Global warming then increases floods, hurricanes, droughts, desertification and
melting of glaciers and permafrost.
• Deforestation and overgrazing increase flood risks, land degradation, landslides
and mudflows.
2.5 Impact on food quality and consumer health
• Irrigation water which are contaminated or dirty, inappropriate agrochemicals,
and unhygienic treatment and storage may spoil agricultural products.
• Some diseases of animals can be transmitted to humans (e.g., Ebola virus).
• Antibiotics which are poorly administered including other veterinary chemicals
can enhance the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, with
detrimental effects to humans and animals.
Below tables show the various environmental and socio-economic issues
related to agriculture:

Table 1. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues of High Value Agriculture

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
Vast areas for cultivation endanger valuable Vast areas needed for cultivation restricting
habitats and biodiversity land rights of indigenous peoples
Promoting cultivation of less suitable crops Salaries generated may alleviate
that require extensive amounts of water, malnutrition if food can be purchased
fertilizers, pesticides, or space or the locally, also may improve education, health
processing of which requires a great deal of and other conditions
energy or pollute the environment
Water and soil pollution, harm to Employment of minorities, undocumented
ecosystems, and public health risks due to workers and immigrants who are not aware
excessive application of fertilizers, of, or not in a position to demand, safe,
herbicides and pesticides working environments and equitable salaries
 Migration of women into cities and towns to
work in factories and warehouses
Consequent effects of women's employment
on child and home-care and
subsistence/cash crop production
Employment of child labor particularly in
very poor areas
Access by women, minorities and other
disadvantaged groups to employment and
other project opportunities
Occupational health risks due to dust,
materials handling, noise, or other process
operations, and safety of workers in
factories/plantations

Table 2. Environmental and Social Issues on Smallholder Agriculture

SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Lack of well-developed extension service or Lack of experience or capacity of grazers to
other outreach institutional structure for understand optimal stocking rates and
education and technical assistance carrying capacity of rangelands
Insecure land tenure or lack of other forms Loss of valuable natural habitats which
of ownership, which discourages a sense of decreases biodiversity due to the clearance
responsibility for the resource(s) of forests for agriculture purposes
Practices required for loans or credits Modification of natural species diversity as a
involves structures or equipment beyond the result of the transformation to monoculture
means of the owners in a small-scale practices
operation
Dislocation or involuntary resettlement of Wind and water erosion, dust storms,
people from farmlands may result in a long drifting sand, and loss of soil fertility due to
walk to arable land everyday poor agricultural practices
Increasing population pressure can make Dispersal of water pollution and nutrient
previously successful farming methods such load from the fields due to lack of buffer
as slash and burn, no longer sustainable strips and wetlands along streams
Lack of attention to the differential access of
male and female farmers to technologies and
inputs
Impact of sickness and death from
HIV/AIDS and malaria is limiting labor
available for agriculture
Installation and maintenance of irrigation
works require planting high- value crops to
defray costs

Table 3. Environmental and Socioeconomic Issues on Livestock Development and

Rangeland Management
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
Clearing intact forest areas for grazing Increased involvement of pastoralists in
purposes commodity markets
Deforestation as a result of destroying Lack of understanding of the concept of
saplings in natural pastures optimal stocking rates
Erosion and land degradation due to Transformations of indigenous tenure
overgrazing systems and organizations
Fire increases forage yield and palatability of Changes in people's traditional access to
grasses and forbs but accidental burning can resources
be disastrous for the vegetation and soils,
and can lead to increase soil erosion
Impediments to movements of migrating Changes overtime of traditional local rules
wildlife caused by long fences for regulating access to common property
resources
 Shift to intensive production techniques Highly skewed livestock ownership in most
such as animal feedlots, without rangelands and skewed intra-household
accompanying technical assistance in areas property rights based on gender and age
such as waste management
Contamination of land and water with Risk of zoonoses (animal diseases that can
manure, eutrophication of water bodies due be caught by man)
to poor manure handling and storage
systems and lack of transportation means

Table 4. Environmental and Socioeconomic Issues on Agro-enterprise and forest-based

enterprise development
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
Degradation of water bodies due to Access by women and other disadvantaged
discharge of polluting wastes from facility groups to employment and other project
complex opportunities
Aggravation of solid waste problems in the Violation of resources and land rights of Ips
areas of processing plants skills, legal
Air pollution, gaseous and odor omissions Constraints (cultural, rights, bureaucratic
from processing operations processes) faced by women and other
disadvantaged groups to own, manage, or
work in enterprises
Accidental release of polluting or hazardous In-migration of people into the area drawn
solvents from the plants by prospects for employment in agro- and
forest-based enterprises
Environmental problems related to Consequent effect of women employment
transportation of raw materials and products on child- and home-care and
subsistence/cash crop production
Table 5. Environmental and Socioeconomic Issues on Fisheries Development
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
Biological over fishing that damages natural Weak property rights over common fish
fish stocks and ecosystems resources resulting in over fishing in both
marine and inland fisheries
Damaging methods of fishing such as use of Economic over-fishing reducing net benefits
explosives or trawling; may cause long term to an increasing fishing population due to
damage to stocks and environment expanding exploitation of depleting
resources
Spreading fish diseases and pollution from Conflict between industrial and small-scale
fish farms fishers as industrial vessels encroach on
grounds reserved for community fisheries
Negative impacts of farmed species on Different access to productive activities
natural species and the ecosystem according to gender or social status may or
may not be a problem
Establishment of farms often preceded by Effects on human nutrition, especially in
environmental destruction poor communities
Incidence of water-borne or water-related
diseases harmful to local human population

Table 6. Environmental and Socioeconomic issues on Forestry Development

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
Inefficient institutional capacities at national Uncontrolled in-migration and poaching
and regional levels may lead uncontrolled with opening of roads to forest area
use of forest resources
Inadequate forest policy and strategy Dislocation or involuntary resettlement of
development and poor enforcement of people leading to disruption and
regulations may lead to over-exploitation of socioeconomic decrease in the standard of
forest resources and environmental living of resettled people
degradation
Projects may include major infrastructure Loss of historic or cultural features of the
development, be located at or near an land, e.g., ancestral lands of IPS
environmentally critical/sensitive areas,
alter the pattern of land use, or cause land
use conflicts
Degradation of valuable habitats and Impairment of recreational and ecotourism
biodiversity due to disturbance opportunities
Spreading introduced tree and scrub species Land use pressures from outside forcing
and disappearance of certain local species local and IPs who depend on intact nature to
requiring intact forest cover for regeneration change their traditional way of life and
sources of incomes
Land degradation due to clearance prior to
reforestation including soil erosion,
disruption of hydrological cycle, loss of
nutrients, and decline in soil fertility
Shifting cultivation may follow logging and,
if practiced in moist and semi- and areas,
may degrade the land
Decline of wildlife stocks as a result of
habitat fragmentation, fencing and
competing livestock breeding
Increase in peak and flood flows and surface
runoff during rains, consequent increase in
soil erosion, landslides, mudflows, and
siltation
Decreasing non-timber natural resources
valuable to the local population
Poor forest fire control and capacity for fire
suppression may lead to major forest fires
 It has been observed that "sustainable development has become the catchword of the
decade which has been used and misused in many contexts”. It has been accepted that it is
difficult to define, but Parris and Kates (2003) were able to conclude that “sustainable
development has broad appeal but has little specificity, but some combination of
development, environment and equity or economy, society and environment are found in
most attempts to describe it”.
Dahl (1995) maintained the anthropocentric view that "any reference to sustainable
development implies a central focus on people, our society functions in a natural
environment, uses of resources and discharges wastes. It is not separate from the natural
world".
Synthesis
In this module, the land as a basic natural resource for use in any economic activity
has been the central focus. It was emphasized that it is an ecosystem self with components
interacting with each other. Ecosystem properties were fully elucidated and how these are
observed and measured was taken. Since the agriculture sector occupied the largest area and
because of the multi-faceted activities, tremendous impacts might be observed if the land users
themselves do not employ environment friendly strategies. Environmental and socio-
economic issues were presented for the students to relate in their everyday lives.
Post test
1. Relate an interaction between a rice plant and the weeds around it in terms of utilization
of sunlight, nutrients, water, etc.
2. Explain the impact of fertilizers in an agroecosystem. Give the various processes that
might takes place once it is applied to the soil.
3. What are the environmental and socio-economic issues in establishing a livestock
enterprise or rangeland/pasture?
4. Despite that there are many graduates of agriculture, why is it that extension service in
the country in general is still inadequate both in high value and smallholder agriculture?
5. Differentiate sustainability and stability.
6. Give an example of a condition in an ecosystem where resiliency can be observed.
Evaluation
 As in the previous module, it is expected that you must have obtained at least 80%
marks in the post test. However, if your score is a bit lower than the set mark, please don't
worry, your professor will give some activities for you to learn a bit more. So, relax and hone
your knowledge.
References
1. FO Perez and M.A Perez 2004 Compendium in Agriculture 100-Principles of
Environmental Science and Management CLSU
2. Punkari, M, M. Fuentes, P. White, R. Rajalahti and E. Pehu 2007 Agriculture and
Rural Development Discussion Paper 31 Social and Environmental Sustainability of
Agriculture and Rural Development and Investments A monitoring and Evaluation
Toolkit (The World Bank) Washington, DC
3. Punkan, M, M. Fuentes, P. White, R. Rajalahti and E. Pehu 2007 Agriculture and
Rural Development Discussion Paper 32 Social and Environmental Sustainability of
Agriculture and Rural Development and Investments: A monitoring and Evaluation
Toolkit (The World Bank). Washington, DC.
4. van Loon, G.W., S.G. Patil and L.B. Hugar 2005. Agricultural Sustainability:
Strategies for Assessment. Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
 MODULE 3
OVE RVIEWOF FHILIPPINEAGRICULTURE

Introduction
The Philippines is a tropical country with vast natural resources making it basically
dependent on agriculture. Philippine agriculture evolved from the colonial system of farming
to the modern type, from the subsistence to commercial system, addressing the gaps to meet
the global demands for agricultural products.

General Objective
In general, this module aims to provide students basic knowledge on the development
of agriculture in the Philippines and the different aspects of Philippine agriculture

Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to
1. trace the historical development of Philippine agriculture from pre-colonial to the
present time,
2. enumerate the natural resources of the Philippines,
3. differentiate the different agricultural production systems of the Philippines
4. describe the small holding farming system of Filipino farmers, and
5. discuss the importance of balanced agro-individual in agricultural production

Overview
This module is composed of four (4) sub-topics pertaining to agriculture under the
Philippine setting.
It traces the development of agriculture in the Philippines leading to the different
production systems. Students are expected to develop interest on the farming systems of the
Filipino farmers.
The topics to be discussed include the following:
1. Brief Historical Development of Philippine Agriculture
2. Resources
 3. Production System
4. Small-hold farming and agribusiness

Pre-test
1. Describe the system of farming of the early Filipinos during the pre-colonial period.
2. What were the contributions of the following to Philippine agriculture:
a. Spaniards
b. Americans
c. Green Revolution
3. Enumerate 5 Philippine export products.
4. Define natural resources
5. Name 2 important natural resources of the Philippines from the following:
a. marine life
b. fresh water
c. mineral
d. land flora
e. land fauna
6. Define farming systems.
7. Enumerate the 7 different types of farming systems in the tropics
8. What are small farm holders?

Learning Contents
Historical Development of Philippine Agriculture
1. Pre-Colonial Agriculture
• Most Filipino famers were still engaged in hunting, fishing, slash and burn
agriculture, and still others developed the rice terraces.
• Main crops being produced were rice gabi, yams, bananas, com millet. coconuts,
citrus, ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg
• Trading was practiced either among themselves as well as with the neighboring
countries such as China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, India and the Arab
World. Among the traded products were betel nuts, pearls and tortoise shells.
 • Imported from those countries were porcelain, silk, bronze gongs and semi-
precious stones.
2. Spanish Colonialism
• Colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards started with Ferdinand Magellan
in March 16, 1521, The Spanish rule started the formation of a two-class structure
in Philippine agriculture: the landlords or hacenderos and the peasants or sacadas.
They developed plantations mainly growing sugar and hemp intended for export
3. American Colonialism
• Under the US rule, the hacenderos flourished into powerful agrarian elites brought
about by tariff barriers imposed by the Americans and opened Philippine market
to US manufacturers.
• The Philippines was under the control of the Japanese for 300 years after which it
was liberated by General Douglas Mc Arthur. The granting of Philippine
independence by the US brought close economic ties and special treatment for US
investors.
• Introduced plants during the Philippine colonization were the following: mulberry
cocoa, wheat, cucumber, cantaloupe, watermelon, coffee, cereals. peas, and
vegetables.
4. The Green Revolution
Rice is the staple food of the Filipinos. In the early 1960s, Western counties
began to develop and introduce new rice-growing technologies to increase rice
production which is known as ‘the green revolution'.
The International Rice Research Institute at Los Baños, Laguna was
established giving rise to high yielding rice varieties.
• Export-Oriented Agriculture
With the development of Philippine agriculture, the country started
exporting large amounts of agricultural products to different countries around the
world (Table 1). These include coconut, sugar, banana, pineapple, citrus, mango,
papaya.
 Table 1. Philippine Exports by Commodity Group
January to January 2021 and 2022
(FOB in U.S. Dollars)
2021 2022 Growth Rate (%)
Total Agro-Based Products 353,410,548 459,211,630 29.94
Agro-Based Products 282,224,917 375,922,300 33.20
Coconut Products 112,493,646 220,861,778 96.33
Copra a a -
Coconut Oil 85,105,215 178,791,911 110.08
Desiccated Coconut 22,583,822 30,613,799 35.56
Copra Meal/Cake 4,262,306 7,317,254 71.67
Others 542,303 4,138,814 663.19
Sugar and Products 590,873.00 827,796.00 40.10
Centrifugal and Refined 114.00 a (100.00)
Molasses a a -
Others 590,759.00 827,796.00 40.12
Fruits and Vegetables 169,140,398.00 154,232,726.00 (8.81)
Canned Pineapple 19,525,145.00 20,740,454.00 6.22
Pineapple Juice 6,342.00 626.00 (90.13)
Pineapple Concentrates 12,747,676.00 9,703,621.00 (23.88)
Bananas 95,555,582.00 80,005,175.00 (16.27)
Mangoes 1,106,241.00 1,203,188.00 8.76
Others 40,199,412.00 42,579,662.00 5.92
Other Agro-Based Products 71,185,631.00 83,289,330.00 17.00
Fish, Fresh or Preserved
of Which: Shrimps and 23,509,785.00 28,837,875.00 22.66
Prawns
Coffee, Raw, not Roasted a a -
Abaca Fibers 2,066,450.00 2,668,974.00 29.16
Tobacco Unmanufactured 14,843,749.00 12,966,904.00 (12.64)
Natural Rubber 11,034,831.00 14,156,446.00 28.29
Ramie Fibers, Raw or
Roasted a a -
Seaweeds, Dried a 126,150.00 -
Rice 6,174.00 a (100.00)
Others 19,724,642.00 24,532,981.00 24.38
Forest Products 31,447,121.00 34,437,803.00 9.51
Logs a a -
Lumber 17,478,147.00 22,554,071.00 29.04
Plywood 8,445,776.00 8,475,321.00 0.35

Veneer Sheets/Corestocks a a -
Others 5,523,198.00 3,408,411.00 (38.29)
Resources
The Philippines is very rich. in natural resources. It has fertile, arable lands, diverse
flora and fauna, extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits.
• Natural resource means something that is a component of the physical
environment either biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living) which has a capacity to
satisfy certain human wants or needs, provide goods and services. This includes
land, air, water, sunshine, minerals, soil, fish, etc.
1. Land
• Almost half of the Philippines' total land area (around 15 million hectares) are
classified as timberland. Philippine forests produce timber for local consumption
and for export. Hardwood products are known throughout the world for their
distinct appearance and high quality, appropriate for home furnishings, such as
narra.
• Most Philippine forests are of the tropical rainforest type. Besides extensive
reserves of tropical evergreen hardwoods, the country also has considerable areas
of pine in the mountainous regions of Northern Luzon.
2. Water
• This includes marine life such as fishes, turtles, shells, pearls, and species found in
freshwater bodies.
a. Fishes
• The rich marine life in the Philippines underwater makes it popular
worldwide and is considered to be one of the world’s most beautiful
landscapes. It has more than 500 sea species of hard and soft coral reefs,
and about 2,400 species of fish.
• Fishes that thrive include tuna, mackerel, squid, cuttlefish, shrimp,
lobster, crab, swordfish, marlin sailfish sharks, eels and sea snakes. Small
fishes of various colors and sizes are also found. Others include whales,
dolphins, jellyfish, sponges and starfishes.
b. Turtles
 • Pawikan (marine turtles) are found in Philippine waters. Among them are
the following: green sea turtle, hawksbill, loggerhead, olive ridley, and
leatherback.
c. Shells
• The Philippines serves as source of rare shells which are attractive to
collectors. These are abundant in eastern Samar, Palawan, Sorsogon,
Quezon, and Sulu. There are over 1,000 species of land snails with
lustrous shells, and spiral patterns all over the country This attracted
tourists to buy them as souvenir items. The Philippines is one of the
world's richest shellfish habitats and they are used in jewelry and
handicrafts. Kapis shells are fashioned into lampshades, chime, and
windowpanes.
d. Pearls
• Pearls are found within shells. Accordingly, the largest pearl known as the
“Peart of Lao-tze" or "Pearl of Allah" was found in a giant clam in
Palawan in 1934 and measures 24 cm by 14 cm and weighs 6.4 kg.
• Pearl diving is widely practiced in Sulu and Southern Palawan. Pearls are
also cultured in some parts of the country, such as the Davao Pearl Farm.
This priceless magnificence and lasting value of peart makes the
Philippines known to be the "Pearl of the Orient Seas. "
• The Philippines has also an extensive fresh water bodies. These are small river
systems and streams, which are mostly depicted by the mountain ranges.
3. Flora & Fauna
• The Philippines is rich in flora and fauna with an estimated 2M species of plants
and animals, many of which are unique to the islands. Its tropical rainforests are
among the most species-rich ecosystems on earth and it still has many virgin
forests.
• The Philippine soil is very fertile due to its volcanic nature. Abundant rain and
sunshine, as well as the wide range of habitats and elevations account for an
incredible variety of plant life in every category, from mosses and lichens
 (including 1,000 species of fern) to giant trees (about 3,000 species). About 60% of
the 10,000 plant species grow only in the archipelago.
• Among the important species in the Philippines are: bamboo (with 54 species),
mangroves, coconut and nipa palms, mahogany, narra, sampaguita, orchids, pili
nut, abaca, durian, and mango.
4. Fauna-Land Creatures
Among these are eagles, reptiles, insects, and mammals.
• The Philippine eagle, formerly called the monkey eating eagle (because it eats
monkeys), is now known as haribon (from the words haring ibon) and is the best-
known Philippine member of the bird family.
• For the reptiles’ group, the gravity-defying. mosquito-chomping gecko which
belongs to a group of small insect-eating lizards often having adhesive pads on the
feet for climbing with its raspy “tap tap tap” mating call is very popular including
the sail-in dragon, flying lizard, the sea cow or dugong, dolphins, whales and
whale sharks or butanding.
• About 26,000 species of insects. are found in the Philippines. Among them are
butterflies that have vivid colors that they are of great interest to collectors.
• Carabao, a native water buffalo, is known as the beast of burden in the Philippines.
It is commonly utilized in farming. from land preparation to transporting of farm
produce to the market t is also becoming a major source of milk
5. Mineral resources
• The Philippines is known for its vast mineral resources. Its metal deposits are
estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons, while non-metal deposits are about 19.3 billion
metric tons
Metal deposits:
1. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size. It is found in Surigao del Norte,
Davao, Palawan, Romblon and Samar.
2. Iron abounds in Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija. Camarines Norte and Cotabato.
3. Copper is found in Zambales, Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and Negros.
• Non-metal deposits include cement, lime, marble, asbestos, clay, guano, asphalt,
feldspar, sulfur, talc, Silicon, phosphate and marble.
Preservation of Resources
Concerned about its resources, the Philippines devised strategies to protect its natural
heritage education and proper legislation-on environmental issues. The country established
national parks, recreation areas and wildlife sanctuaries.
• Conservation programs exist for the Philippine eagle, eastern sarus crane, tamaraw,
Philippine crocodile, dugong, marine turtles, and some rare deer species.
• There is a growing consciousness among people of the need to conserve forests and
marine life.
• A law banning log exportation has been passed. In 1992 Palawan was cited as a
national treasure because its forests and sea life are relatively well-preserved that a
total ban on logging is now being enforced.
• National parks were established to protect many species of pant, animal and sea
life. The National Integrated Protected Areas Program (NIPAP) aims to enlist the
support of indigenous people living in or around the protected areas.
Production/Farming System
• Farming systems are ecosystems which are modified and managed by man to
produce outputs which are useful to him.
• A system of production is a structural group of production factors combined to
ensure plant or animal production with a view to meeting the objectives of those in
charge of production.
1. Types of Crop-based Farming System
a. Shifting cultivation – the traditional system in most forest areas throughout
the tropics
b. Lowland rice-based system – age-old, very successful system in Asia
c. Upland cereal-based system – predominant system in seasonally-humid and
semi-arid Africa
d. Smallholder Scale Mixed farming – complete integration of animal husbandry
and crop production components. In this system, animals provide manure for
crops and crop residues are used to feed animals.
e. Irrigated small holder Faming – an age-old system in the Middle. East and
spreading to other dry area
 f. Small Holder Farming with Plantation (Perennial) Crops - usually with one
dominant cash crop
g. Agroforestry – omnipresent, age-old system
• In the Philippines, approximately 50% of lowland rice fields are rainfed and
50%with adequate irrigation facilities
• Meanwhile, the uplands (where upland farming is practiced) are zones where both
agriculture and forestry are practiced on rolling to steep land. The problem of
deforestation resulted from the movement of population to the sloping lands.
2. Food Production Systems
1. Subsistence
• Agricultural types and systems depend heavily on the character of
production, i.e. whether crops are produced in a subsistence (the farmer
has to produce in order to live) or a market economy (commercial).
• In subsistence farming. the famer usually resists changes in production
methods since if the changes turned out unproductive, the livelihood and
survival are at a risk (Beets, 1900)
• Subsistence-oriented monoculture food production system gives way to a
diversified market-oriented production system (commercial)
2. Commercial
• Economic growth, urbanization and withdrawal of labor from the
agricultural sector led to the increasing commercialization of agricultural
system.
• This leads to greater market orientation of farm production, progressive
substitution out of nontraded inputs in place of purchased inputs, and the
gradual decline of integrated farming systems and their replacement by
specialized enterprises for crop, livestock, poultry and aquamarine
products.
Small-Hold Farming and Agribusiness
• Small farmers are an extremely diverse group, often resource-poor, and are
responsible for growing the majority of the world' s food (Ong'wen and Wright,
 2007). They produce various agricultural commodities, from food to fiber, wood,
rubber and cotton, they also raise livestock.
• A small farm is generally managed and worked by one household except in peak
labor seasons (Obschatko, 2006), The size of farms varies with the ecological, social,
and economic conditions within which farmers work.
• In general, land size of the small fam holder is sufficient to provide a significant
portion of the family's needs, and in most cases, the farm income is supplemented
with income from other sources.
It is estimated that between 1.9 and 2 2 billion people are involved in subsistence
agriculture (Altieri and von der Weid, 2000) Smallholder farmers with less than.2 hectares of
land compose approximately 84.9 percent of all small farmers in the world However, this
group accounts for only 6.1 percent of agricultural land worldwide The proportion of farmers
with less than 2 hectares is especially high in many Asian countries (India 80%, Philippines
65%, Pakistan 58%, Thailand 45%).
Knowing the small farms and small-scale farming characteristics will more or less give
us a picture of the Filipino famer, practicing it. Similarly, industrial agriculture practiced by
few individuals characterizes them as well (Table 1).

Table 1. Comparison between small-scale farming and industrial agriculture

SMALL SCALE FARMING INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE
Benefits can be multi-functional Dominated by profit motive
Diversity in cultures, cropping systems and Uniformity and monoculture
on-farm ecology
Strong relations to land due to reliance on Exploitative relations to land
ecological health for livelihood generation
Knowledges are diverse, placed-based, more Techno-scientific knowledge covered by
likely to be communal, and based on notion patents and other forms of intellectual
of Stewardship property
Secondary income sources sometimes Maybe part of conglomerates with various
needed to meet subsistence sources of income
Labor intensive with labor primarily Low labor inputs using non-family labor
provided by the family
General low levels of capitalization Highly capitalized
Diverse ownership pattern and forms of Diverse ownership patterns in the context of
exchange capitalist market-based exchange
 Place within dense networks and embedded Absentee ownership and export orientation
in rural communities means network more strongly tied to
metropolitan centers and global production
networks than local communities
Production for subsistence and local Production networks span globe and
exchanged prioritized supported by direct and indirect subsidies
Potential to be environmentally sustainable Environmentally exploitative
Source: Ong 'wen and Wright, 2007
Role and Contribution of Small Farmers (Ong'wen and Wright, 2007)
1. Food security
• Small famers greatly contribute to food security. Well-supported small-scale
systems have the potential to meet humanity's food needs in an equitable and
sustainable way. Smallholder farmers in India, for example, defined in this case as
households with less than 2 hectares of land, make up about 78 percent of the
country's farmers While they own only 33 percent of the land, they responsible for
41 percent of national grain production Their contribution to both household food
security and to farm outputs is thus disproportionately high (Singh et al., 2002).
2. Productivity and efficiency
• Small farmers produce food efficiently and effectively and extensive evidence to
show that small-scale farming systems are extremely productive generating a
higher output per unit of land than extensive systems.
• Comparisons reveal that small farms have a higher output than large-scale farms,
producing considerably more per unit of production area (Rosset 1999).
3. Economic development
• Small-scale faming systems are generally more integrated into local economies
than industrial farming in several ways. A rural economy dominated by a small-
scale faming system will have more farmers per unit of area than industrial
farming. These farmers are more likely to sell produce locally, purchase goods at
local stores, and support local services.
• Small-scale farms tend to use more labor and contribute to regional employment.
There are flow-on effects here, too as employed laborers feedback their earnings
into the local economy stimulating local businesses his leads to a generation of
wealth in rural areas and a more diverse and functioning rural community.
4. Employment
• Small-scale agriculture is not small in aggregate terms, accounting for much more
employment and staple food production than larger commercial behemoths. For
instance, 77 percent of the rural labor force in Brazil is employed on small farms.
In Africa, the figure varies between 78 and 86 percent (World Bank 2004). For
every one person employed on commercial farms, 45 to 65 are employed on small
farms (Nyangito 2003).
5. Sustainable human development
• Sustainable human development relies upon diverse and resilient communities
within which local populations can access services and meet their needs for human
development Within small-scale systems, the decentralized ownership and
management structures mean a greater proportion of the population is able to
make decisions affecting their lives.
6. Ecology and maintenance of biodiversity
• Small farmers are leaders in the search for sustainable agricultural system and in
the development of locally adapted and environmentally sensitive agricultural
techniques.
• It was small farmers who developed and nurtured not only the staggering genetic
diversity of food products but also developed the vast range of complex
agricultural techniques and methods that helped agriculture to adapt to ecosystems
throughout the world.
• Small farm agro-ecosystems are adapted to a wide range of soil types, altitudes,
aspects, water conditions, slopes, and microclimates. Such systems are adapted to
local conditions in complex ways, allowing farmers and farming families to
generate food in harsh environments with minimal external inputs and without
degrading the environment. Small farmers have acted and continue to act as
stewards for agrodiversity through the stewardship and development of locally
adapted and genetically diverse food sources, animal management, and vegetation
associations.
7. Safe and healthy food
 • Small farmers contribute to the provision of heathy and nourishing food. They
tend to produce a more diverse range of products that can facilitate access to a
healthy diet including a mix of protein, carbohydrates, and fat as well as range of
vitamins and minerals This stands in contrast to industrial farming systems that
produce single food products often designed for the prepared food market.
Productivity and Income in Farming Systems
• Productivity can be simply defined as the increment in valued product per unit time
and is usually measured as yield or income per unit of land. In previous years, 63% of
crop productivity growth in the tropics was derived from higher yields.
• Yields increased considerably and FAO projects that this trend will continue.
Although it is not known to what extent the past increases have been at the expense
of sustainability and their effect on the environment.
• High yield per unit area and therefore high productivity does not necessarily mean
higher income for the farmers as high yields can only be achieved through high
levels of inputs, and the farmers' income is directly related to the costs of inputs and
outputs
Synthesis
The module presented topics about the development of Philippine agriculture starting
with the pre-colonial period, under the Spanish, Japanese and American rules and up to the
present system. From this, we learned how agriculture in the Philippines was developed from
the primitive to the modern system.
We also discussed (not very detail because you will take them in your succeeding
courses) about the natural resources of the Philippines, their importance and contribution to
the Philippine economy. Knowing its great contribution to the economy, more production
system/strategies were developed and adapted to the Philippine condition which eventually
improved agricultural production. We are now advocating agricultural sustainable
production which also takes care of our resources and serve not only the present population
but for the future generation.
Small farmers as presented, have the potential to create a model of human that is
socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable. Small scale farming systems are not
mere economic unit to be manipulated, instead, they need to be accorded respect, and their
contributions to the world food supply, to the economies of nations, and to the world's
diversity of cultures and environment need to be acknowledged and supported.

Post test
A. Encircle the letter corresponding to the correct answer
1. This is the staple food of the Filipinos:
a. Banana
b. Nice
c. sweet potato
d. coconut
2. The hacenderos and sacadas class structures in Philippine agriculture started during this
era
a. Japanese colonialism
b. American colonialism
c. Spanish colonialism
d. Green Revolulion
3. It is the world's smallest fish which is found in Lake Buhi
a. Pandaca pygmaea
b. Tabios
c. whale shark
d. sword fish
4. The Philippine national tree which produces pretty yellow flowers and a source of
hardwood for many uses
a. Mahogany
b. Acacia
c. Coconut
d. nara
5. The national flower of the Philippines famous for its white color and fragrance
a. Sampaguita
b. waling-waling
c. sangumay
 d. ilang-ilang
6. It is now known as haribon, from the words "haring ibon”
a. Hornbill
b. Palawan peacock
c. Monkey-eating eagle
d. pipit
7. A type of crop-based farming system where there is complete integration of animal
husbandry and crop production components
a. lowland rice-based system
b. smallholder scale mixed farming
c. integrated smallholder farming
d. agroforestry
8. It is the main source of roofing material for the traditional nipa hut
a. coconut palm
b. bamboo
c. nipa palm
d. Narra
9. It is known as the beast of burden in the Philippines, commonly utilized in farming
and becoming a major source of milk
a. Goat
b. Horse
c. Carabao
d. cattle
10. It is the Philippines' largest protected area making up 10% of the country's remaining
primary forests:
a. Mt Isarog National Park
b. Palanan Wilderness Area
c. El Nido
d. Hundred Islands
B. Identify what is being described:
____________________1. It is caused by the build-up of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere
____________________2. It refers to the increment in valued product per unit time and is
usually measured as yield or income per unit of land
____________________3. The degree to which productivity is free from variability caused by
normal fluctuations in environmental variables
____________________4. The ability of a system to maintain productivity in spite of large
disturbances such as repeated stress
____________________5. It means something that isa component of the physical
environment, either biotic or abiotic, which has a capacity to
satisfy certain human wants or needs, provide goods and services

Post-test Feedback/Evaluation
After taking the post test, students’ performance will be evaluated. Students who
performed rather low will be given remedial lessons and another evaluation will be made. It
is expected that said students will perform better, otherwise, special project will be assigned
to further enhance their knowledge

References
Altieri, A and J. von der Weid 2000. Prospects for agroecologically based natural resource
management for low-income farmers in the 21st century,
http://agroeco.org/fatalharvest/articles/agroeco resource mgmt.html.

Beets, Willem C. 1990. Raising and Sustaining Productivity of Smallholder Farming Systems
in the Tropics. AgBe Publishing, Alkmaar, Holland

Berlow, Alan. 1996. Dead Seasons: A Story of Murder and Revenge. New York: Vintage
Books.
Boyce, James K. 1993. The Philippines: The Political Economy of Growth and
Impoverishment in the Marcos Era. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
Castillo, Andres V. 1957. Philippine Economics Manila: (s.n)

FAO 2005. The state of food and agriculture 2005. Rome: FAO

Friends of the Earth. 2005. The Ape Alliance, The Borneo Orangutan Survival, The
Orangutan Foundation (UK), and The Sumatran Orangutan Society. The oil for ape
scandal. Research Report, September.

Kepas. 1983 The sustainability of Agricultural Intensification in Indonesia. A report of two

workshops of the research group. Jakarta.

Nyangito, H. 2003. Agricultural trade reforms in Kenya under the WTO framework.
KIPPRA DP No. 25.
Obschatko, E. 2006. The Importance of Small Farmers from an Economic and Labor
Perspective. Comuniica Online, sixth edition (April-June 2006).

“Official Web Site of the Department of Trade and Industry”. www.dti. gov. ph.

Prevost, P. 1997. Fundamentals of Modern Agriculture. Science Publishers, Inc. Paris.

 MODULE IV
ANALYSIS OF FOOD PRODUCTION AND POPULATION GROWTH

Introduction

In general, there is a problem of overproduction and conspicuous consumption in the

Western countries. On the contrary, in the developing countries, there is insufficient

production resulting in food shortages and hunger. Above all, poverty is very rampant that

several families cannot even afford to have three meals a day.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (1989), food supply problems

sometimes are regional, with a surplus in one area and a shortage in another. Most often, the

problem is one of distribution of available food and purchasing power, rather than low

production. In some cases, the problem is acute, but there are instances that the problem is

not yet acute and can only be discovered from a close scrutiny of production and consumption

trends.

It is common recommendation that it is better to consider production and

consumption per caput than overall production and consumption since the parameters can be

entirely different. It has been emphasized that the root cause of food shortage is population

pressure rather than low production per se. By year 2000, there will be one thousand million

more mouths to feed than there are in 1990. To do so, food production will have to increase

by almost 40% (FAO, 1989).

There is a considerable debate on whether the developing countries like the

Philippines, will be able to feed themselves in the years to come. It is relatively easy to forecast

global food requirements until AD 2000, and when projections of productions and
consumption trends are combined, it is evident that there are a number of countries expected

to have a considerable deficit by 1990 and onwards (Beets, 1990).

General Objective

At the end of this module, the students must be able to relate food production with

population growth.

Specific Objectives

It is expected that after the discussion, the students can:

1. Project population growth rate and interact with the production rate of major cereals

used as food

2. Calculate sufficiency level of a family based on consumption rate and per capita

consumption

3. Predict the demand for food vis a vis population for a given period

4. Estimate the land requirement to support a family of five or a given community

Overview

This module will expose the students to various statistics of food demand and supply

(production) that will lead to the estimation of food requirement (or per capita) per individual.

Also, the relationship of malnutrition, poverty and land availability will be thoroughly

discussed and scenario building for future outlook will be done.

Pretest

1. Which provinces in the country belong to Club 20 or the 20 poorest provinces? Is your

province a member?

2. What is your family consumption in terms of rice? Are you below or above the per

capita consumption of 110 kg/year?

 3. If your father is a farmer, what was the yield of palay per hectare? Do you know the

average yield per hectare in the country? Is your father yielding below or above the

national average?

4. What was the income realized per hectare by your father? Is this enough for your

family needs?

Learning Contents

Population Growth and Food Requirements

The Philippines has now an estimated 112.9M people (Worldometer, 2022), ranking

7th as the most populous in Asia and 13th in the world (Worldometer, 2022).

A government census completed in May 2020 showed that 109,035,343 people now

lived in the country, an increase of 8, 053,906 from 100,981,437 in 2015, which translates to

an annual population growth rate (PGR) of 1.63%.

Population density rose to 368 people per sq. km. from 337 people per sq. km. in 2015.

Population density refers to persons per square kilometer of land. Only the population

residing in Philippine territories was taken into consideration at the national level in order to

calculate the population density, or the number of people per square kilometer of land. As a
result, the number of Filipinos living in Philippine embassies, consulates, and missions abroad

was not included in the total. The land areas, meanwhile, were based on the Philippine

Statistics Authority's (PSA) 2013 Master Information of Land Areas of Cities and

Municipalities. This list was provided by the Land Management Bureau (LMB) (PSA).

The Philippine Statistics Authority (2021) reported that agriculture showed a

lackluster growth of only 1.8% from 4.2%. The sectors of agriculture, forestry and fisheries,

which comprised 9.6% of the total gross domestic products (GDP) but posted a contraction

of -0.3% GDP. Using estimates of Alexandratos (1988) for the year 2000, the cereal

production and requirements of developing countries is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Cereal production and requirements of developing countries for 2000

REGION DEMAND PRODUCTION NET SELF

(M tons) (M tons) BALANCE (M SUFFICIENCY
tons) RATE (%)
94 Dev. 1247 1152 -95 92
Countries
Africa 100 83 -17 83
Asia (excl. 398 380 -18 96
China)
Latin America 164 165 1 101
Low-income 784 770 -14 98
countries

The projected food deficits of selected developing countries including the Philippines is shown

in Table 7.

Table 7. Projected food deficits of selected developing countries

COUNTRY ACTUAL 1975 PROJECTED 1995

Million % of Million Tons % of
Tons Consumption Consumption
Philippines 0.3 4 1.4-1.7 11-13
India 1.4 1 17.6-21.9 10-12
Nigeria 0.4 2 17.1-20.5 35-39
Bangladesh 1.0 7 6.4-8.0 30-35
 Indonesia 2.1 8 6.0-7.7 14-17
Egypt 3.7 35 4.9 32
Sahel group 0.4 9 3.2-3.5 44-46
Ethiopia 0.1 2 2.1 2.3 26-28
Afghanistan - - 1.3-1.5 19-22
Haiti 0.3 24 0.7 -0.8 35-38
Source: IFPRI, 1987

The most important question and the major issue now is whether or not there is a real

potential to produce enough. We know very well that the main factors governing this are land

availability, it carrying capacity, availability of inputs especially water) and human elements.

Poverty, Malnutrition and Land Availability

The most pressing economic and social issues in developing countries is reducing

poverty especially in rural areas. According to World Bank estimates around 780 M people

live in absolute poverty. According to their report, the incidence of poverty is highest in Africa

and lowest in the Near East and North Africa (Table 8)

Table 8. Rural poverty by region (1975-1980)

Region Rural Population in Poverty (%)

Sub-Saharan Africa 65
Latin America 53
Asia 50
Near East and North Africa 32
Source: World Bank, 1986

Beets in his book "Introduction to Tropical Farming Systems" stressed that

malnutrition is the main condition associated with poverty. Accordingly, one of the major

ways of solving the poverty problem is promoting agricultural production. Accelerating per

capita/production, simulated by technological and institutional and political change is central

to alleviating rural poverty in developing countries.

 Another interesting question is whether there is still enough land available for

expansion of tropical agricultural production. The available estimates suggest that the world

as a whole, and the developing countries in particular, have not yet used half of their potential

land resources (Crosson and Frederick, 1977). However, records show that in many parts of

the world especially in Asia, the

best lands have long been occupied and only limited expansion is now possible. Nevertheless,

a set of consoling data show that there has been a considerable crease in the area under

cultivation (Table 9) by about 10% in developing countries (Beets, 1990).

Table 9. Increase in areas under arable land and permanent crops during the 60s and 70s

REGION AREAS IN ARABLE AND PERMANENT (%)

POPULATION CROPS
(M hectares)
1961 1977 % Increase
Asia 436 458 5.0 18
Africa 188 208 10.6 24
South America 82 108 31.7 24
All dev. 722 791 9.6 19.0
countries
All devpd 657 671 2.1 6.8
countries
World 1379 1462 6.0 16
Source: FAO, 1987

Meanwhile, Table 10 shows the land availability per person

Table 10. Land availability per person

REGION ARABLE LAND (ha/caput of labor force) Growth of

1982-1984 2000 Agricultural Labor
Force (% p.a.)
All developing 1.4 1.3 1.3
countries
Sub-Saharan Africa 1.6 1.4 1.8
Near East and North 2.8 2.5 0.6
Africa
Asia (excl. China) 0.8 0.7 1.2
Latin America 4.9 5.5 0.3
 A glaring difference is that the West has more than ten times the cultivated area per

head of agricultural population than the developing countries. Also, about 70% of the latter

are agriculturally-based, compared to only about 5% in the West, but also because of the

character of production, farming systems and the land's carrying capacity.

In the tropics, there is often a need for a very long fallow period, like in the "kaingin"

system (Shifting Cultivation), only about 10% of the total potential arable area can be used at

any one time.

Poverty-Wealth Gap

The United Nations broadly classify the world's countries as more developed or less

developed. The more developed countries (MDCs) or simply developed countries are

highly industrialized and most have high average gross national product (GNP) per capita.

They include the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and the Western

European countries. These countries with 1.28 people or about 22% of the world's

population command about 85% of the world's wealth and income, use 88% of its natural

resources and 73% of its energy, and generate most of its pollution and wastes.

All other nations are classified as less developed countries (LDCs) or developing

countries, with low or moderate industrialization and GNPS per capita. Most are in Africa,

Asia and Latin America. Their 4.3B people or 78% of the world's population have only

about 15% of the wealth and income, and they use only about 12% of its natural resources

and 27% of its energy.

Most of the projected increase in population will take place in LDCs where 1M

people are added every four days. By 2010, the combined population of Asia and Africa
 are projected to 5.3B almost as many as now live on the entire planet. The growing gap

since 1960 between rich and poor in GNP per capita widened further since 1980. The rich

had grown richer while the poor have stayed poor or grown even poorer.

Potential Production of Arable Land

Every time hunger is discussed, the relationships between land availability and its

production potential is always a concern. But several studies show that, if the generally

accepted population projections are used, the developing countries in particular will be able

to feed itself in AD 2000 and even beyond. This is so, even the whole world remains producing

at a low level of technology, i.e. traditional crops, minimum fertilizers and chemicals, and no

mechanization.

In any discussion on "ways and means of raising productivity", the actors involved

should bear in mind the three major factors: 1) physical factors (land area, climate, soil, etc);

2) technological factors (availability of know-how, inputs, etc); and, 3) human factors (the

way society use the above factors. To raise crop productivity, the major avenues to consider

are the following: 1) by expanding the area planted to crops 2) by raising the yield per unit

area of individual crops and, 3) by growing more crops per year (in time and or space).

There is an ample scope to raise the productivity of the various regions in the world

especially the tropics. Table 11 shows the average world yields of major crops.

Table 11. Average world yields and highest country yield of major crops

CROP WORLD'S HIGHEST COUNTRY YIELD World's Ave. as

AVE. YIELD (t/ha) Percentage of
(t/ha) the Highest
Country Yield
Rice 3.2 8.1 Japan 36
Wheat 2.8 5.7 The 31
Netherlands
Maize `3.0 7.4 New Zealand 40
 Sorghum 1.3 4.8 Spain 27
Sugar Cane 55.3 153.4 Peru 36
Sweet Potato 8.4 23.9 Sudan 35
Cassava 9.1 32.3 Cook Islands 28
Soya Beans 1.5 3.4 Italy 45
Common Beans 0.6 2.4 Egypt 23
Groundnuts 1.0 3.8 Malaysia 26
Source: FAO, 1988

According to Beets (1990), the developing countries usually called the Third World

before (now it is not in use) will be able to produce 2-5 times more than can be consumed if

all potential lands are brought to cultivation. These estimates do not take into account the

many human factors, including several other factors such as future levels of external

assistance, the rate at which new technology is generated, the sustainability of the systems

and the influence of environmental deterioration.

The Important Role of Agriculture in Food Production for Self Sufficiency

Statistics show that majority of the people in developing countries live and work in

rural area. According to Todaro (1980), in all third world countries, agriculture contributes

about 30% of the gross national product (GNP) compared to only about 8% in developed

countries like in the USA, Japan, Australia and the U.K.

The Philippine economy is oriented towards the production of primary products most

of which are agriculturally-based. Foreign exchange generated from exports of agricultural

products is badly needed to finance development projects. In addition, a considerable

proportion of imports of consumer goods must also be financed from agriculture.

At one point during the 1950's, there was a considerable debate on whether it was

necessary to base the economics of developing countries on agriculture. It was a

misconception then that in order for countries to develop, the industrial base must be

developed. It has been firmly established during the past decades that industrial development
without a firm agricultural base is not possible and it now believed that one of the more

realistic paths to sustained development is to first build a strong agricultural base.

When countries need to import food, there have always been a source of supply, but

often the foreign exchange to buy it is not available. The same situation can be observed

within a country i.e., people who are in need of food, which could be supplied from surpluses

of another area of the country, often do not have the purchasing power to buy it. This leads

to the conclusion that there is an urgent need to become self-sufficient in food production.

In the Philippines, being an island nation, the cost of inter-island transports is high,

(despite the RORO (Roll on- Roll out) project of the government) while the cost of making

the individual islands self-sufficient in food production are relatively low. In this situation,

there does not seem to be need for national self-sufficiency but regional sufficiency will suffice.

Food Security in the Philippines

The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) of 1997 (RA 8435)

This is act prescribes urgent related measures to modernize the agriculture and

fisheries sectors of the country in order to enhance their profitability, and prepare said

sectors for the challenges of globalization through an adequate focused and rational

delivery or necessary support, appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes.

The principles are:

Poverty Alleviation and Social Equity

The poorer sectors of society shall have equitable access to resources, income

opportunities, basic and support services and infrastructure especially in areas where

productivity is low as a means of improving their quality of life compared with other

sectors of society.
Food Security

The availability, adequacy, accessibility and affordability of food supplies to all

at all times shall be assured.

Rational Use of Resources

A rational approach in the allocation of public investments in agriculture and

fishery in order to assure efficiency and effectiveness in the use of scarce resources and

to obtain optimal returns on its investments shall be adopted.

Global Competitiveness

The competitiveness of the agriculture and fishery sectors in both domestic and

foreign markets shall be enhanced.

Sustainable Development

A development that is compatible with the preservation of the ecosystem in

areas where agriculture and fisheries activities are carried out shall be promoted.

People Empowerment

This shall be promoted by enabling all citizens through direct participation or

through their duly elected, chosen or designated representatives the opportunity to

participate in policy formulation and decision-making by establishing the appropriate

mechanisms and by giving them access to information.

Protection from Unfair Competition

Small farmers and fisher folks shall be protected from unfair competition such

as monopolistic and oligopolistic practices by promoting a policy environment that

provides them priority access to credit and strengthened cooperative-based marketing

system.
 From the above principles, the five major concerns are:

• Food security

• Poverty alleviation and social equity

• Income enhancement and profitability especially for farmers and fisher folk

• Global competitiveness

• Sustainability

Decreasing Hectarage of Croplands

With the projected growth in population over the next few decades, the world will

experience shrinkage in cropland per person. As a fixed area of arable land is divided

among even more people, it eventually shrinks to the point where people can no longer

feed themselves. In the Philippines, the average landholding is 1.29 hectare in 2012 and an

average family size of 4.6 (5), making it more difficult to feed the generation to come.

In 50 countries with about 40% of the world's population, greater than 20% of

children under five are underweight and the situation is even worse in the poorest low

human development countries. The high growth of human population translates to the

actual number of malnourished people not falling fast enough 1990's or a decline by just

6M a year at which rate it would take years to rid the world of hunger.

Post Test

A. Show your calculations

1. Assuming that the population of the Science City of Munoz during the current year is

150,400. Suppose the population growth rate is 2.20% what would be the population

after 5 years? How about after 8 years? 15 years?

 2. There are 6 members in Mr. Cruz' family. If the family owns a hectare of land and

produces 110 cavans of palay per hectare/cropping, is the yield enough to support the

family? (Consider that the per capita consumption is 110kg/year and the % milling

recovery of palay is 60%)

B. Briefly explain your answers to the following questions

1. What are the major concerns of AFMA? In what ways can we reduce incidence of

poverty?

2. How are you going to increase profitability of a farm? Is diversified farming of great

help?

Synthesis

This module presented statistical data on land productivity as against food

requirements of the ever-increasing population not only of the country but the whole world.

Grim scenario of hunger has been in the pipeline if government will not be responsive enough

to mitigate the problem. The poverty-wealth gap continues to rise, the rich are getting richer

while the poor becomes even poorer. Based on government study, the Philippines will never

attain sufficiency in food if the population which is burgeoning will not be addressed. Food

security, therefore, despite of the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) of

1997, will be a vane. On the global scale, the current rate of reduction of malnourished persons

which is 6M annually, shows that it would take more than 130 years to rid the world with

hunger.

Evaluation
 The foregoing post-test was more of calculations. How did you fair? Were you able to

project the correct population in the problem? What about the sufficiency of the family in

terms of rice as the staple food?

Well, if you have answered them correctly, my congratulations! For those who were

not able to make it, consult your professor and an activity for you to enhance your estimating

ability will be given. Try to clarify the questions if you can't get what is being sought, okey?

References

• Beets, W.C. 1990. Raising and Sustaining Productivity of Smallholder Farming

Systems in the Tropics..AgBe Publishing, Holland.

• U.S. Census Bureau. 2005, World's 50 Most Populous Countries:

2005.http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004390.html

• ADB.2005. Population. In: Key Indicators 2005: Labor markets in Asia: full,

productive, and decent promoting employment,

http:/www.adb.org/documents/Book/Key-indicators/2005/pdf/rt06.pdf

• Punkari, M. M. Fuentes, P. White, R. Rajalahti and E. Pehu. 2007. Social and

Environmental Sustainability of Agriculture and Rural Development Investments: A

Monitoring and Evaluation Toolkit. The IBRDC/The World Bank. Washington DC

• Perez, F.O. and M.A. Perez. 2002. Lecture Compendium in Agriculture the 100:

Principles of Environmental Science and Management. CLSU.

 MODULE V

THE PROFILE OF A FARMER

Introduction

One of the best among human activities is farming because of its role as a provider of

food that it has played for ages in society. As Prevost (1997) puts it, “How can we dislike a

profession that demands all the intellectual, moral and physical qualities of a man, that

enables our existence in marvelous universe that nature has created and which leaves

individual initiative to anyone who chooses?” Indeed, the farmer is versatile individual.

However, farming as a profession is difficult and sometimes the satisfaction derived from it is

not commensurate with the problems and concerns that the farmer encounters.

During the earlier times, knowledge based on experience was handed down from the

father to the son with no intervention from outside environment. However, nowadays, there

are rapid scientific, social and cultural developments. For example, a young man who wishes

to be trained in agriculture must be exposed to the external environment and this exposure

should not be confined to training alone. Accordingly, there should be a training of the state

of mind of a future agriculturist because in the profession of farming, all human qualities are

essential.

General Objective

At the end of this module, the students must be able to figure out the profile of a

Filipino farmer in relation to the global farmer or the farmers in the developed world.

Specific Objectives
 The module intends to:

1. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character

2. Enumerate the values, needs and aspirations of a Filipino farmer

3. Explain the qualities of a global farmer.

Overview

This module will introduce the students about the strengths and weaknesses of the

Filipino character, the status (socio-cultural and economic) of the Filipino farmer

including his values in farming, his needs and aspirations as compared with the farmer of

the developed world. Their ability to cope and address issues and the challenges of

farming will be presented and finally, the essential qualities of the present-day farmer will

be elucidated.

Pre-test

1. How will you characterize the Filipino farmer in terms of landholding, farming systems

being implemented and the technology being used?

2. In your locality, describe the most progressive farmer you know very well in terms of

status in life (particularly economic), land ownership, education and social relations.

3. Do you have an idea of what is the status a farmer in developed world (like the US,

Europe or Japan) particularly in terms of resources (land, labor and capital), education

and technology applied in his farming activity?

Learning Contents

The Culture of the Filipino Farmer and His Values in Farming

 Culture is the man-made part of the environment which includes all the elements

that humans have acquired from their group by conscious learning or by conditioning.

Accordingly, people are conditioned by social and other institutions, beliefs, and patterns

of conduct. Through culture, natural resources are shaped to meet man's needs and inborn

traits are molded to produce the reflexes that manifest themselves in overt behavior (Awa,

1985).

There are considerable differences between Western values and cultural assumptions

and those in the developing countries like the Philippines.

Presented in Table 12a is an example of the contrast using the North American traits and the

Filipino culture.

Table 12a. Contrast between Western values and the Filipino culture

NORTH AMERICAN FILIPINO

Autonomy encouraged for the individual, Dependence encouraged, point of reference

who should solve own problems, develop is authority, older members of the family

own opinion

Clear distinction made between public and Public poverty divertible to private hands

private property; materialism is a major with little guilt, spiritual religious things are

value more important than material things

Competition is primary method of Communal feeling excludes the incentive to

motivation excel over others

Relations with others are informal and direct Relations with others are more formal,

social interactions more structured

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

Before discussing the Filipino farmer's values in farming, let us try to revisit the

strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character as outlined by former Senator Shahani

(1993):

Strengths:

• “Pakikipagkapwa-tao"

Filipinos are open to others and we regard others with dignity and respect and

deal with them as fellow human beings. It is manifested in a basic sense of justice and

fairness with others. The ability to empathize with others, helpfulness and generosity

in times of need (pakikiramay) and the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance are

famous Filipino traditions.

Result: Camaraderie and feeling of closeness to one another, foundation for unity as

well as sense of social justice

• Family oriented

Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for family which includes not simply

spouse and children, parents and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles,

cousins, grand-parents, and other ceremonial relatives. The family is the source of

personal dignity, the source of emotional and material support, and one’s main

commitment and responsibility. Concern for the family is manifested in the honor and
 respect given to parents and elders, in the care given to children, the generosity towards

kin in need and in the great sacrifices ones endures for the welfare of the family.

Result: Feeling of belongingness and rootedness and a basic sense of security

• Joy and Humor

Filipinos are cheerful and have a pleasant disposition, a sense of humor and a

propensity for happiness that contribute to the Filipino charm and spirit. Laughing at

ourselves from the mess we are in is an important coping mechanism. We are often

playful, sometimes cynical and disrespectful. We make jokes about our good future

and as well as our bad times. Usually, this sense of joy and humor is manifested in the

Filipino's love for socials and celebration

Result: Emotional balance optimism, a healthy disrespect for power and office and

the capacity to survive

• Flexibility/Adaptability

Filipinos have a great capacity to adjust and adapt to circumstances and to

surrounding environment. The unplanned or unanticipated are never overly disturbing

or disorienting on our part. We can tolerate for ambiguity thus enables us to remain

unfazed by uncertainty or lack of information. We are creative resourceful, quick

learners, and have the ability to improvise and make use of whatever is on hand to

create and produce.

Result: Productivity, innovation, entrepreneurship, equanimity and survival

• Hard work and Industry

 Filipinos have the capacity for hard work given proper conditions. The desire

to raise ones standard of living and possess the essentials of a decent life, combined

with the right opportunities and incentives, makes the Filipino work very hard. This is

manifested most noticeably in willingness to take risks with jobs abroad and, while

there to work, they can two or three jobs.

Result: Productivity and entrepreneurship for some and survival despite poverty for

others

• Faith and Religiosity

Filipinos have deep faith in God. Our innate religiosity enables us to

comprehend and genuinely see reality in the context of Gods will and plan. Filipinos

live very intimate with religion. It is very tangible, and touchable part of everyday life.

We ascribe human traits to a supernatural God whom we alternately threaten and

thanks, call upon for mercy and forgiveness and appease by pledges. Thus, prayer is

an important part of our lives. This "pampalakas ng loob" allows us to act despite

uncertainty.

Result: Courage, daring, optimism, inner peace, as well as the capacity to genuinely

accept tragedy and death

• Ability to Survive

Filipinos have the ability to survive which is manifested in our capacity for

endurance despite difficult times and in our ability to get by. We, Filipinos make do

with what is available in the environment. Thus survival instinct is related to Filipino's

character.
 Result: Bravely live through the harshest economic and social circumstances

Weaknesses:

• Extreme Personalism

Result: Leads to graft and corruption

• Extreme Family Centeredness

Result: Lack of concern for the common good and acts as the block to national

consciousness

• Lack of Discipline

Result: Inefficient and wasteful work systems, violation of rules leading to more

serious transgressions and a casual work ethic leading to carelessness and lack

of follow through.

• Passivity and Lack of Initiative

Result: Easily resigned to one’s fate and thus easily oppressed and exploited.

• Colonial Mentality

Result: Basic feeling of national inferiority that makes it difficult for them to relate as

equals to Westerners

• "Kanya-kanya Syndrome"

Result: Dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in the trampling upon of

the rights of others.

 • Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection

Result: Emphasis on form more than substance

Values in Farming

Similar with other farmers in the world, the Filipino farmer has the following values:

Table 12b. The Filipino Farmer Values in Farming

INSTRUMENTAL SOCIAL

Making maximum and satisfactory income Gaining recognition, prestige as a farmer

Safeguarding an income for the future Belonging to the farming community

Expanding the business Continuing the family tradition

Providing congenial working condition- Working with other members of the family

hours, security and surroundings

EXPRESSIVE INTRINSIC

Feeling pride of ownership Enjoyment of work task

Gaining self-respect for doing a worthwhile Preference for a healthy, outdoor farming life

job

Exercising special abilities and aptitudes Purposeful activity and value in hard work

Chance to be creative and original Independence-freedom from supervision

and able to organize own- time control

Meeting a challenge, achieving on objective

and personal growth

 Having governed by the Spaniards for 300 years, the control of agricultural lands in

the country was two-tiered. At one hand, we have the landlords (known as hacienderos) and

at the other hand are peasants (magsasaka) and the agricultural workers (sacadas).

In the previous module, the small farms and small-scale farming characteristics was

presented and more or less gave us a picture of the Filipino farmer, practicing it. Similarly,

industrial agriculture practiced by few individuals characterizes them as well.

Characteristics of today's global farmer

The following characteristics/ qualities of today's farmer were enumerated by Provost

(1997) in his book Fundamentals of Modern Agriculture:

• The farmer as an Agronomist

Today, a farmer must be an agronomist. He should have the scientific and

technical knowledge to enable him to anticipate the problems that will arise in his

farm. In agriculture, we do not merely follow some ready-made formulae and the

working tool is the living environment and nature is too capricious to be stable.

• The farmer as an Administrator

Agriculture is business; thus, the farm is an agricultural enterprise. The

methods to administer a farm are the same as those applied in other sectors and a

farmer must have the same capabilities as the industrial entrepreneur. Today, the

agriculture sector is a major consumer of intermediate products such as farm

machineries, fuel, farm chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers), soil amendments, etc.

and most often, the margin of profit is very narrow for many products.
• The farmer as a Manager

A farmer must be capable of managing his personal and agricultural

machineries; thus, it requires the abilities of a chief executive in an enterprise. As a

manager, he should optimize everything involved in production to obtain the best

benefits.

• The farmer as a PR man

Relationship with others not only to fellow farmers is important. The farmer,

therefore, must have good relationship not only with other persons but with all

professional associations such as Farmers Cooperative, Federation of Framers, etc. By

doing this, the farmer is kept ahead with current developments as well as with current

policies and legislations that affect or influence the agriculture sector.

• The farmer as a Trader

In the Philippines, major productions have marketing problems. In other

words, many products are subject to the law of the market which is the "law of supply

and demand". A farmer must know how to sell his products for better income. In

selling his products he must be able to highlights the advantages of his products being

sold as compared to other products of same category.

• The farmer as a Progressive Individual

A farmer must be dynamic, innovative and foremost progressive. All these

qualities are needed for success in this profession. It should be emphasized that there
 are not gifts which are grown, but it is with good training that a farmer can be made

fit to run his farm.

Synthesis

The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character had been discussed putting

emphasis on the positive and negative effects on the person, the family and the society. Each

student contributed in the discussion by sharing their experiences and observations as they go

along with others. The values in farming were put to scrutiny by the students whether such

still exist in the modern society. Lastly, the global characteristics of a modern farmer were

carefully examined and discussed to serve as a model for the incoming graduates of

agriculture, as they themselves will become a modern farmer.

Post test

1. How will you compare the Filipino farmer from the farmers of the Western world?

What are the characteristics possessed by our farmers that they don't have? Similarly,

what are the characteristics of the Western farmers that Filipino farmers don't have?

2. In general, our farmers practice small scale farming. What do you think are the benefits

derived by them?

3. Among the characteristics of the global farmer, what is the best to be adapted by our

Filipino farmers?

Evaluation

The post test is a reflection of the level of your understanding about the topics

discussed. Have you met the target mark of 80%? If yes, very good, but, for those who did not
make it, don't worry, your professor will help you. Get hold of the enhancement activities and

start. Take it easy.

References

P. Prevost. 1997. Fundamentals of Modern Agriculture. Science Publishers, USA.

Beets, W.C. 1990. Raising and Sustaining Productivity of Smallholder Farming Systems in

the Tropics. AgBe Publishing, Holland.

 MODULE VI

CHOICE OF A NEW DIRECTION IN AGRICULTURE

(Where do we go from here?)

Introduction

Agriculture faces a new challenge in this 21st century, i.e., to feed more people in less
land without degrading the natural resource base or the environment as a whole, World grain
production levels are down-from their peak in the 1980's due to decreasing productivity of
farming techniques and in part to the large numbers of pests and weeds that have developed
resistances to chemicals. During the 1990's grain yields increases have slowed down to barely
5% per year, which is less than one third of the rate of global population growth (State of the
World, 1996).

The Philippines has now an estimated 112.9M people (Worldometer, 2022), ranking
7th as the most populous in Asia and 13th in the world (Worldometer, 2022). With the
reported lackluster growth of 1.8% in 2005 from 4.2%, the agriculture sector must increase
production by 4 folds to catch up with the population pressure and increase its 0.33%
contribution to the total GDP growth (NCSB, 2005).

General Objective

After finishing the discussion of this module, the students should be able to identify
which pathway to follow in choosing a new direction in agriculture given the present
conditions biophysically and socio-culturally.

Specific Objectives:

The students must:

1. Be able to narrate the great progress made in the various fields/aspects of agriculture
2. Identify and explain the various threats/challenges in agriculture
3. Differentiate the different factors to consider in choosing a new direction in agriculture
4. Enumerate and describe the impacts of climate change

Overview
 This module discusses the dramatic changes that occurred in agriculture, the
potential threats that may affect the biophysical, biological and socio- economic
components of the farm and ultimately expose the students to sustainable agriculture as
the right answer or pathway to sustainable agricultural development.

Pre-Test

1. What are some of the changes you observed in agriculture or what are new to you in
the raising of crops and animals today?
2. Have you heard of a Bt corn? Do you have an idea if what is it?
3. What is your idea of a "genetically modified organism" (GMO)? How do you compare
it with an in-bred variety or open pollinated?
4. What about an embryo transfer in animals? Do you have any idea?

LEARNING CONTENTS

Dramatic Changes in Agriculture

The productivity of food and fiber soared due to new technologies, mechanization,
increase chemical use, specialization and government policies that favored maximization
of production. Also, the present-day scientific research has made a great progress in the
following fields as reported by Prevost, (1997):

1. Electronics and computer science which have revolutionized the working of

agricultural farms: robotics, microcomputers and telematics.
2. Biotechnologies or technologies of living organisms that will result in major rechanges
in agricultural activity as a whole. contribution to strengthen the
• Tissue culture and intro culture enable a rapid improvement of plants and a
healthy regeneration of plant species.
• Genetic engineering opens up many possibilities, the creation of new in species.
• Fixation of atmospheric N for plant nutrition.
• Resistance of plants to diseases, and,
• Bio-pesticides
 3. In animal production, embryo transfer enables us to implant an embryo in any mother
and ensures a very rapid intensification of production while genetic engineering
enables optimization of animal feeds by a selection of microbial flora from the
digestive tract or by finding new sources of proteins such as those of cell origin
methanization or the production of biogas.
4. In the agro-food industry, here also genetic engineering will promote new sources of
proteins produced in laboratories and new foods.

Although these changes had many positive effects and reduced many risks in
farming, there have also been negative or significant costs. Very prominent among these
are topsoil depletion, groundwater contaminations, the decline of family farms, continued
neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, increasing costs of
production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural
communities.

Is sustainable agriculture the answer?

Tomorrow's agriculture will be as important as that of today, but it will be different,

and this depends on the ability of agriculture and our farmers to adapt to the new society.
Today, sustainable agriculture is being advocated and is garnering increasing support and
acceptance within mainstream agriculture because not only it addresses many environmental
and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for
growers, laborers, consumers, policymakers, and many others in the entire food system.

Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental health, economic

profitability, and social and economic equity. Therefore, sustainability rests on the principle
that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. It is of prime importance that stewardship of both
natural and human resources must also be met. Finally, it is important to point out that
reaching toward the goal of sustainable agriculture is the responsibility of all participants in
the system including farmers, policymakers, laborers, researchers, retailers and consumers.
Each group has its own role to play, its own unique contribution to strengthen the sustainable
agriculture community.
Farming and Natural Resources

In Module 3, the resources available for agriculture and the society as a whole has
been thoroughly discussed. However, we will try to discuss the major resources involved in
relation to the directions of agriculture we want to pursue.

Water - Water and soil are the principal resources of agriculture and society to prosper,
but these have been major limiting factors when mismanaged.

• Water Supply and Use

If agriculture has to expand in drier regions, water supply and use must be
improved. Several steps should be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems
even in normal years, including both policy and management actions such as:

1) improving water conservation and storage measures

2) providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species
3) using reduced-volume irrigation systems.
4) managing crops to reduce water loss, or
5) not planting at all.
• Water quality

Salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides,

nitrates and selenium are the most important issues related to water quality. Use of
salt-tolerant crops is often advocated including the use of phyto-remediation practices
to remove contaminants in soils

Soil (Land)

• Soil Erosion

Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat in agriculture, thus constrains our

ability to produce adequate food. It is a common philosophy among sustainable
agriculture practitioners that a "healthy" soil is a key component of sustainability
because a healthy soil process healthy plants that have optimum vigor and are less
susceptible to pests. It is therefore important that crop management practices that
impair soil quality must not be practiced so it will not result to greater inputs of water,
nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields.

• Land Use Conversion

Conversion of land to other uses (especially to urban and commercial uses)

is a particular concern nowadays. Existing farmland conversion patterns often
discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices and a long-term perspective
on the value of land. The close proximity of newly developed residential areas to
farms is increasing the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices.
Educating land use planners and decision-makers about sustainable agriculture is
an important priority.

Energy

It is a fact that modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non- renewable

energy sources especially petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot
be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be
economically catastrophic. However, a sudden cutoff in energy supply would be
equally disruptive. For sustainable agriculture systems, there is reduced reliance on
non-renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the
extent that is economically feasible.

Air

We know that many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include
smoke from agricultural burning. In the Central Plain of Luzon, rice straw is
commonly burned. This practice must be eliminated and convert this resource into a
useful one, an organic fertilizer or compost.

The possible options to improve air quality are incorporating crop residue into
the soil, using appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or
strips of native grasses to reduce contaminants or pollutants.

Wildlife
 Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the
destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. If wild habitats are converted to
agricultural lands, this will result to erosion, sedimentation, diversion of water,
removal of riparian plants, etc. which will affect the fish and other wildlife. The plant
diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in
order to support a diversity of wildlife.

Plant Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches taking into

considerations topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and
the individual farmer's goal.

The following general principles can be applied to help farmers select appropriate
management practices:

• Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions
on the farm;
• Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the
biological and economic stability of the farm;
• Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality;
• Efficient and humane use of inputs, and
• Considerations of farmers' goal and lifestyle choices.

Animal Production Practices

Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the
principles outlined in the previous section apply to both groups. Some of the specific points
that livestock producers need to address are the following:

• Management planning
• Animal Selection
• Animal nutrition
• Reproduction
• Herd health
 • Grazing management

Economic, Social and Political Context

The "food" system extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of
individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers,
researchers, input suppliers, farm workers, unions, farm managers and advisors, processors,
retailers, consumers and policy makers. Relationships among these actor’s shift over time as
new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes.

Among the areas of concern where change is most needed are the following:

• Food and agricultural policy

• Land use
• Labor
• Rural community development, and
• Consumers and the food system

Emerging challenges faced by farmers in the world

• Climate change

Climate change (also known as global warming) is a major threat to small

farmers. It is caused by the build-up of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere as a result of fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and other industrial
activities. Heat is trapped in the atmosphere ("greenhouse effect") leading to a rise in
global temperatures. Farmers always have to contend with environmental factors,
dealing with drought, floods, and marginal environments. Their livelihoods are closely
related to the functioning of the environment. For that reason, human-induced climate
change is likely to have a dramatic impact upon small farmers.

Rising temperature increases sea levels brought about by the melting of polar
ice caps. Increase in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events is also
expected. The extent and nature of effects of climate change is beset with uncertainty,
not knowing how quickly climatic variations will occur and its full extent. Other
uncertainties include a lack of clear data on how crops will respond to increases in
 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Poor people and small farmers are expected to incur
a disproportionate impact from climate change.

Small farmers often live in marginal environments inhabiting low-lying and

isolated rural areas and are not supported by adequate health, social, and other
infrastructures that help deal with climatic-and the associated social and
environmental change. Increase in temperature may result to pests and diseases
incidence, higher demand for water, and plant heat stress. Increase in sea-level may
cause flooding in low-level agricultural areas.

As many poor farmers already work near the limits of climatic tolerance of
crops in marginal environments, it is likely plants will be highly stressed, environments
will become even more marginal, and yields will drop dramatically.

• Land conversion

Conversion of lands into residential subdivisions, plantations, golf courses,

mines, and other purposes is a big threat to small farmers. Accordingly, from 1980 to
2000 more than 300 million hectares of tropical forests have been cleared to make way
for plantations for production for export (particularly palm oil and soy), pasture,
mining, and urban development (Friends of the Earth et al., 2005). The extent of land
demanded by these sources means heavy land pressure on small and subsistence
farmers and indigenous people.

The current trend of planting more lands with sources of biofuels in response
to climate change is an emerging threat to small farmers who are into food production
Converting crops to biofuel would mean a shift away from food crops to large-scale
plantations of non-food crops using major amounts of pesticides, fertilizers, and water.
The amounts of land that would be needed to meet current energy demands would be
massive.

• Genetically modified organisms and intellectual property

The use of genetically modified crops is another emerging threat. Sometimes

called the "Second Green Revolution," small farmers and analysts have raised several
 concerns about the use of biotechnology. The use of GMOs in farming is associated
with many of the same risks as the original Green Revolution, including
homogenization and input reliance. Their use may reinforce the move to industrial
agriculture, support capital and energy-intensive systems, and reinforce the
dependency of farmers on costly inputs. Genetically modified crops are generally
covered by patents and intellectual property that restrict farmers' ability to collect and
reuse seeds. This means farmers could be required to buy seeds each year or face fines
and imprisonment.

The need to purchase seeds each year, the high cost of seeds plus the need to
buy the chemicals and inputs required by the varieties mean increasing inputs and
dependency for farmers. The cycle of debt, landlessness and land concentration widely
condemned in the case of the Green Revolution may continue. This is particularly a
problem when farmers are lured into planting the seeds with unrealistic promises of
guaranteed high yields.

GMO use is associated with a high degree of environmental unpredictability

and risk. There are concerns that genetic drift will occur, polluting wild relatives of
modified plants. If herbicide-resistant genes, for example, "escape" to wild relatives of
crops, this may lead to the development of weeds that are also resistant to pesticides.

Balanced Agro-Individual Growth In Agriculture Production

• Developing technologies to increase agricultural productivity had gained much

attention brought about by increasing world population. Although attempts were
successful, this, however, brought adverse effects especially environmental
degradation.
• At this time, environmental concern is focused on climate change mainly caused by
human activities: forest degradation, burning fossil fuels, use of chlorofluorocarbons,
synthetic chemicals, etc. Another concern is the decreasing arable land due to
industrialization in addition to population explosion converting agricultural lands into
residential areas and construction of industrial buildings.
 • These lead to the growing awareness on increasing production through sustainable
agriculture. Furthermore, attention is being given to the extent to which increased
production affects stability and equitability, and whether the system is balanced. And
to achieve balanced agricultural development, the system priorities should be taken
separately and in relation to each other.

Choice of a New Direction

The choice of a new direction or any investment for that matter must be a rational one.
According to Prevost (1997), the following factors must be considered.

A. Ecological Factors

The production system must be adapted to the environment, thus four kinds of
adaptation must be of our concern as follows:

1. Adaptation to the Climate

Every living organism on this planet (plants and animals) has specific
climatic requirements that restrict their geographical areas (e.g., temperate
vegetables are grown in the uplands/cooler areas like Baguio). Progress in
adaptation to climate has been remarkably improved like the greenhouse
cultivation of flowers, vegetables, etc.

2. Adaptation to the Soil

Soil requirements for different crops vary, thus, crop suitability evaluation
is important to rationalize land use or the farming system to be adapted. The soil's
physical, chemical and biological properties can be improved to enhance crop and
animal production.

3. Adaptation to the Biological Environment

Some varieties of crops and even breeds of animals have been moved from
their original geographical environment as a result of either importation or a mere
collection making them to be less adapted to such environment. As a result, these
are less hardy or susceptible to some pests and diseases.
B. Economic Factors
1. The Possibility of Market Outlets

Market outlets shall be assured to dispose the products and allow farmers
to gain income. Many products do not sell well either because of overproduction
or due to reduced consumption.

2. Price Guarantee

Prices of products in the country are not stable as these mostly depend on
the supply and demand for them. Despite of government support price for some
commodities, during harvest especially if there's glut in the market, the price can
nosedive to a very low level resulting to loss of income of farmers.

3. Sales Organization

For specialized products or even with regular commodities, a special

organization to handle the marketing of the produce shall be in place. Examples
are cooperatives, wholesale markets and the like.

4. Extent of Investments

When establishing a new farming system or crop/animal production

venture, the investments to be made shall be within the resources of the farmer
and the income expected from it must be commensurate with the amount invested.

5. Security of Production

Many crops grown in the farm are sensitive to hazards or risks especially
with climate. A good plan on what farming system has to be implemented must
be decided based on merits of all factors involved.

C. Technological Factors

Every farming system requires a specific cultural management to obtain the

optimum possible yield. The farmer, before shifting to a new farming system, he
 should have the necessary knowledge and skills of growing the crop. If the farmer lacks
the necessary tools, a training should be provided by the agricultural technicians.

D. Human Factors

The farmer himself, before deciding the farming system to be carried out, he
must bear in mind the following:

• his personal inclinations and abilities

• his aspirations with regards to his lifestyle
• his ultimate goal/objective

Synthesis

Agriculture's greatest challenge in the 21st century is how to feed more people in less
land without degrading the environment. Although present day scientific research made a
great progress to increase productivity of food, there have also been negative or significant
costs. Thus, the various threats are climate change, land conversion and alienation and
genetically modified organisms or crops (GMO's) and intellectual property rights.

Today, sustainable agriculture is being advocated because it does not only address
many environmental and social concern, it also offers innovative and economically viable
opportunities for growers, laborers, consumers, policy makers and many other in the food
system.

Post Test

1. Productivity of food and fiber tremendously increased in the last decade. Where do we
attribute this?

2. The increased in productivity did not have only positive effects but, also negative, or
significant costs. Enumerate some of these and explain why or how did it impact agriculture.

3. Sustainable agriculture is being advocated as a possible solution to agricultural

development. Explain its goals and how it will be implemented.

4. Try to go back and answer the pre-test questions.

Evaluation

The students must have obtained a rating of 80% to pass the test. However, if a student
will obtain a lower percentage rating, said student will be given an enhancing activity before
another set of examination/evaluation on the topics where he performed low be given.

References

1. P. Brevost. 1997. Fundamentals of Agriculture. Science Publishers, Inc., India.