SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL(CIVIL

ENGINEERING)

NAME : ...................................................................
REGISTER NO : ...................................................................

SEMESTER : ...................................................................

ACADEMIC YEAR : ...................................................................

1
 CONTENTS

PAGE
SL.N0 NAME OF EXPERIMENTS
NO

1 TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN 3

2 TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN 9

3 BENDING TEST ON STEEL I BEAM 13

4 SPRING TEST

(a) TEST ON CLOSE COILED HELICAL SPRING 17

(b) TEST ON OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRING 22

5 SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD 27

6 HARDNESS TEST

(a) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST 30

(b) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST 35

7 CHARPY IMPACT TEST 38

8 IZOD IMPACT TEST 41

9 BENDING TEST ON WOOD 44

1. VERIFICATION OF CLERK MAXWELL’S THEOREM 49

10

2
Experiment no: Date:

1. TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

AIM

To conduct tension test on a mild steel rod and to determine its elastic properties.

PRINCIPLE

Tension test is the basic test most widely used to determine various mechanical
properties of ductile materials. In this test, the test specimen is subjected to axial tensile
force in a UTM till failure. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original form as
soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed
permanently. The initial part of the tension curve which is recoverable immediately after
unloading is termed as elastic and the rest of the curve which represents the manner in
which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed plastic. The stress below which the
deformations essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of material. During
plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the
decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to
decrease. This stage the “ultimate strength”’ which is defined as the ratio of the load on
the specimen to original cross sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further loading
will eventually cause ‘neck’ formation and rupture. During the course of the load
application, the test specimen will behave differently (elastic, elastic-plastic, plastic
deformation) and various mechanical properties can be calculated from the observations
made during the loading stage.

APPARATUS:

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

2. Mild steel specimens
3. Graph paper
4. Scale
5. Vernier caliper

DIAGRAM: UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

3
PROCEDURE

1. Measure the mean diameter (Dm) of the specimen with a vernier caliper by taking readings
at three different places along the length of the specimen.
2. Calculate the mean area of cross section of the specimen (Am).
3. Calculate the gauge length. Round off the obtained value to the nearest 5mm accuracy (Li).
4. Calculate the approximate load at yield point (Py approx) and ultimate load (Pu approx) by
assuming the yield and ultimate stresses as 250 MPa and 400 MPa respectively.
5. Mark a line at 50 mm (grip length) from either ends of the specimen for effective gripping,
in the UTM.
6. Mark the middle of the specimen with a centre punch. Select a convenient interval (s) by
dividing the gauge length with a suitable number. Mark on either sides of the midpoint of
the specimen at the selected interval (s) till the marking for the grip is reached.
7. Select the load range of the measuring unit based on the approximate load calculated.
8. Fix the specimen between the upper and middle cross heads of the UTM in such a way that
the markings for the grips are in line with the edge of grips.
9. Adjust the gauge length of the extensometer to the calculated value (Li).
10. Fix the extensometer firmly at the middle of the test specimen.
11. Close both the control valve and return valve of the loading unit. Switch on the machine and
apply load on the specimen without any jerk by gradually opening the control valve. Apply
the load to about one third of the calculated approximate yield point load (Py approx.), stop
loading by closing the control valve, switch off the machine and gradually reduce the load
to zero by opening the return valve. Repeat this procedure three times.
12. Set the loading and dummy pointer of the measuring unit to zero. Set the dial gauges of the
extensometer to zero.
13. Load the specimen gradually at an approximate strain rate of 0.01 per minute as explained
in step 11. At a constant interval of load, observe the dial gauge reading of extensometer.
Continue this process of observing the load and dial gauge readings until the load reaches
one third of the calculated approximate yield point load (Py approx) or about 5 readings
are taken and remove the extensometer from the specimen.
14. Continue the loading and carefully observe the load indicating pointer trajectory for
identifying yield point load (Py). When yield point reaches, the needle may stop for a while
or may jerk with continued deformation of the specimen.
15. Continue the loading further with a reduced rate of loading and observe the scale formation
and its pattern on the specimen.
16. Once the ultimate load is reached, neck will form on the specimen. The load indicator will
start returning back and the dummy pointer will stay at the maximum load reached (P u).
Reduce the rate of loading and carefully observe the load indicating pointer trajectory and
note down the load corresponding to breaking of the specimen (Pb).
17. Remove the specimen from the grips, observe the fracture surfaces. Join the two pieces
together and measure the neck diameter and the elongated length (L f) corresponding to
the initial gauge length (Li). Ensure that the fracture surface is almost at the middle of the
Li.

4
18. Plot a stress vs. strain graph from the calculated values and determine, the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the specimen by determining the slope of the initial straight
portion of the curve.
19. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Least count of extensometer

3 Range of measuring unit

4 Least count of measuring unit

Mean diameter of rod (Dm)

Mean
SL Diameter = MSR+(VSR
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR diameter
NO x LC) (mm)
(Dm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO

1 𝜋𝐷ₘ²
Mean area of cross section, Am =
4

2 Theoretical value of gauge length = 5.65 X √Aₘ

3 Gauge length of the specimen

4 Approximate yield point load (Py approx)=250 x Am

5 Approximate ultimate load (Pu approx) =400 x Am

5
Load extensometer observation table

SL Load Pi Extensometer Reading Elongation ∆𝑳 Stress fi=

Strain 𝛜i=
𝑳ᵢ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝑷
NO (kN) 𝚫L
𝑨ₘ
Left Right Mean (mm)
(MPa)

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Serial number of the observation –

Elongation, 𝚫L = (Mean extensometer reading) x (Least count of extensometer)

∆𝐿
Strain 𝛜I = =
𝐿ᵢ

1000 × 𝑃
Stress fi = =
𝐴ₘ

(INSERT GRAPH)

6
 SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO

1 Load at yield point (Py)

2 Ultimate load (Pu)

3 Breaking load (Pb)

4 Increased length corresponding to gauge length Lf

5 Diameter of the specimen at the neck Df

6 Area of cross section of the specimen at the neck, Af

𝜋𝐷ϝ²
=
4

CALCULATIONS

Young’s modulus (from graph), E =

1000×𝑃𝑦
Yield stress fy = =
𝐴𝑚

1000×𝑃𝑢
Ultimate stress fu = =
𝐴𝑚

1000×𝑃𝑏
Nominal breaking stress fb = =
𝐴𝑚

1000×𝑃𝑏
Actual breaking stress fbactual = =
𝐴𝑓

(𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑖)×100
Percentage elongation= =
𝐿𝑖

(𝐴𝑓−𝐴𝑚)×100
Percentage reduction in area = =
𝐴𝑚

𝑓𝑢
Maximum shear stress 𝛕max = =
2

7
RESULTS

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO

1 Young’s modulus (from graph), E

2 Yield stress fy

3 Ultimate stress fu

4 Nominal breaking stress fb

5 Actual breaking stress fbactual

6 Percentage elongation

7 Percentage reduction in area

8 Maximum shear stress

INFERENCE

SL
PARTICULARS STANDARD VALUE OBTAINED VALUE
NO

1 Young’s modulus E

2 Yield stress fy

3 Ultimate stress fu

4 Percentage elongation

5 Percentage reduction in area

6 Maximum shear stress

8
Experiment no: Date:

2. TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

AIM

To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen to find modulus of rigidity and maximum
shear stress developed corresponding to maximum torque.

PRINCIPLE

When a uniform prismatic circular bar is subjected to a torque every section

perpendicular to the axis of the bar will be subjected to a state of pure shear. The moment
of resistance developed by the shear stress will be equal in magnitude and opposite in
sense to the applied force. So the torsion formula is used to determine various elastic
properties of the material of the specimen.

Torsion equation:

𝑇 𝐶𝜃 𝜏
= = where
𝐽 𝐿 𝑅

T= maximum twisting torque (N mm)

J= Polar moment of inertia (mm4)

τ = shear stress 𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2

C = modulus of rigidity 𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2

θ = angle of twist in radians

L = length of shaft under torsion (mm)

Along with the transverse shear stress, complementary shear stresses will also develop
in the direction of the axis of the torsion specimen. So if the shear strength of a material
is less than its tensile or compressive strength, then the material will fail by transverse
shear when subjected to torsion. In the other hand, if the shear strength of a material is
more than its tensile or compressive strength, then the material will fail either in tension
or in compression.

APPARATUS:

1. A torsion test machine along with angle of twist measuring attachment

2. Standard specimen of mild steel
3. Graph paper
4. Steel rule
5. Vernier caliper

9
 DIAGRAM:

TORSION TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the mean diameter (Dm) of the specimen with a vernier caliper by taking
readings at three different places along the length of the specimen.
2. Mark 400 mm (L), symmetric to the mid length of the specimen.
3. Mount the specimen in the grip in such a way that the length of specimen between the
grip is L. Tighten the grips properly by adjusting sliding jaw to avoid any slip during the
loading.
4. Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.
5. Apply torque on the specimen without any jerk by gradually rotating the handle on the
loading end of the specimen. After reaching about 5 kg-m torque, release the torque to
zero by rotating the handle in the reverse direction. Repeat this procedure three times
to ensure an elastic behaviour of the specimen.
6. Set the load pointer and the adjustable disc to zero. Note down the initial reading of the
discs attached to each grip, which indicates the angle of twist.
7. Apply the torque gradually as stated in "step 5" and for every increment of 1 kg-m
torque, observe the disc readings. Continue the loading till a torque of 5 to 6 kg-m torque
is reached and then stop loading. Bring down the torque on the specimen to zero and
remove the specimen from the grips.
8. Plot the torque – angle of twist graph from the calculated values and determine, the ratio
𝑇
by determining the slope of the initial straight portion of the curve.
𝜃
9. Calculate the modulus of rigidity C by using the torsion equation.
10. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.

10
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of Vernier caliper

2 Least count of discs

3 Least count of measuring unit

Mean diameter of rod (Dm)

Diameter = Mean
SL
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC) diameter
NO
(mm) (Dm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

Torque –angle of twist observation table

SL Applied Angle of twist (degree) Angle of Torque T

NO Torque twist (θ) (Nm)
Ti (kg m) Difference (radian)
Left Right
(θi)

11
SAMPLE CALCULATION

Serial number of the observation –

𝜋
Angle of twist (θ) = θi x ( )=
180
Torque T (Nm) = Ti x 9.81=

(INSERT GRAPH)

CALCULATIONS

𝑇
from graph =
𝜃
𝐷ₘ
Mean radius, r = =
2
𝜋 Dm4
Polar moment of inertia J =
32
𝑇 𝐿
Modulus of rigidity, C = 1000 x x =
𝜃 J

Maximum shear stress developed corresponding to a torque of ……………….. Nm,

Ta × r
τmax = 1000 x =
𝐽
RESULTS

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO
1 Modulus of rigidity, C

2 Maximum shear stress developed corresponding to a

torque of ……………….. Nm

INFERENCE

12
Experiment no: Date:

3. BENDING TEST ON MILD STEEL I BEAM

AIM

To determine the modulus of elasticity of steel by performing bending test on a steel I

beam.

PRINCIPLE

For any materials within elastic limit, the ratio of normal stress to normal strain is defined
modulus of elasticity. A direct method of finding out E is by conducting a uniaxial tension
test. An alternative procedure is to carry out a bending test on a standard section. In a
bending test the test specimen is subjected to transverse loading so as to produce
transverse flexural stresses on the beam. This results in shortening of fibres above the
natural axis due to the compressive stress and expansion of bottom fibres due to tensile
stress. Defected beam will return to initial straight configuration at least in the initial
stages of loading (within the elastic limit) in such a case, as per simple bending theory,
the normal stress and strain across any cross section of the beam is linear. The ratio of
stress to strain within elastic limits of a material is known as young's modulus of elasticity
and is given by the formula

𝑀 𝑓 𝐸
= = where
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
M = Bending moment
I = moment of inertia of the section
f = bending stress developed
y = distance of any fibre measured from the neutral axis.
E = modulus of elasticity
R = radius of curvature of the beam
It may be noted that, the above said formula is truly valid for a pure bending condition.
The shear forces at section will also contribute to the total deflection of the structure.
However, the contribution of shear in the case of deep beams will be significant whereas
for beams where span to depth ratio is large, the effect due to shear is negligible.

From the general expression for deflection, we can write

1
Deflection at the mid span of simply supported, 𝛅= x P L3
48𝐸𝐼
APPARATUS:

1. Universal testing machine

2. Steel I beam specimen
3. Dial gauge
4. Graph paper
5. Steel rule
6. Vernier caliper

13
DIAGRAM:

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the dimensions of the cross section of the given steel I section and compute
the moment of inertia and modulus of the section.
2. Mark the mid span of the given beam and then the span length with equal spacing to
either side of the central mark.
3. Calculate the range of loading for the test assuming yield strength of 165N/mm2 and
hence finalise the interval of load for which the deflection is to be measured.
4. Arrange the dial gauge (s) so as to measure the defection of the beam at the mid
span.
5. Apply the load gradually at the mid span at rete of 5kN per second and note the dial
gauge reading corresponding to the predetermined load interval.
6. Plot the graph with load on the Y- axis and deflection on the X axis and ascertain the
condition of loading within the elastic limit.
7. Note down the slope of the graph and hence calculate the modulus of elasticity of
steel using the appropriate deflection formula.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of dial gauge

2 Range of measuring unit

3 Least count of measuring unit

14
DIMENSION OF I SECTION

SL DIMENSION (mm)
PARTICULARS
NO d1 d2 d3 Mean

1 Over all Depth (h)

2 Flange thickness (tf)

3 Web thickness (tw)

4 Depth of web (d)

5 Breadth of flange(b)

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Serial number of the observation –

Load =

Deflection, 𝛅 = (Dial gauge reading) x (Least count of dial gauge)

Span of beam L =
1
Moment of inertia, I = [bh3- (b-tw) d3] =
12

𝐼
Modules of section (Z) = ℎ =
2

15
Bending Moment = f x Z
𝑊𝐿
= 165 x Z
4

165 ×𝑍×4
Maximum applied load to be applied (W) = =
𝐿

Load deflection observation

SL NO Dial gauge Deflection 𝛅 (mm)

Load (kN) reading (mm) d x least count of
(d) dial gauge

(INSERT GRAPH)

CALCULATIONS

𝑃
from the graph =
𝛿
1 𝑃
Modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam, E = x x L3 x 103
48𝐼 𝛿

RESULTS
Modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam =

INFERENCE

16
Experiment no: Date:

4. SPRING TEST

(a) TEST ON CLOSED COILED HELICAL SPRING

AIM

To determine modulus of rigidity and other properties of a closed coiled helical spring.

PRINCIPLE

Helical spring is a piece of wire coiled in the form of a helix. It can undergo considerable
deformation without getting permanently distorted and hence is capable of storing
considerable strain energy. If the slope of the helix is small, then the spring is called as
closed coiled spring· If closed coiled spring is subjected to axial forces, the wire of the
spring will be subjected to pure shear. So a closed coiled spring of mean radius R with n
turns and a wire diameter d is equivalent to a circular shaft of diameter d and length
L = 2 Rn. If W is the axial load on the spring, the twisting moment on any section of the
spring (or equivalent shaft) will be T = WR. Hence the general torsion formula can be
used to determine various properties that are required for the design of closed coiled
helical springs.

Consider a closed coiled spring of mean diameter D with n turns and a wire diameter d
Then
𝐷
Spring index = =
𝑑
1
Modulus of rigidity, G = x (8WD3n)
𝛿𝑑4
𝑊
Stiffness of spring, k =
𝛿
Maximum shear stress in the wire corresponding to a force (W) of ……………….. kN,
1
τmax = 3 x (8WD)
𝜋𝑑
Strain energy stored in the wire corresponding to τmax
1
U= x (τmax 2 x volume of spring)
4𝐺
APPARATUS:

1. Spring testing machine.

2. A closed coil spring,
3. Scale
4. Graph paper

17
 5. Steel rule
6. Vernier caliper

DIAGRAM:

CLOSED COIL HELICAL SPRING SPRING TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the mean diameter (d) of the wire of the spring, mean diameter of the
spring (D) with a vernier caliper by taking readings at three different places along
the length of the specimen. Also note down the number of coils (n).
2. Place the spring on hooks fixed to the upper and middle cross heads of the spring
testing machine. Tighten the nuts on the top hook so that the spring is properly held
in position.
3. Close the release valve of the loading unit. Apply loading by hand operation at
constant rate till the load is reached about 100 kg and then release the load to zero
by opening the release valve. Continue this process for three times to ensure that the
spring behaves elastically.
4. Set the load pointer and deformation pointer either to zero or to a convenient value.
5. Close the release valve and apply load on the specimen without any jerk manually.
At regular increments of applied load, observe the total elongation of the spring.
Continue the measurement till 5 to 6 observations are made and then release the
load to zero.
6. Plot the load- deflection graph from the calculated values and determine, the ratio
W/𝛅 by determining the slope of the initial straight portion of the curve.
7. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.

18
 OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Least count of loading unit

3 Number of active coils in the spring, n

Diameter of the spring wire (d)

Mean
Diameter d =
SL diameter of
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC)
NO the spring
(mm)
wire (d) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

Outer diameter of the spring (OD)

Mean Outer
Diameter OD = diameter of
SL the spring
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC)
NO (OD)mm
(mm)

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

19
Load – deflection observation table

SL Load Wi Load W Scale reading (mm) Spring deformation

NO (kg) (N)
Initial Final 𝛅= (Final – Initial ) (mm)

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Serial number of the observation –
Applied load W = WI x 9.81=
Spring deformation, 𝛅 = (Final scale reading – Initial scale reading)
=
(INSERT GRAPH)
CALCULATIONS
Mean diameter of the spring, D = OD – d =
𝐷
Spring index = =
𝑑
𝑊
Stiffness of spring (from graph), k = =
𝛿
1 𝑊
Modulus of rigidity, G = x [( ) x (8D3n)] =
𝑑4 𝛿

Maximum shear stress in the wire corresponding to a force (W) of ……………….. N,

1
τmax = 3 x (8WD) =
𝜋𝑑

20
 𝜋𝑑2
Volume of spring, V = (2 Dn) x ( )=
4

Resilience of the spring corresponding to τmax

1
U= x (τmax 2 x volume of spring) =
4𝐺

RESULTS

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO

1 Spring index

2 Stiffness of spring, k

3 Modulus of rigidity, G

4 Maximum shear stress in the wire corresponding to a

force (W) of ……………….. N, τmax
5 Resilience of the spring corresponding to maximum
shear stress of ……………………… MPa

INFERENCE

21
 (b) TEST ON OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRING

AIM

To determine modulus of rigidity and other properties of an open coiled helical spring.

PRINCIPLE

Helical spring is a piece of wire coiled in the form of a helix. It can undergo considerable
deformation without getting permanently distorted and hence is capable of storing
considerable strain energy. If the slope of the helix is appreciable, then the spring is called
as an open coiled spring· If an open coiled spring of mean radius R with n turns, a wire
diameter d and angle of helix is considered, the axial force W acting on the spring, will
cause a twisting moment of WR cos and a bending moment of WR sin on the
spring wire. Accordingly, on any cross section of the spring wire, both bending and
shearing stresses will develop.
Consider an open coiled spring of mean diameter D with n turns, a wire diameter d and
angle of helix . Then
𝐷
Spring index = =
𝑑
Deflection of the spring under axial load W,
1 1 1
𝛅 = [ 4 x (8WD3n sec )] x [( x cos2 ) + ( x 2 sin2 )]
𝑑 𝐺 𝐸
𝑊
Stiffness of spring, k =
𝛿
Stresses in a normal section of the wire corresponding to a force W
1
a) Maximum shear stress due to twisting moment, τ = x (8WD cos )
𝜋𝑑3
1
b) Maximum bending stress due to bending moment, σ = x (16WD sin )
𝜋𝑑3
Maximum shear stress in the plane of wire corresponding to a force (W)
1
τmax = x (8WD)
𝜋𝑑3
APPARATUS:
1. Spring testing machine.
2. An open coiled spring,
3. Scale
4. Graph paper
5. Steel rule

22
6. Vernier caliper
7. DIAGRAM:

OPEN COIL HELICAL SPRING SPRING TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the mean diameter (d) of the wire of the spring, mean diameter of the spring
(D) with a vernier caliper by taking readings at three different places along the length
of the specimen. Also note down the number of coils (n) and height of the spring (h).
2. Place the spring on hooks fixed to the upper and middle cross heads of the spring
testing machine. Tighten the nuts on the top hook so that the spring is properly held
in position.
3. Close the release valve of the loading unit. Apply loading by hand operation at
constant rate till the load is reached about 100 kg and then release the load to zero
by opening the release valve. Continue this process for three times to ensure that the
spring behaves elastically.
4. Set the load pointer and deformation pointer either to zero or to a convenient value.
5. Close the release valve and apply load on the specimen without any jerk manually. At
regular increments of applied load, observe the total elongation of the spring.
Continue the measurement till 5 to 6 observations are made and then release the load
to zero.
6. Plot the load- deflection graph from the calculated values and determine, the ratio
W/𝛅 by determining the slope of the initial straight portion of the curve.
7. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.

23
 OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Least count of loading unit

3 Number of active coils in the spring,n

4 Height of spring, h (mm)

Diameter of the spring wire (d)

Mean
Diameter d =
SL diameter of
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC)
NO the spring
(mm)
wire (d) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

Outer diameter of the spring (OD)

Mean Outer
Diameter OD = diameter of
SL the spring
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC)
NO (OD)
(mm)

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

24
Load – deflection observation table

SL Load Wi Load W Scale reading (mm) Spring deformation

NO (kg) (N)
Initial Final 𝛅= (Final – Initial ) (mm)

(INSERT GRAPH)
SAMPLE CALCULATION

Serial number of the observation –

Applied load W = WI x 9.81=

Spring deformation, 𝛅 = (Final scale reading – Initial scale reading)

CALCULATIONS

Mean diameter of the spring, D = OD – d =

ℎ
Pitch of the coil, s = =
𝑛

𝑠
Angle of helix, (degree) = tan-1[ ] =
𝜋𝐷

𝐷
Spring index = =
𝑑

𝑊
Stiffness of spring (from graph), k = =
𝛿

25
Modulus of elasticity of the material of the spring, E= 200000 MPa (Assumed)
Modulus of rigidity, G can be calculated from the equation for deflection
1 1 1
𝛅=[ x (8WD3n sec )] x [( x cos2 ) + ( x 2 sin2 )]
𝑑4 𝐺 𝐸

1 𝑑4 1
( x cos2 ) = [ 𝑊 ] - ( x 2 sin2 )]
𝐺 8𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 𝐷3 𝛿 𝐸

Corresponding to a force of …………………..N

1
a) Maximum shear stress due to twisting moment, τ = x (8WD cos )
𝜋𝑑3

1
b) Maximum bending stress due to bending moment, σ = x (16WD sin )
𝜋𝑑3

1
c) Maximum shear stress in the plane of wire, τmax = x (8WD)
𝜋𝑑3

RESULTS

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO
1 Spring index

2 Stiffness of spring, k
3 Modulus of rigidity, G
4 Corresponding to a force of …………………..N

a) Maximum shear stress due to twisting moment, τ

b) Maximum bending stress due to bending
moment, σ
c) Maximum shear stress in the plane of wire, τmax
INFERENCE

26
Experiment no: Date:

5. SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

AIM

To determine the shear strength of the material of the test specimen.

PRINCIPLE

A type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of the body to slide
relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is called the shear
force. With such a shear force, the plane of contact will be subjected to a state of pure
shear stress. The stress required to produce a fracture in the plane of cross-section is
called shear strength. The method of determing the strength consists of subjecting a
suitable length of specimen in full cross section to double shear using a suitable test rig.
If "A" is the cross sectional area of the specimen and Fu is the maximum shear force
applied on the double shear test specimen, then,

𝐹𝑢
Shear strength, τmax =
2𝐴

APPARATUS:

1. Compression testing machine or universal testing machine

2. Specimen
3. Shearing attachment
4. Vernier caliper
5. Weighing balance

DIAGRAM:

DOUBLE SHEAR TEST SET UP

27
PROCEDURE

1. Measure the mean diameter (d) of the specimen with a vernier caliper by taking
readings at three different places along the length of the specimen and calculate the
mean area of cross section (A).
2. Calculate the approximate maximum load on the specimen by assuming shear
strength of 400 MPa and accordingly set the loading range of the machine.
3. Note down the mass of the plunger (Pm) of the test rig.
4. Select appropriate shear shackles based on the specimen diameter and insert them
in to their appropriate slots, one on the plunger and two on the supporting frame.
5. Insert the plunger into its slot and simultaneously insert the test specimen through
the shackles.
6. Place the entire assembly on the platform of the compression testing machine or
universal testing machine and bring the top plate in contact with the top of plunger.
7. Close the return valve of the loading unit. Switch on the machine and apply load on
the specimen without any jerk by gradually opening the control valve. Set the loading
rate in such a way that the specimen deforms at about 10 mm per minute.
8. Continue the loading till the specimen fails and note down the failure load (Pu).
9. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Mean diameter of rod (d)

Mean
Diameter =
SL
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR MSR+(VSR x LC) diameter
NO
(mm) (d) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

28
Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Range of loading unit

3 Least count of loading unit

4 Least count of weighing balance

5 Mass of plunger, Pm

6 Failure load, Pu

CALCULATIONS

𝜋×𝑑²
Mean area of cross section of the rod, A = =
4

Approximate ultimate load on the specimen = 400 A =

Total maximum shear force on the specimen Fu = 1000 Pu + 9.81 Pm =

𝐹𝑢
Shear strength, τmax = =
2𝐴

RESULTS

The shear strength of the material of the test specimen=

INFERENCE

29
Experiment no: Date:

6. HARDNESS TEST
(a) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM

To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness test.

PRINCIPLE

Indentation hardness is the number related to the area or to the depth of the impression
made by an indenter of fixed geometry under a known static load. The method of
determination of indention hardness number is non-destructive and hence this is widely
used for quality control of products made of ductile materials. The principle used in
finding the brinell hardness number (HB) is based on the resistance of the material to
permanent indentation. If the surface of the material is indented with a hardened ball,
with a force, then the brinell hardness number is defined as the ratio of the applied force
to the spherical area of the indentation. Even though the unit of this value is the same as
that of stress, the value alone is expressed as a whole number.
The brinell hardness number varies with the applied load, F and the ball diameter, D.
Hence Indian Standards Institution has standardized a factor F/D2 and it is essential to
specify the value of F/D2 selected along with HB. For a correct assessment of brinell
hardness number, the ratio of the diameter of the indentation (d) to the diameter of the
ball (D) must lie between 0.30 and 0.50 and in no case, it should be more than 0.60.
Further, the nature of plastic flow under load on thin specimen is appreciably different
from that of thick specimen. Hence the thickness of test specimen must be at least 10
times the depth of the indentation and never be less than 8 times the depth of the
indentation.
If F is the applied load in kg, D is the ball diameter in mm and d is the diameter of

indentation in mm, then the brinell hardness number is given by

2𝐹
HB =
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷²−𝑑 2 )

30
Relation between Brinell hardness and Rockwell hardness (with 1.5875 mm dia. steel

ball and a total load of 100Kg for scale B) is given by 1/HB= (130-HRn)/7300

In the case of steel, Relation between Brinell hardness and tensile strength of steel is

given by Tensile strength of the steel in kg/cm2 = 35 HB

Following table gives the specification for the brinell hardness test.
Material HB Specimen F/D2 Ball Load F Duration of Typical
(kN/mm ) thickness
2 diameter (kg) load test
(mm) (D) mm application material
(s)

>6 10

450 to 6 to 3 30 5 750 10 Case

140 hardened
Ferrous <3 2.5 187.5 steel
metals
>6 10 3000

Less than 6 to 3 30 5 750 30 Steel, cast

140 iron
<3 2.5 187.5

>6 10 1000

Non 130 to 35 6 to 3 10 5 250 30 Copper,

Ferrous Brass,
metals <3 2.5 62.5 Aluminiu
m

>6 10 250

35 to 8 6 to 3 2.5 5 62.5 60 Lead, Tin

and their
<3 2.5 15.625 alloys

APPARATUS:

1. Brinell hardness testing machine,

2. Aluminium, steel, brass specimens
3. Ball indenter
4. Optical microscope(Brinell microscope)

31
DIAGRAM:

BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Ensure that the surface of the test specimen is clean by oil, grease, dust etc.
2. Assess the type of material and depending on the thickness of the specimen, select
appropriate diameter of the indenter. Insert the indenter to the ball holder of
machine.
3. Based on the diameter of indenter selected and type of material, select the load to be
applied the specimen. Place the corresponding counter weights on the suspended
rod.
4. Keep the hand lever at the "load position" (marked B) and start the machine.
5. Turn the hand lever to the "unload position"(marked A). The suspended load along
with the weights will be lifted up and wait till the weight hanger reaches its top
position.
6. Place the test specimen on the testing table. Turn the hand wheel till the surface of
the test specimen touches the ball indenter. Ensure that the distance between the
centre of indentation and edge of the specimen is not less than 2.5 times the
diameter of the diameter of the indentation and the distance between centres of two
indentations is not less than 4 times the diameter of the indentation.
7. Continue turning the hand wheel till the small pointer reaches the red dot. This
corresponds to a minor load of 10 kg applied on the specimen. Check whether the
long pointer is at zero and if required, adjust the outer ring of the dial to bring the
zero to the long pointer.
8. Turn the hand lever to the "load position"(marked B). Once the long pointer of the
dial reaches a steady position, Start a stopwatch and wait till the specified time
period is reached. At the end point of time period, turn the hand lever to the "unload

32
 position"(marked A). The long pointer will turn back and will come to a rest. The
corresponding value on the dial indicates the brinell hardness number (HB) (this
corresponds to the depth of indentation) and note down the value.
9. Turn back the hand test wheel. Identify the indentation with a chalk mark and
remove the specimen from the test platform.
10. Turn the hand lever to the "load position"(marked B) and switch off the machine.
11. Measure the diameter of impression on two perpendicular axis with the brinell
microscope. Calculate the brinell hardness number using the formula. The hardness
must be provided along with the details of the diameter of the ball used, applied load
and time duration. For example HB 5/750/15 =50 denotes that, the test was
conducted using a steel indenter of 5mm diameter under a test load of 750 kg
applied for a duration of 15 seconds, the brinell hardness number was 50.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of indicator dial guage

2 Least count of Brinell microscope

3 Equivalent mass of each loose weights 250kg

Equivalent mass of weight hanger 250kg

Duration of
Diameter of
SL Material of the load
indenter (D) F/D2 Test load F (kg)
NO specimen application
(mm)
(s)

33
 SL Material HB Diameter of HB
NO of the indentation(mm)
(from dial) (by calculation)
specimen
d1 d2 Mean

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Serial number of the observation –
𝑑₁+𝑑₂
Mean diameter of indentation, d = =
2
CALCULATIONS
Steel
2𝐹
HB………../…………/……….. = =
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷²−𝑑2 )

Brass
2𝐹
HB………../…….……/……….. = =
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷²−𝑑2 )

Aluminium
2𝐹
HB………../……..……/…….….. = =
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷²−𝑑2 )

STEEL
Rockwell hardness number, RHB= (130 HB-7300)/HB=

Tensile strength of the steel = 35 HB kg/cm2 = 3.5 HB MPa

RESULTS

SL
PARTICULARS VALUE
NO
1 HB of steel
2 HB of brass
3 HB of aluminium
4 Tensile strength of the steel
INFERENCE

34
 (b) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM

To determine the hardness of the given Specimen using Rockwell hardness test.

PRINCIPLE

Indentation hardness is a number related to the area or to the depth of the impression
made by an indenter of fixed geometry under a known static load. The method of
determination of indentation of products hardness made of ductile number materials is
non-destructive and hence this is widely used for quality control. The principle used in
finding the Rockwell hardness number (HR) is based on the concept that the depth of
penetration of an indenter is inversely proportional to the hardness. This method is used
for testing of hardness over a wide range of material harnesses. Depending on the types
of material, a ball type and cone type indenters are used. Depending on the type indenter
used and the load applied, there can be, in general, three scales for reading the Rockwell
hardness (Scale A, Scale B and Scale C).
For soft materials, a 1.5875 mm (1/16 inch) diameter steel ball indenter is to be used
and readings are to be observed from scale B. Accordingly, the hardness is represented
as HRB. Similarly, for hard materials, 120° diamond cone indenter and scale C is to be
used. The corresponding Rockwell hardness number is represented as RH c. For hardest
materials, same cone is used, but with scale A and the hardness value is represented as
HRA. However, depending on the scale to be selected, the load to be applied varies.
If h is the depth of indentation in units of 0.002 mm and K is an index the value of
which depends on the type of indenter used ( for diamond cone, K = 100 and for steel
ball K= 130) then the Rock well hardness is given by
HR = K-h/0.002
Following table gives the specification for the Rockwell hardness test (for B and C scales)

Rockwell Indenter Load (kg) Symbol Permissible Typical test

Hardness type scale range material
Number Minor Major Total

B Steel ball 10 90 100 HRB 25 to 100 Non-ferrous

metal, annealed
steel

C Diamond 10 140 150 HRc 20 to 67 Annealed case

cone hardened steel

35
APPARATUS:

1. Rockwell hardness testing machine

2. Specimen for testing
3. Black diamond cone indenter

DIAGRAM:

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE

1. Ensure that the surface of the test specimen is smooth and is free from oil and dirt.
2. Depending on the type of material, select the type of indenter and attach it to the slot of
the machine
3. Select appropriate load to be applied by turning the "load selector disc". Keep the
load lever at position A (unload position).
4. Check whether the long pointers at 50 in "C scale" when the small pointers at 10. If
not, by rotating the outer ring of the dial, bring the reading 50 of the C scale to the
position of the pointer.
5. Place the test specimen on the testing table. Turn the hand wheel till the surface of
the test specimen touches the indenter. Ensure that the distance between the centre
of indentation and edge of the specimen as well as that between the centres of
indentations is not less than 2.5 mm for diamond indenter and 4 mm for ball indenter.
6. Continue turning the hand wheel till the long pointer rotates 2 % times and stops at
"zero". Turn the hand wheel further till the small pointer reaches the red dot
(value 3). This corresponds to a minor load of l10 kg applied on the specimen.
7. Turn the load lever to the position B (load position). Once the long pointer of the dial
reaches a steady position, turn the load lever back to the position A. Turning the lever
back from B to A must be done slowly and without any jerk.
8. The long pointer will turn back and will come to a rest. The corresponding value on
the dial (B or C, as the case may be) indicates directly the Rockwell hardness number.

36
9. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen from the test platform.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 five times and report the average value, rounded off to the nearest
whole number as the Rockwell hardness number

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Range of B scale

2 Range of C scale

Material Rockwell hardness number

SL Hardness Total load
of the Mean HR
NO scale (kg)
specimen HR1 HR2 HR3

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Serial number of the observation –

1
Rockwell hardness number, HR = (HR1 + HR2+ HR3) =
3

RESULTS

HRc of Steel =

INFERENCE

37
Experiment no: Date:

7. CHARPY IMPACT TEST

AIM

To determine the impact strength of the material using Charpy test specimen.

PRINCIPLE

Impact test is conducted to determine the behaviour of materials when subjected to high
rate of loading (impact). It measures the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a
single blow or impact. In Charpy impact test, a notched specimen having standardized
dimensions is supported at both end as a simple beam and broken by a falling pendulum
on the face opposite to and immediately behind the notch. The energy absorbed, as
determined by the subsequent rise of pendulum, is a measure of the impact strength.
The test specimen must be machined all over and 55 mm long and of square cross
section with 10 mm sides. The notch is made at the centre of the specimen. There can be
three types of notches namely, V-notch (IS 1757-1988), U-notch (IS 1499-1977) and Key-
hole notch and the dimensions of the notch varies with the type. The V type notch should
have an internal angle of 45o ±2o and a depth of 2 ±0.11 mm.
If "A" is the area of cross section of the specimen under the notch and "K" is the average
energy absorbed by the test specimen, then
Notch impact strength, I =K/A (J/cm2)
APPARATUS:
1. Impact test machine
2. Test specimen of mild steel
3. Charpy setting gauge
4. Vernier caliper

DIAGRAM:

IMPACT TESTING MACHINE SPECIMEN SET UP

38
PROCEDURE

1. Fix the latching tube to the locating pins for the Charpy test (140° with respect to
the vertical). Lift the pendulum and keep it safely at a height with the help of special
hook suspended from the latching tube. Fix the Charpy striker to the hammer.
2. Inspect the specimen and the notch for any irregularity. Measure the dimensions of
the specimen and the depth of specimen at the notch.
3. Place the test specimen on the "Charpy Izod block" in such a way that the pendulum
will strike on the face opposite to the notch.
4. Align the centre of the notch with respect to the centre of supports by means of
Charpy setting gauge and firmly fitted to the bearing housing at the side of the
columns.
5. Bring down the hammer slowly and touch the striker to the test specimen. Adjust
the indicating pointer to a value of 300 J.
6. Adjust the pointer carrier in such a way that it just touches the indicating pointer.
7. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched to the latching tube
8. Release the latch by operating the handle and there by allow the pendulum to swing
freely and break the specimen.
9. After the rupture of the specimen, stop swinging of the pendulum by operating the
brake.
10. Read the energy absorbed by the specimen directly from the dial as indicated by the
pointer.
11. Remove the broken pieces of the test specimen and observe the fracture surface.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Range of Charpy Scale

2 Least count of Charpy Scale

3 Least count of vernier caliper

4 Type of cross section of specimen

5 Type of notch V-type

6 Initial energy stored in the hammer 300 J

7 Angle of drop 140o

8 Effective weight of pendulum 21.3 kg

9 Velocity of striking 5.308 m/s

10 Size of specimen – breadth x width x length (mm)

39
 SL MSR Value = MSR+(VSR x LC)
PARTICULARS VSR
NO (mm) (mm)

1 Width of the specimen at

notch , a

2 Depth of the specimen at

notch , d1

3 Depth of the specimen at

notch , d2

CALCULATIONS

1
Average depth of specimen at notch, d = (d1+ d2) =
2

1
Area of cross section below the notch, A = (a x d) =
100

Energy absorbed, K1 =

Error value of Charpy Scale =

Corrected energy absorbed, K = Energy absorbed – error value of Charpy Scale

𝐾
Notch Impact strength, I = =
𝐴

RESULTS

Energy absorbed by the Charpy test specimen =

Notch Impact strength of Charpy test specimen of square cross section with V notch =

INFERENCE

40
Experiment no: Date:

8. IZOD IMPACT TEST

AIM

To determine the impact strength of the material using Izod test specimen.

PRINCIPLE

Impact test is conducted to determine the behaviour of materials when subjected to high
rate of loading (impact). It measures the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a
single blow or impact. In Izod impact test, a notched specimen having standardized
dimensions is supported vertically on one end as a cantilever beam and broken by a
falling pendulum on the face and at the tip of the cantilever projection. The energy
absorbed, as determined by the subsequent rise of pendulum, is a measure of the impact
strength.
The test specimen must be machined all over and depending on the number of notches
made, the total length of specimen varies. The square cross section of the specimen is to
have 10 mm sides. The V type notch should have an internal angle of 45o ±2o and a depth
of 2 ±0.11 mm.
If "A" is the area of cross section of the specimen under the notch and "K" is the average
energy absorbed by the test specimen, then
Notch impact strength, I =K/A (J/cm2)
APPARATUS:
1. Impact test machine
2. Test specimen of mild steel
3. Izod setting gauge
4. Vernier caliper
DIAGRAM:

IMPACT TESTING MACHINE SPECIMEN SET UP

41
PROCEDURE

1. Fix the latching tube to the locating pins for the Izod test (90° with respect to the
vertical). Lift the pendulum and keep it safely at a height with the help of special
hook suspended from the latching tube. Fix the Izod striker to the hammer.
2. Inspect the specimen and the notch for any irregularity. Measure the dimensions
of the specimen and the depth of specimen at the notch.
3. Place the test specimen on the "Charpy Izod block" in such a way that the
pendulum will strike on the face of the notch.
4. Align the centre of the notch with respect to the centre of supports by means of
Izod setting gauge and clamp the specimen using clamping screw.
5. Bring down the hammer slowly and touch the striker to the test specimen. Adjust
the indicating pointer to a value of 170 J.
6. Adjust the pointer carrier in such a way that it just touches the indicating pointer.
7. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched to the latching tube
8. Release the latch by operating the handle and there by allow the pendulum to
swing freely and break the specimen.
9. After the rupture of the specimen, stop swinging of the pendulum by operating the
brake.
10. Read the energy absorbed by the specimen directly from the dial as indicated by
the pointer.
11. Remove the broken pieces of the test specimen and observe the fracture surface.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Range of Izod Scale

2 Least count of Izod Scale

3 Least count of vernier caliper

4 Type of cross section of specimen

5 Type of notch V-type

6 Initial energy stored in the hammer 170 J

7 Angle of drop 90o

8 Effective weight of pendulum 21.3 kg

9 Velocity of striking 3.994 m/s

10 Size of specimen – breadth x width x length (mm)

42
 SL MSR Value = MSR+(VSR x LC)
PARTICULARS VSR
NO (mm) (mm)

1 Width of the specimen at

notch , a

2 Depth of the specimen at

notch , d1

3 Depth of the specimen at

notch , d2

CALCULATIONS

1
Average depth of specimen at notch, d = x (d1+ d2) =
2

1
Area of cross section below the notch, A = x (a x d) =
100

Energy absorbed, K1 =

Error value of Izod Scale =

Corrected energy absorbed, K = Energy absorbed – error value of Izod Scale

𝐾
Notch Impact strength, I =
𝐴

RESULTS

Energy absorbed by the Izod test specimen =

Notch Impact strength of Izod test specimen of square cross section with V notch =

INFERENCE

43
 Experiment no: Date:

9. BENDING TEST ON TIMBER

AIM

To observe the behaviour of wood under bending and to calculate its modulus of elasticity
as well as the modulus of rupture and stiffness of wood.

PRINCIPLE

Wooden beams are widely used for various purposes. The factors that affect the strength
and behaviour of wooden beams include slope and closeness of grain, density, moisture
content various defects in timber (knot, rind galls, shakes, etc.), etc. So, a bending test in
a sample wooden specimen only will help in obtaining information required for the
design of timber beams such as modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture. When a
beam is under pure bending, the general equation for bending
𝑀 𝑓 𝐸
= = where
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
M = Bending moment, I = moment of inertia of the section, f = bending stress developed,
y = distance of any fibre measured from the neutral axis, E = modulus of elasticity, R = radius
of curvature of the beam
can be used to determine the bending stress developed across the depth of any section. In
laboratories, two-point loading system is generally adopted to achieve a pure bending
condition on a beam specimen. IS 1708 (I 969) specifies 50 mm x 50 mm x 750 mm size
standard beam specimen and standard third point loading for bending test on wood.
Consider a beam of span L subjected to a load of W applied at its mid-point.

Now, from the bending formula, we can write

1 1 1
Modulus of rupture, fr = Mr y /I where, Mr= Wr L; y = dm; I = (bm x dm3)
6 2 12

From the general expression for deflection, we can write

1 𝐿
Deflection at centre, 𝛅c = x W x a x (3L2 – 4 a2) where a =
48𝐸𝐼 3

44
APPARATUS:

1. Wood testing machine

2. Standard specimen of wood
3. Proving ring
4. Dial gauge
5. Graph paper
6. Steel rule
7. Vernier caliper

DIAGRAM:

WOOD TESTING MACHINE

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the mean depth (dm) and mean breadth (bm) of the specimen with a
vernier caliper by taking readings at three different places along the length of the
specimen.
2. Mark the mid-point and support points on the specimen.
3. Fix the proving ring to the top cross head of the wood testing machine and bring it
in the contact to the specimen through a roller placed at mid span.
4. Set the loading rate to about 2.5 mm per minute.
5. Place a dial gauge in such a way that the mid span deflection of the specimen be
measured. Set dial gauge reading to zero.
6. Switch on the machine and apply load on the specimen without any jerk.
7. At regular interval of proving ring dial reading, observe the deflection of the beam
at mid-point. Continue the measurement till 5 to 6 observations and remove the dial
gauge from the test set up.
8. Continue the loading till the first facture is observed on the bottom surface of the
specimen is within the constant moment zone. Note down the corresponding load
(Wr) and continue till the specimen fails completely.
9. Remove the specimen, observe the fracture pattern and sketch the position and
pattern of the facture.

45
 10. Plot the load – deflection graph from the calculated values and determine, the ratio
W/ 𝛅 by determining the slope of the initial straight portion of the curve.
11. Compare the results obtained with the standard values and write inference.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Least count of dial gauge

3 Least count of proving ring (proving ring

constant)

4 Rate of loading (mm/minute)

5 Span of beam L (mm)

Mean depth of specimen (dm)

Mean
SL Diameter = MSR+
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR depth
NO (VSR x LC) (mm)
(dm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

Mean breadth of specimen (bm)

Mean
SL Diameter = MSR+
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR breadth
NO (VSR x LC) (mm)
(bm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

46
Load – deflection observation table

SL Proving ring reading Deflection at mid span, 𝛅c (mm)

NO
Dial gauge Dial gauge 𝛅c (mm)
Load (N)
reading reading

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Serial number of the observation –
Load = (Dial gauge reading) x (proving ring constant)
=
Deflection at mid span, 𝛅c = (Dial gauge reading) x (Least count of dial gauge)
=
(INSERT GRAPH)
CALCULATIONS
Load corresponding to the first facture of the specimen (Wr) =
1
Moment of inertia, I = (bm x dm3) =
12
1
Moment corresponding to the fractured load Mr = x Wr L=
6

1
Distance of any fibre measured from the neutral axis, y = dm =
2
1
Modulus of rupture, fr = x (Mr y) =
𝐼

47
 𝑊
Stiffness of beam (slope of curve), =
𝛿
1 𝑊
Young’s modulus = x x a x (3L2 – 4 a2) =
48𝐼 𝛿

RESULTS

Modulus of rupture of wood =

Stiffness of the beam =

Young’s modulus of the material of the wood =

INFERENCE

48
 Experiment no: Date:

10. VERIFICATION OF CLERK MAXWELL’S THEOREM

AIM
To verify clerk- Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem and to determine the Young's modulus
of beam arterial of the apparatus.

PRINCIPLE
Maxwell theorem in its simplest form states that deflection at any point A of any elastic
structure due to a point load W at any other point B is the same as the deflection at B due
to the same load W applied at A. In the first case for simply supported beam, the supports
are placed at the ends and load is placed at quarter of length and dial gauge at centre and
deflection is measured. In the second case load is placed at centre of length and dial gauge
at quarter and deflection is measured.
The deflection at quarter point due to the load at the centre is given by

11𝑊𝐿ᶟ
𝛅= where 𝛅 is the deflection, W- the load, L- the span, I — the moment of
768𝐸𝐼
inertia of the section the beam and E- the Young’s modulus of the beam

APPARATUS:

1. Clerk-Maxwell's reciprocal' theorem apparatus

2. Tire weight
3. Hanger
4. Dial gauge
5. Scale
6. Vernier caliper

PROCEDURE
1. Place the beam correctly over the supports.
2. Mount the dial gauge on the pedestal, place it under the beam exactly at mid- span
and adjust it to read zero on the scale.
3. Hung the tire rod assembly exactly at quarter-span and notes the dial gauge reading.
4. Place the tire weights one by one, noting the dial gauge reading every time a weight
is placed.
5. Continue the observations while unloading the beam also.
6. Repeat the process after interchanging the positions of the dial gauge and the tire rod
assemble.
7. Record the observations in the tabular form.
8. Plot a graph with deflection on X- axis and load on Y- axis for both the case.

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of measuring instruments

SL NO PARTICULARS VALUE

1 Least count of vernier caliper

2 Least count of dial gauge

3 Span of beam L (mm)

Mean depth of specimen (dm)

Mean
SL Diameter = MSR+
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR depth
NO (VSR x LC) (mm)
(dm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

Mean breadth of specimen (bm)

Mean
SL Diameter = MSR+
PARTICULARS MSR (mm) VSR breadth
NO (VSR x LC) (mm)
(bm) mm

1 Trial 1

2 Trial 2

3 Trial 3

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 Load – deflection observation table

SL Load Load at central point Deflection Load at quarter point Deflection

NO applie of various of various
d points Beam points
Beam Beam Beam
(mm) unloaded (mm)
unloaded loaded Dial loaded Dial
2-3 Dial 5-6
Dial gauge gauge gauge
gauge
reading reading reading
reading
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Load at central point

Serial number of the observation –

Beam unloaded Dial gauge reading =

Beam loaded Dial gauge reading =
Deflection = Beam unloaded Dial gauge reading - Beam loaded Dial gauge reading
=
(INSERT GRAPH)

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CALCULATIONS
1
Moment of inertia, I = (bm x dm3) =
12
𝑊
(slope of curve) =
𝛿
11𝑊𝐿ᶟ
Young’s modulus = =
768𝛿𝐼
VERIFICATION
1. Compare the deflection under different loads in case (1) with those in case (2). They
will be found to be the same, thus verifying the theorem.
2. Superpose the plot of load Vs deflection or case (I) with that of case (2). They will
coincide, thereby, verifying the theorem again

RESULT

1. Verification of Clerk-Maxwell's reciprocal theorem was done.

2. Young's Modulus of the material of the beam=

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