CORE0202 NATURE, SCIENCE, HUMAN II

Spring 2021

Laws of thermodynamics,
Ideal gas law,
Kinetic Theory,
Thermal Statistics
Thermodynamics and Thermodynamic Systems
 Thermodynamics: the study of the effects of work, heat and energy on a system.

• A thermodynamic system is any collection of objects that may

exchange energy with its surroundings.
• The popcorn in the pot is a thermodynamic system.
• In the thermodynamic process shown here, heat is added to the
system, and the system does work on its surroundings to lift
the lid of the pot.
Thermodynamic Process

• In a thermodynamic process, changes occur

in the state of the system.
• Careful of signs!
• Q is positive when heat flows into a system.
• W is the work done by the system, so it is
positive for expansion.
Thermodynamic Processes

• Thermodynamic processes that ocur in nature are all irreversible processes.

• Irreversible processes proceed spontaneously in one direction but not the other.
• For example, a block of ice melts irreversibly when we place it in a hot metal box.
Thermodynamic Processes
• The direction of a reversible process can be reversed by an infinitesimal change in its conditions.
• The system must be always in or very close to thermal equilibrium so that it can be considered as
reversible.

• A block of ice at 0°C can be melted reversibly if we put

it in a 0°C metal box.
Important Quantities
Pressure (P): perpendicular force acting on a surface per unit area.
F
P
A
F  magnitude of normal force
A  area of the surface on contact

• Solids, liquids and gases exert a force on their surface due to their weight.

• A fluid exerts on a surface A of a wall a force of pressure (F) perpendicular to A, directed outwards
with a magnitude equal to PA.

Volume (V): amount of three dimensional space occupied by an object (or space enclosed by a closed surface).

• SI unit of volume: m3.

Important Quantities
Temperature (T): a physical quantity that expresses the degree of warmth or coldness of a substance.

• It is the manifestation of thermal energy present in all matter, which is the source of a flow of energy, the
generation of heat, when an object comes into contact with another object, either colder or hotter.

• The terms “temperature” and “heat” have very different meanings, even though most people use them
interchangeably.

• The temperature is measured with a thermometer which may be calibrated on various temperature scales,
such as
 the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade, denoted as °C),
 the Fahrenheit scale (denoted as °F),
 the Kelvin scale (denoted as K).

• The Kelvin scale is predominantly used for scientific purposes.

• The lowest theoretical temperature is absolute zero, at which no more thermal energy can be drawn from a
body. Experimentally, what is recognized in the third law of thermodynamics can only be approached very
closely (100 pK), but not reached.
Important Quantities
Entropy (S): A thermodynamic function of the state of a system.

• Entropy provides a quantitative measure of disorder.

• Many processes proceed naturally in the direction of increasing
randomness.
• Adding heat to a body increases average molecular speeds;
therefore, molecular motion becomes more random.
• The explosion of the firecracker shown increases its disorder and
entropy.
Important Quantities
Entropy (S)

The infinitesimal entropy change S during an infinitesimal reversible process at absolute temperature T is
given as:
2
dQ
S  
1
T
S  total entropy change in a reversible process
dQ  infinitesimal heat flow into the system
T  absolute temperature

• This thermodynamic definition is due to Clausius: Entropy is generated (or removed) from heating (or
cooling) a system.
Important Quantities
Internal Energy: the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all of the particles of a substance.

 A substance is composed of particles which are atoms or molecules.

 At the microscopic level, each of the particles of a substance has a kinetic energy determined by the temperature.
 The kinetic energy of a particle is distributed among its translational, rotational and vibrational motion.
 At the same time, the electromagnetic force between the atoms forming the molecules, and between the molecules
results in molecular potential energy (electric potential energy).
 Internal energy increases when heat is added to a system.

EXAMPLE: A glass of water on a table at room temperature has no

apparent kinetic or potential energy. But, at the microscopic level, the
molecules of water (H2O) move at an average speed of 635 m/s.
 If you move the glass of water, its internal energy does not change.

Figure is adapted from Hyperphysics (http://hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/inteng.html).
Important Quantities
Heat: Thermal energy that is transferred from one object to another due to a temperature difference.

• We cannot talk about the heat contained in a hot cup of tea.

• However, we can talk about the heat transferred from the
hot cup to our hand.
• The calorie (abbreviated cal)
is the amount of heat
required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of
water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C.

© 2016 Pearson Education Inc.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

TA  TC  T 
  TA  TC
TB  TC  T 

© 2016 Pearson Education Inc.

• The Zeroth Law defines a property (temperature) of a system that conveys information about its thermal
equilibrium.
• The Zeroth Law establishes equality of temperatures and permits the use of any single valued function as an
empirical temperature scale.
• In order to establish a metric scale for temperature, one that allows meaningful ratios of temperature, the Second
Law of thermodynamics is used to define an absolute temperature, T.
Some Applications of Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

1. A cup of hot tea cools eventually. Tea loses its thermal energy, and eventually,
it comes in thermal equilibrium with its surrounding. In thermal equilibrium its
temperature will be equal to that of its surrounding, as suggested by the zeroth
law of thermodynamics.

2. The volume of the liquid in the thermometer to the right, which works on the
zeroth law of thermodynamics, changes with temperature.

3. The temperature of a cold glass of water will eventually be equal to that of its
surrounding environment.

4. Fruits and vegetables kept inside the refrigerator will eventually attain the
fridge’s temperature.
Work done during volume changes

• We can understand the work done by a gas in a volume

change by considering a molecule in the gas.
• When one such molecule collides with a surface moving
to the right, so the volume of the gas increases, the
molecule does positive work on the piston.

• If the piston moves toward the left as in the figure shown

here, so the volume of the gas decreases; positive work is
done on the molecule during the collision.
• Hence the gas molecules do negative work on the
piston.
Work done during volume changes

• The infinitesimal work done by the system during the

small expansion dx is dW = pA dx.

• In a finite change of volume from V1 to V2:

Work on a pV-diagram
• The work done equals the area under the curve on a pV-diagram.
• Work is positive for a system undergoing an expansion with varying pressure.
• Work is negative for a system undergoing a compression with varying pressure.

• Through which path (from 1 to 2) does the

system do the smalles amount of work?
First law of thermodynamics
• The change in the internal energy U of a system is equal to the heat added minus the work done
by the system:

• The first law of thermodynamics is just a generalization of the conservation of energy (energy is neither
created nor destroyed, the total energy is conserved in time).

• Both Q and W depend on the path chosen between states, but U is independent of the path.
• If the changes are infinitesimal, we write the first law as dU = dQ – dW.
First law of thermodynamics

In a thermodynamic process,
• the internal energy U of a system may increase.

• the internal energy U of a system may decrease.

• the internal energy U of a system may remain the same.

First law of exercise thermodynamics

• Your body is a thermodynamic system.

• When you do a push-up, your body does work, so W > 0.
• Your body also warms up during exercise; by perspiration and
other means the body rids itself of this heat, so Q < 0.
• Since Q is negative and W is positive, U = Q − W < 0 and the
body’s internal energy decreases.
• That’s why exercise helps you lose weight: It uses up some of
the internal energy stored in your body in the form of fat.
Four kinds of thermodynamic processes
• There are four specific kinds of thermodynamic processes that occur often in practical situations:
 Adiabatic: No heat is transferred into or out of the system, so Q = 0. Also, U2 – U1 = –W.
 Isochoric: The volume remains constant, so W = 0.
 Isobaric: The pressure remains constant, so W = p(V2 – V1).
 Isothermal: The temperature remains constant.

• The paths on a pV-diagram for all four different

processes for a constant amount of an ideal gas,
all starting at state a.
Heat
• The quantitative relationship between the heat added to (or subtracted from) a system and the resulting
temperature increase is given by

Q  mcT
m  mass of the substance
c  specific heat  a property of the substance and its phase 

Specific heat: Amount of heat that must be added to a unit of mass of a given substance to raise its
temperature by one degree Celsius.

Depending on the thermodynamic process the specific heat may take different values:

• cV  specific heat at constant volume,

• cP  specific heat at constant pressure.

Second law of thermoynamics
• The second law imposes constraints as to what can and what cannot happen in a thermodynamic process.

• In general, irreversible processes are a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics.

There are many statements of the second law involving

• Heat engines,
• Refrigerators,
• Entropy.

We shall take a look at heat engines and refrigerators and their thermodynamic cycles.
Heat Engines
• A heat engine is any device that partly transforms heat into work or mechanical energy.
• All motorized vehicles other than purely electric vehicles use heat engines for propulsion.
• Hybrid vehicles use their internal-combustion engine to help charge the batteries for the
electric motor.

 Simple heat engines operate on a cyclic process during which they absorb heat
QH from a hot reservoir and discard some heat QC to a cold reservoir.

• The thermal efficiency; e: of a heat engine is the

fraction of QH that is converted to work.

• e is what you get divided by what you pay for, and e < 1. Schematic energy-
flow diagram for a
heat engine.
Heat Engines – pV diagrams

Otto cycle: an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes Diesel cycle: an idealized thermodynamic cycle that
the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine. describes the functioning of a diesel engine.
Refrigerators
• A refrigerator takes heat from a cold place (inside the
refrigerator) and gives it off to a warmer place (the room). An
input of mechanical work is required to do this.
• A refrigerator is essentially a heat engine operating in reverse.
• Shown is an energy-flow diagram of a refrigerator.

• The best refrigeration cycle is one that removes the

greatest amount of heat from the inside of the
refrigerator for the least expenditure of mechanical
work.
• The relevant ratio is therefore |QC|/|W|; the larger this
ratio, the better the refrigerator.
• We call this ratio the coefficient of performance, K:
Entropy in a cyclic process
• The total entropy change in one cycle of any Carnot engine is zero.
• This result can be generalized to show that the total entropy change during any reversible cyclic
process is zero.

TC
Carnot cycle (engine): a reversible thermodynamic cycle (an engine operating between two heat reservoirs). e  1
TH
Second law of thermoynamics
• The “engine” statement of the second law:
It is impossible for any system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat
from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts the heat completely into
mechanical work, with the system ending in the same state in which it began.

• The “refrigerator” statement of the second law:

It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat
from a cooler to a hotter body.

• The entropy statement of the second law:

In any thermodynamic process, in which an isolated system goes from one
macrostate to another, the total entropy tends to increase, i.e.,
S  0
isolated system: no exchange of energy or matter
Second law of thermoynamics
• The entropy statement of the second law:
In any thermodynamic process, in which an isolated system goes from one
macrostate to another, the total entropy tends to increase, i.e.,

S  0
S  0  reversible process   truly revesible processes do not occur in nature
S  0  irreversible process 

REMARKS

• The universe as a whole is steadily moving toward a state of complete randomness.

• The universe must suffer a heat death, as its entropy increases toward a maximum value and all parts come
into thermal equilibrium.

• After that point, no it would not be possible to convert heat into useful work any more.
Microscopic interpretation of entropy
• For a system of particles, the entropy is a measure of the number of ways the energy can be
distributed to all the particles.

• Each possible distribution of energy is called a microstate of the system. Therefore, the entropy is a
measure of the number of possible microstates, W, for a given macrostate.

• The entropy, S, of a macroscopic state can be shown to be given by: S  k B ln W

kB   Boltzmann constant 
EXAMPLE: Suppose you have a system of 3 particles and the total energy
of the system is 3 quanta of energy.

• Will each particle have one quantum of energy? Not necessarily!

Some of the microstates of the system
• The number of possible combinations can be calculated from the equation: corresponding to 3 quanta of energy:

W  N, q 
 q  N  1 ! 5!
  10  S  k B ln10
q ! N  1 ! 3!2!
N  3  # of molecules
q  3  quanta of energy
Implications of the second law of thermoynamics

• If a workless refrigerator were possible, it could be • If a 100%-efficient engine were possible, it could
used in conjunction with an ordinary heat engine to be used in conjunction with an ordinary
form a 100%-efficient engine, converting heat QH − refrigerator to form a workless refrigerator,
|QC| completely to work. transferring heat QC from the cold to the hot
reservoir with no input of work.
 No process is possible whose sole result is the
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the  No process is possible whose sole result is the
conversion of this heat into work. [Kelvin- transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body.
Planck statement of the second law] [Clausius statement of the second law]
Third law of thermoynamics
For a pure substance in in its crystalline state, as the temperature goes to 0 K, the entropy goes to zero.

Absolute zero  0 K  273.15 C

• This means, for such a system, there is only one microstate at absolute zero temperature.

S  k B ln W  k B ln1  0

• This law implies the impossibility of attaining absolute zero temperature, since as a system
approaches absolute zero, the further extraction of energy from that system becomes more and
more difficult.

• Scientists achived a temperature of 38 Pikokelvin (38×10-12 K) in laboratory at the University of

Bremen in 2021, however, absolute zero itself can never be reached.
The ideal gas law
Definition of an ideal gas: A system in which
• all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic,
• there are no intermolecular forces.

• Quantities such as pressure, volume, temperature, and the amount of a

substance are state variables because they describe the state of an ideal
gas.
• The ideal-gas equation is an equation of state that relates these state
variables:

R  8.314 J/mol  K  same for all gases  Sabit bir miktar ideal gaz için
izotermler veya sabit sıcaklık
eğrileri.
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
• The kinetic theory is a simplified molecular or particle description of gases that can be used to understand
the properties of gases.
• It leads to the ideal gas law which is a macroscopic relationship.
• It can also be used to derive many macroscopic properties of the gas, such as viscosity, thermal and
electrical conductivity, diffusion, heat capacity, and mobility.
• The theory was the first good example of a physical situation where statistical methods give precise and
dependable results for macroscopic manifestations of microscopic phenomena.

The assumptions of the kinetic-molecular model are:

1. A container contains a very large number of identical molecules.
2. The molecules behave like point particles that are small compared to the
size of the container and the average distance between molecules.
3. The molecules are in constant random motion and undergo perfectly elastic
collisions.
4. The container walls are perfectly rigid and do not move.
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas

• Consider a gas of N molecules in a rectangular box of length L whose

ends have area A.
• The pressure on the walls of the container is due to the forces applied by
the molecules during collisions.
• In a typical collision, the velocity component parallel to the wall is
unchanged, and the component perpendicular to the wall reverses
direction but does not change in magnitude.
• In general, molecules have a distribution of speeds. However, we will
assume all molecules have the same speed for our calculation.
• Let us consider a single molecule with mass m moving with velovity

   xiˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas

• Velocity befor the collosion: 1   x iˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ

• Velocity after the collision: 2   x iˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ

• Change in the momentum of p  p2  p1  2m xiˆ

the molecule:

• This same molecule will make many collisions 2L

t 
with the wall, each separated by a time t : x
• The average force –averaged over many collisions- will be equal to the force exerted
during one collision divided by the time between collisions (Newton’s second law):
p 2m x m x2
F    due to one molecule 
t 2 L /  x L

F
L

m 2
 x1   x22    xN
2
,  due to N molecules 
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
• Now, the average value of the square of  x21   x22    xN
2

the x-component of the velocity is  x2  .

N

m
• Therefore, we can write the net force as F N  x2 .
l

• Now:  2   x2   y2   z2   2   x2   y2   z2 .

• Since the velocities of the molecules are assumed to be

random, there is no preference to one direction or another:
m 2
 x2   y2   z2 ,   2  3  x2 F N .
l 3

F 1 1 Nm  2
compare with the ideal gas law
• Then the pressure on the Wall is P  Nm  2  . 
A 3 Al 3 V  PV  nRT  Nk BT
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
• Rearrange the result: 𝑃=
1 𝑁𝑚 𝑣 2 1 1 2
→ 𝑃𝑉 = 3 𝑁 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 3 𝑁 𝐾
3 𝑉
𝐾  Average translational kinetic energy of molecules

• Compare with the ideal gas law:

1 1 2
2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑁 𝐾 = 𝑁𝑘𝐵 𝑇
3 2 3
3
𝐾 == 𝑁𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
2
𝑇= 𝐾
3𝑘𝐵

“The average translational kinetic energy of molecules in an ideal gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature”.

 Microscopic properties have been used to find a relation between macroscopic thermodynamic variables!
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
EXAMPLE: What is the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in an ideal gas at T = 20 oC?

SOLUTION: T  20  273  293 K

3
2
3
 
K  k BT  1.3811023 J/K  293 K   6.07 1021 J.
2

EXAMPLE: What is the average speed of an oxygen molecule at T = 20 oC?

mO2  32 amu  5.311026 kg, 1 amu  1.66 1027 kg
T  20  273  293 K
1 2 K  2   6.07 1021 J 
K  mO2  2   2  
2 mO2 5.311026 kg

rms   2  478 m/s.

mN2  28 amu  What about nitrogen molecule?
Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas
The kinetic molecular model yields the average speed of partcles or molecules. However, in a gas system
such as air at a given temperature T, the molecules do not move with the same speed. Some of the molecules
move very fast, some move at moderate speeds and some even hardly move. So, in a gas at temperature T, a
molecule can have any one of a huge number of possible speeds.

Using statistical mechanics, the probability of finding a molecule in a state with energy Er can be shown to be given by

e  Er / kBT
Pr   probability of finding a molecule in one particular state of energy Er
 e Er / kBT
r

This result can be used to derive the probability that a molecule has speed :

n  
3/2 m 2
4  m  
P       e
2
  the probability that a molecule has speed 
2 k BT

  2 k BT  N
N  the total number of molecules
n    the number of molecules with speed 
The distribution of speeds of oxygen molecules in air

0,010

T = 293 K 2 k BT
0,008
T = 600 K p   most probable speed 
m
3k BT
0,006
rms  2   root-mean-square speed 
m
P  
P (v)

0,004

0,002

0,000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
p rms   m/s 
v (m/s)
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics
I. Probability and Distribution Functions
Consider the results of n different trials, N1, N2, N3…Nn.

Ni: Let i show how many times the result came at the end of these similar trials ,
𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 + ⋯ 𝑁𝑛 = 𝑁

The probability of finding the result i in these trials; 𝑝 𝑖 is defined as

𝑁𝑖
𝑝 𝑖 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑁

Here, 0 ≤ 𝑝(𝑖) ≤ 1

Summation over all probabilities must be equal to unity:

𝑁𝑖
෍ 𝑝 𝑖 = ෍( )𝑛→∞ = 1
𝑁

Example:
Let's flip a coin N=10 times and get N1=3 (tails), N2=7 (heads) N1+N2=N
3
Thus, 𝑝 1 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 10
As this repetition count goes to infinity, that is, if we repeat the process of tossing a coin 10 times many times (ie n,
we will have p(1)=p(2)=1/2. So the probability of getting heads or tails will be the same.
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics

Binomial Distribution
Consider an experiment with two outcomes, for example the probability
of a coin getting heads is 𝑝(heads)=𝑝
and tails is 𝑞(tails)=1−𝑝=𝑞

For N trails, the probability of getting n times p and N-n times q, is given
by the Binomal Distribution
𝑁!
𝑝𝑁 𝑛, 𝑁 − 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑞 𝑁−𝑛
𝑛! 𝑁−𝑛 !

The expected value of any n value; 〈𝑛〉is given by the expression:

𝑛 = σ𝑁 𝑛=0 𝑛𝑝𝑁 (𝑛)
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics

Gaussian Distribution
For very large values of N and m << N, the Gaussian distribution (probability of finding m), is given by the Gaussian
Distribution fonction:
1ൗ −(𝑚−<𝑚>)2
2 2
2
2𝜎𝑚
𝑝𝑁 𝑚 = 2 𝑒
𝜋𝜎𝑚

2 =< (𝑚 −< 𝑚 >)2 >, is the square of the standard deviation of m , < 𝑚 > is the expected value of m.
Here, 𝜎𝑚

When m takes continuous values, the Gaussian distribution is defined as.

− 𝑥−<𝑥> 2
1 2
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑚 2𝜋
The expected value of any x value; < 𝑥 > is given by the relation:
+∞
< 𝑥 >= න 𝑥𝑝(𝑥)
−∞
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics

Macro and microstates, statistical weight

The macro state of a system is described by determining its TD variables. For example, if the volume,
number of moles and temperature (V, n, T) for a gas in a container are given, the macrostate of the
system is known. The ideal gas equation PV=nRT is an equation of state.
There are many microstates corresponding to a macrostate. For example, determining the position,
momentum and quantum numbers of each molecule in a system determines the microstate of the
system.
E.g; if we consider the case of n=2 up out of N=9 spins, two of the many possible microstates could be
like this.
 
 
 
Since these two microstates will have the same energy, they correspond to the same macrostate.
Entropy: If w is the statistical weight of a microstate, that is, if there are w microstates corresponding
to this macrostate, entropy S is 𝑆=𝑘𝑙𝑛(𝑤) is defined as. Here k is the Boltzmann constant.
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics

Statistical Ensembles

1. Mikrocanonical Ensemle (describes an isolated system)

A collection of systems with equal energies for each microstate is called a microcanonical ensemble. That is, the
internal energy of the system, U (average energy), is equal to each microstate energy. In summary, the community
of systems whose U, V, n values remain constant is called the microcanonical ensemble.
i. The number of the microtates W having the internal energy U is calculated.
ii. From the relation S=kBln(W), S is calculated.
𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑆
iii. With the relation = 𝑇 veya = , the temperature is found for the system.
𝜕𝑆 𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑈 𝑉
General Concepts of Statistical Mechanics

2. Canonical Ensemble (describes a system in contact with a heat bath)

It is very difficult to keep the energy of the system constant experimentally. Usually we keep the pressure
and temperature constant, not the energy. Also, it is not easy to calculate the number of microstates
corresponding to constant energy.
A community of identical systems whose temperature and volume are kept constant is called the
canonical ensemble.
For this ensemble, we define the partition function denoted by Z. The partition function is defined as

𝑍= ෍ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑖
(over all
microstates)

1
Here  = 𝑘𝑇 and 𝐸𝑖 ; is the energy of the microstate i. Once the partition function has been calculated, all
thermodynamic variables can be calculated using this expression.
𝜕
For example the internal energy is calculated using the relation: 𝑈 = − 𝜕𝛽 𝑙𝑛𝑍
 CORE0202 NATURE, SCIENCE, HUMAN II

Spring 2022

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Applications of Newton’s Laws
Conservation Laws of Nature
Archimedes' Principle and its Applications
Classical Mechanics
- a physical theory of the motion of bodies under the influence of forces or with the equilibrium of bodies
when all forces are balanced.

Three branches of classical mechanics:

• Kinematics – the study of motion without regard to the forces or energies
• Dynamics – the study of the relationship between motion and forces
• Statics – the study of forces in the absence of changes in motion or energy

 Mass, force, and motion are central concepts in classical mechanics.

 Forces change the state of motion of bodies to which they are applied. If a non-zero net force acts
on a body, the body accelerates.

 The interplay of these quantities is the principal subject of classical mechanics.

Classical Mechanics
• In physics, the motion is the change in position or orientation of a body. Motion of a body along a
straight line or a curved path is called translation.

• If, during the motion, the orientation changes, we say “the object undergoes rotational motion”.

• Motion of a body about an equilibrium position is called vibrational or oscillatory motion.

The mass is
 a numerical measure of its inertia (the tendency of a body to resist
changes in its state of motion)
 a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object.
 a scalar.
 denoted by the symbol m.
Kinematic equations for constant linear & angular acceleration
Straight-line motion with constant Rotational motion about a fixed axis with
acceleration constant angular acceleration

a  constant   constant

  0  at   0   t

1 1
x  x0  0t  at 2   0  0t   t 2
2 2
  0  2a  x  x0 
2 2
  0  2   0 
2 2

  0   0
 
2 2

 For simple rotations, the equations of motion are analogous to those for one-dimensional linear motion.

 These equations give a description of how a body moves if its acceleration is constant.

 It is straightforward to generalize these equations for motion with constant acceleration in 3 dimensions.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• The principles of dynamics were clearly stated for the first time by Sir Isaac Newton; today we call them
Newton’s laws of motion.
• Newton did not derive these laws, but rather deduced them from a multitude of experiments performed by
other scientists.

Some properties of a force:

 A force is a push (repulsive force) or a pull (attractive force).

 A force is an interaction between two objects or between an

object and its environment.

 A force is a vector quantity, with magnitude and direction.

 Forces are defined through Newton’s laws of motion.

 The SI unit for force is the newton (N): 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2

Four common types of forces
1. Normal Force (a contact force) 2. Friction (a contact force)

3. Tension (a contact force) 4. Weight (a long-range force)

Magnitudes of common forces
Weight of a large blue whale 𝟏. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐍
Maximum pulling force of a locomotive 𝟖. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍
Weight of a medium apple 𝟏𝐍
Electric attraction between the proton and the electron in a hydrogen atom 𝟖. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍
Gravitational attraction between the proton and the electron in a hydrogen atom 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟕 𝐍
Gravitational attraction between Earth and Moon 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝐍
Gravitational attraction between Earth and Sun 𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐍

Superposition of forces:
• Several forces acting at a point on an object have the same
effect as their vector sum acting at the same point.

• The vector sum of all the forces on an object is called the

resultant of the forces or the net force:
Newton’s first law of motion
“An isolated body moves with a constant velocity (in a straight line with constant speed).”

 The constant velocity can also be zero.

An isolated body is a body on which the net force is zero, i.e., the body does not interact with its surroundings.

• For a body to be isolated (to be in equilibrium), it must be acted on by no forces, or by several forces such that
their vector sum—that is, the net force—is zero:
Newton’s first law of motion
When is Newton’s first law valid?
• Suppose you are in a bus that is traveling on a straight road and speeding up.
• If you could stand in the aisle on roller skates, you would start moving backward relative to the bus as the bus gains speed.
• It looks as though Newton’s first law is not obeyed; there is no net force acting on you, yet your velocity changes.
• The bus is accelerating with respect to the earth (a non-inertial frame of reference) and is not a suitable frame of
reference for Newton’s first law.
• A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is valid is called an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference.
Newton’s second law of motion
“The acceleration of a constant point-like mass is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.”

More general form of the second law: dp

F , p  linear momentum
dt

• The general form can be applied to a system in which mass flows/changes or to a system of particles.
Systems of units
• We will use the SI system.
• In the British system, force is measured in pounds, distance in feet, and mass in
slugs.
• In the cgs system, mass is in grams, distance in centimeters, and force in dynes.

Weight
1 slug = 14.5939029372 kg
• The weight of an object (on the earth) is the gravitational force that the earth
exerts on it. It is a vector. 1 pound force = 4.44822162 newton

• The weight w of an object of mass m is: 1 pound (mass) = 0.45359237 kilogram

1 dyne  105 N

• The value of g depends on altitude.

• On other planets, g will have an entirely different value than
on the earth.
Newton’s third law of motion
“Forces always come in equal and opposite pairs. (When an object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an equal force in the opposite direction on the first.)”

• The third law makes it explicit that the real forces always arise as a result of interaction.
Newton’s laws of motion
• Newton’s laws concentrate on force and mass.
• However, three other quantities (energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum) acquire special importance
because their total amount never changes.
• Any of these quantities can be transferred from one body (or system of bodies) to another.

While there is only a single form of momentum, energy of a system may appear in many different forms such as
 kinetic energy (the energy of motion),
 potential energy (the energy associated with the position of an object relative to other objects ),
 thermal energy (the kinetic energy of random motion (including rotations and vibrations) of the particles (atoms
and molecules) of matter),
 internal energy (the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all of the particles of a substance).

The total energy, total linear momentum, and total angular momentum of the universe are conserved. These
conservation laws can be derived from Newton’s laws.
Impulse
t2 t2 t 2
Integrating both sides of Newton’s Second Law with dp
respect to time, we can obtain another relationship between t Fnet dt  t dt dt  t dp  p  t2   p  t1   p
1 1 1
the force and momentum.
Impulse

The integral of the net force over the time interval during which it acts is called the impulse, J :
t2

J  p  p  t2   p  t1    Fnet dt  impulse 
t1

Units of impulse: the same as momentum

External force on a System

 The total internal force on a system is zero (Newton’s Third Law: internal forces cancel in pairs)

 Therefore, the total force acting on a system is the sum the external forces

F  F external
  F internal   F external  A system is said to be isolated when the net external force
=0 acting on the system is zero.
Applications of Newton’s Laws
Example 1. Consider a 10.0-kg box, on a frictionless surface, which is pulled at a 30 angle with the
horizontal.
Calculate,
a) the acceleration of the box, and

b) the magnitude of the upward force FN exerted by the table on

Applications of Newton’s Laws
Example 2. A box rests on a frozen pond, which serves as a frictionless horizontal surface. If

a fisherman applies a horizontal force with magnitude 50.0 N to the box and produces an

acceleration of magnitude 2.50 m/s2, what is the mass of the box?

Solution:

a  2.50 m/s 2
 F  50.0 N Example 3. A falling automobile, mass 950 kg, has an acceleration of magnitude 9.8 m/s2 when

 F  50.0  20.0 kg.

only the force of gravity acts on it. What is the magnitude of the upward acceleration of Earth?
m Take the mass of Earth to be 6.0  1024 kg.
a 2.50

Solution:
Conservation Laws
- a principle, in physics, that states that a certain physical property (i.e., a measurable quantity) does not
change over time within an isolated physical system.

• If you know how much of a conserved quantity you have at a given time, the exact same amount of the quantity
will be available at a later time.

• Conservation laws describe which processes can or cannot occur in nature. Therefore they are fundamental to
our understanding of the physical world.

In general, conservation laws can be classified into two groups:

1. Exact conservation laws

2. Approximate conservation laws

Exact Conservation Laws Approximate Conservation Laws
- laws that have never been proved to be - laws that are approximately true in particular situations,
violated. such as low speeds, short time scales, or certain
interactions.
Conservation of mass-energy
• Conservation of mechanical energy
Conservation of linear momentum • Conservation of mass

Conservation of angular momentum

• Conservation of baryon number
• Conservation of lepton number (In the
Conservation of CM (center of Standard Model)
momentum) velocity
• Conservation of flavor (violated by the
Conservation of electric charge weak interaction)

Conservation of color charge • Conservation of parity (violated by the

weak interaction)
Conservation of weak isospin • Invariance under charge conjugation
Conservation of probability • Invariance under time reversal
• CP symmetry, the combination of charge
conjugation and parity (equivalent to time
reversal if CPT holds)
Conservation of Momentum
Consider an isolated system, i.e., a system on which the net external force is zero. For such a system, we can write

dp
 Fext  dt
 p  constant  conserved 

or
t2

J   Fext dt  p  t2   p  t1   0  p  t2   p  t1  , or p  constant  conserved 

t1

Single particle

dp
Fnet  , p  linear momentum
dt

dp
If Fnet  0,  0,  p  constant
dt
Conservation of Momentum
System of Particles

N N
The total momentum of the system: P  p1  p2  p3   p
i 1
i   mii ,
i 1
vector sum

pi  mii  momentum of the i th

particle with mass mi 
N
Fext   Fi The total  external  force on the system
i 1

Fi  the force on the i th particle

dpi
Apply Newton’s Second Law to the the ith particle: Fi  ,  A finite (nonzero) net external force causes
dt
the momentum of the system to change.

N N
dpi d  N  dP dP
and to the system: Fext   Fi      pi   If Fext  0, 0  P  Constant
dt dt  i 1  dt dt
i 1 i 1

P
Work
- the energy transferred to or from an object via the application of force along a displacement.

• In its simplest form, it is often represented as the product of force and displacement.
• A force is said to do positive work if (when applied) it has a component in the direction of the displacement
of the point of application.
• A force does negative work if it has a component opposite to the direction of the displacement at the point
of application of the force.

EXAMPLE: If you lift a 1 kg mas by 1 m, you do +1 Nm of work, and the gravitational force does -1 Nm of work.

General definition of work done by a force:

2
W   F  dr
1
Kinetic Energy
- the energy associated with the motion of an object.

1
The kinetic energy of a mass m moving at speed  is given by Ekin  m 2
2

There are three subcategories of kinetic energy: vibrational, rotational, and translational kinetic energy.

Work - Kinetic Energy Theorem

“The work done by the net force on a particle equals the change in the particle’s kinetic energy.”

Wnet  K 2  K1  K
Potential Energy
- the energy associated with the position of an object relative to other objects.

• Potential energy is associated with conservative forces (gravitational force, electric force, elastic force) only.

 Conservative forces can give objects potential energy, i.e. if a conservative force does work on an object,
the work done by the conservative force is stored in the form of energy that can be released at a later time
(potential energy).
2

Definition of “the change in the potential energy”: U  U 2  U1  WC    FC  dr , FC  a conservative force

1

 A conservative force depends only on the position of the object. If a force is conservative, it is possible to assign a
numerical value for the potential energy at any point.
 If a force is not conservative, then defining a scalar potential is not possible, because taking different paths would lead
to conflicting potential differences between the start and end points.
Conservative Force Examples Nonconservative Force Examples
gravitational force friction (air resistance)
electric force push and pull forces (applied force)
nuclear force tension
elastic (spring) force
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: If only conservative forces are doing work, the total mechanical energy
of a system stays constant in any process, i.e., it is conserved.

Proof: Consider a conservative system (meaning only conservative forces do work). This system might be
• A mass m oscillating on the end of a spring,
• Or a mass m moving in the Earth’s gravitational field.
2
U  U 2  U1    Fnet  dr  Wnet  K The net work done on the system
1 work-kinetic energy principle

K  U  0  conservative forces only  , or  K2  K1   U 2  U1   0.  conservative forces only 

NOTE: The change in kinetic energy is balanced by the change in potential energy (energy is transformed from kinetic to
potential or vice versa).

We now define E  K U.  total mechanical energy 

Then, we can write K2  U 2  K1  U1  E ,

 E2  E1  constant.  conservative forces only 
Conservation of Energy

• We now take into account nonconservative forces such as friction, since they are important in real situations.
• In such natural processes, the mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus potential energy) does not remain
constant but decreases.

A few remarks:
 Because frictional (nonconservative) forces reduce the mechanical energy (but not the total energy),
they are called dissipative forces.
 Heat (thermal energy) is produced when dissipative forces do work.
 To establish the more general law of conservation, one needs to recognize electrical, chemical, sound,
light and other forms of energy in addition to heat.
Conservation of Energy
Consider an object on which both conservative & nonconservative forces do work. The net work done on the
object can be written as
Wnet  WC  WNC  U  WNC , Wnet  K  Work-energy principle 
U

K  U    K  U   WNC
 E  WNC  general form of "work-energy principle"
 Total mechanical energy is not conserved when nonconservative forces do work.
 Work done by nonconservative forces equals change in mechanical energy.
 Total energy is conserved when all forms are counted:

K  U   change in all other forms of energy   0.

The principle of conservation of energy (also known as the first law of thermodynamics:

“The total energy is neither increased nor decreased in any process. Energy can be transformed from one
form to another, and transferred from one object to another, but the total amount remains constant.”

 Although this principle cannot be proved, there is no known example of a violation of the principle of conservation of energy.
Angular Momentum
• Angular momentum is the rotational analog of the linear momentum, and is related to the torque.
• It measures how quickly a body rotates about a given rotation axis. However it can be defined about a point in space as
well.

In general, the angular momentum of a point particle about a

point O is defined as

Lrp
p  linear momentum
r  vector from point O to where the object is

REMARKS: L  r, p

L  rp sin   magnitude 
• The right-hand rule gives the direction of the angular momentum.

• SI Units: kg  m2 / s
Angular Momentum of a Point Particle

The angular momentum of the particle is

L  r  p  m  r  

The time derivative of the angular momentum yields

 
d   
  r  p   m  r    m    r 
dL d d dr
  m      r  a 
dt dt dt  dt dt   =0 
  a 

dL
dt
 
 r   ma   r  Fnet  r   F   r  F   net

Fnet

 The vector sum of all torques acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of
the angular momentum of that particle.
Angular Momentum of a Rigid Extended Object (or a System of Particles)
Let us consider a rigid object rotating about a fixed axis, which is formed by a very
large number of small masses (mass elements mi).

The “total angular momentum” of the object is L  L1  L2  LN   Li

i

dL dLi
The time derivative yields    net,i   net
dt i dt i
 net,i

 The vector sum of all torques acting on a system of particles (or an extended object) is equal to the
time rate of change of the total angular momentum of the object.

NOTE: The angular momentum of a rigid object about a fixed rotation axis can also be written in terms
of the angular velocity as
L  I
Conservation of Angular Momentum

When the net external torque on an object (or system of objects) is zero, then

dL d
 net  I 0  L  constant,   constant
dt dt

 The total angular momentum of a rotating object remains constant if the net torque acting on it is zero.

Comparison of translational and rotational motions:

F  ma  Force    I  Torque 
p  m  Linear momentum  L  I  Angular momentum 
dp
F  Newton's second law   
dL
 Newton's second law 
dt dt
If F  0, p  constant If   0, L  constant
 conservation of linear momentum   conservation of angular momentum 
Law of Conservation of Mass
• The idea that the total amount of matter in the universe is constant dates back to the
teachings of Mahavira of India (520 BCE) and ancient Greek phlosophy (4th century
BCE).
• In modern science, the conservation of mass states that for a system closed to all
transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system remains constant over time.
Russian scientist Mikhail
• This concept is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics and fluid Lomonosov discovered the
law of mass conservation in
dynamics. 1756 by experiments.

 Historically, mass conservation in chemical reactions was first demonstrated by

Mikhail Lomonosov (a Russian scientist) in 1756.
 Antoine Lavoisier (a French chemist), independently, published the results of his
experiments in 1773. His publication popularized the principle of conservation of
mass, and contributed to the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of
chemistry.

Antoine Lavoisier's discovery of

the law of conservation of mass
led to many new findings in the
19th century.
Law of Conservation of Mass
• In chemical reactions, atoms are not converted into other elements. Thus, the mass of the products
will always be equal to the mass of the reactants in chemical reactions.
• An example reaction is the Combustion reaction of methane, as shown in the figure.

Combustion reaction of methane:

• 4 atoms of hydrogen, 4 atoms of oxygen, and 1 of carbon are
present before and after the reaction.
• The total mass after the reaction is the same as before the
reaction.

Note that chemical reactions can be both exothermic and endothermic.

Law of Conservation of Mass
 Combustion of methane reaction is an exothermic reaction: CH4  2O2  CO2  2H2O  891 kJ/mol

 The energy released per methane molecule is 9.2 eV: 1 mol  6.02 1023
891103
CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2O  J
6.02 1023
14.81019

1 eV  1.602 1019 J  CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2O  9.2 eV

Mass is not conserved in nuclear reactions

Let us consider the following spontaneous fission reaction:

238U → 95Sr + 140Xe + 3n + 171.2 MeV

 The total mass is not the same before and after the decay reaction.

 The energy released in nuclear reactions is much larger than those in chemical reactions.
Conservation of Charge
• The conservation of charge states that for an isolated system (a system closed to all transfers of
matter and energy) the total electric charge remains constant over time.
• This principle is valid in any process (chemical or nuclear).

EXAMPLE: Pair Production

Pair production refers to the formation or materialization of two electrons, one
negative and the other positive (positron), from a pulse of electromagnetic energy
traveling through matter, usually in the vicinity of an atomic nucleus. It is a direct
conversion of radiant energy to matter.

• Pair production process is a direct consequence of the mass-

energy equation of Einstein E = mc2, which states that pure
energy can be converted into mass and vice versa.

• The photon has zero charge. The total charge before and after
the decay of the photon is conserved.
Conservation of Charge

EXAMPLE: Chemical Reactions - Formation of water (H2O)

Oxygen and hydrogen naturally exists as O2 and H2. Thus we need to write the equation as

H2  O2  2H2O2

EXAMPLE: Chemical Reactions - Formation of salt (NaCl)

 Atomic number of Na is 11 (11 protons and 11 electrons). It has one eletron in the valance shell.
 Atomic number of Cl is 17 (11 protons and 11 electrons). It has 7 electrons in the valance shell.
 In the formation of a salt molecule, chlorine gains 1 electron, sodium loses one electron.
 Chlorine naturally exists as Cl2.
 Thus we need to write the equation as 2Na  Cl2  2Na Cl
Archimedes' Principle and its Applications

• When you get out of a swimming pool, your arms and legs may feel strangely heavy. This
is due to the loss of the buoyant force of the water.
• The term buoyancy or upthrust refers to an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the
weight of a partially or fully immersed object. Archimedes’ principle describes this buoyant
force.
• Archimedes (287-212 BCE) was, maybe, the world’s greatest scientist in the classical age,
and one of the greatest of all time. He was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer,
astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily.
• See https://wiki2.org/en/Archimedes for more about his life and achievements.

Archimedes Thoughtful
by Domenico Fetti (1620).
Archimedes' Principle and its Applications
Let us consider an object submerged or partly submerged in a fluid, as
shown in the figure.

Definitions:
Fluid: any matter that flows (liquids and gasses)
Mass density ( = m/V): mass per unit volume

The buoyant force is always present in a fluid:

 If FBuoyant  Fg  mg , the object will rise to the surface and float.

 If FBuoyant  Fg  mg , the object will sink.

 If FBuoyant  Fg , the object will remain suspended.

• In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the
pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column.

• Fully submerged objects: apparent immersed weight  weight of object  weight of displaced fluid
Archimedes' Principle and its Applications
 A body immersed in water seems to weigh less than when it is in air.
 When the body is less dense than the fluid, it floats.
 The human body usually floats in water, and a helium-filled balloon floats in air.
 These are examples of buoyancy, a phenomenon described by Archimedes’s principle:
 When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the
body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Proof step 1 Proof step 2 Densities of some common substances

Archimedes' Principle - Hot Air Balloons

• Hot air balloons use hot air to create buoyancy.

• The air inside the envelope is usually heated to about 100 oC.

EXAMPLE: Consider an average hot air balloon with an envelope volume of 2800
m3 on a day at a temperature 20 oC. The mass of the basket including the equipment
is 270 kg, and the mass of the envelope is 100 kg.
a) What is the buoyant force acting on the balloon if the air inside the balloon is
heated to 100 oC?
b) What is the net buoyant force? What is the additional payload this balloon can
support?

 The density of air at 100 oC is 0.946 kg/m3.

 The density of air at temperature 20 oC is 1.205 kg/m3.
Archimedes' Principle and Hot Air Balloons
Solution: The buoyant force is

   
FB  cold airVenv. g  1.205 kg/m3 2800 m3 9.81 m/s2  33099 N

• For lift to be generated, this buoyant force must exceed the weight of the heated air, plus
the weight of the envelope, plus the weight of the basket including the equipment.
The net buoyant force is

F  F B  w hot air  w envelope  w basket    

w hot air  FB   hot airVenv. g  0.946 kg/m3 2800 m3 9.81 m/s 2  25985 N
w envelope  menvelope g  100 kg   9.81 m/s   981 N
2

w basket  mbasket g   270 kg   9.81 m/s   2649 N

2

Hence, we obtain the net buoyant force as

 F  33099 N   25985 N  981 N  2649 N   33099 N  29615 N  3484 N

The mass of the additional payload then becomes  F  m g m 
 F

3484 N
 355 kg
payload payload
g 9.81 m/s2

 This balloon can lift 4-5 passengers!

BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENCE - 1
§ Introduction
§ Events in Earth History
§ History of Technology Timeline
§ Science in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
§ The Greeks
§ Science in Ancient Greece
§ The Birth and Development of Philosophy
§ Science in Islamic World
§ Reading Essay
INTRODUCTION

Humankind has always been inquisitive, needing to understand why things behave in a certain way, and trying to link
observation with prediction. For example, since prehistoric times we have observed the heavens and tried to make
sense of the seasonal changes in the position of the sun, moon and stars. In about 4000 BC, the Mesopotamians tried
to explain their observations by suggesting that the Earth was at the center of the Universe, and that the other
heavenly bodies moved around it. Humans have always been interested in the nature and origins of this Universe.

Metallurgy

But they weren't only interested in astronomy. The extraction of iron, which led to the Iron Age, is a chemical process
which early metallurgists developed without understanding any of the science involved. Nevertheless, they were still
able to optimize the extraction by trial and error. Before this, copper and tin were extracted (which led to the Bronze
Age) and later, zinc. Exactly how each of these processes was discovered is lost in the mists of time, but it is likely that
they were developed using observation and experiment in a similar way to that used by today's scientists.

Medicine

Early humankind also observed that certain plants could be used to treat sickness and disease, and herbal medicines
were developed, some of which are still used by modern pharmaceutical companies to provide leads for new synthetic
drugs.
Years Before
Present Events in Earth History
4 600 000 000 Earth and planets in the solar system formed
3 800 000 000 first evidence of life
440 000 000 evolution of first land plants
400 000 000 evolution of first land animals
3 000 000 evolution of first hominids (human-like creatures)
Developments in science and technology Developments in communication
35 000 fluent human speech
12 000 first human settlements
9 000 use of stone tools
6 000 first primitive writing based on pictures (Egypt and Mesopotamia)
5 800 first use of bronze (alloy of tin and copper)
3 700 first alphabet developed (Palestine)
3 500 first use of iron
era of Greek science, based on philosophy (Aristotle,
2 600 Pythagoras)
1 000 Chinese invented printing
700 experimental science of William of Occam
500 Earth orbits the Sun (Copernicus) first printing press (Caxton)
400 circulation of blood (Harvey)
300 theory of gravity (Newton); invention of telescope
200 Industrial Revolution (in Britain)
Theory of evolution by natural selection (Darwin);
150 early railways photography invented
first powered flight; theory of special relativity
100 (Einstein) wireless telegraphy invented
50-60 first fully-electronic computer
structure of DNA (Watson and Crick); first human in
40-50 Earth orbit (Gagarin)
30-40 first human on the moon (Armstrong) computers with silicon chips
Human Genome Mapping Project; multiple organ lap-top computers; communications networking; the Internet; artificial
0-20 transplants intelligence
HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY TIMELINE

Paleolithic Age
Mesolithic Age
Neolithic Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
The Medieval Age
The Renaissance Age
Industrial Age
 Paleolithic Age
v The Old Stone Age or in Greek (palaios –
“old”) and (lithos – “stone”)
v Time Period:
500,000 BC – 10,000 BC
v Inventions:
Stone tools
v Impacts on history:
These tools greatly aided the early
humans in their hunting lifestyle, butchering
carcasses, chopping wood, skinning an animal
for clothing and making fire.
 Mesolithic Age
v The Middle Stone Age or in Greek (mesos
– “middle”) and (lithos – “stone”)
v Time Period: 10,000 BC – 4,000 BC
v Invention:
Pressure flaking and prepared-core
techniques was further developed
v Impacts on history:
The gradual domestication of animals
and agriculture led to settled
communities.
 Neolithic Age
v The New Stone Age or in Greek (néos –
“new”) and (líthos – “stone”)
v Time Period: 4,000 BC – 2,300 BC
v Inventions:
polished stone tools from flint, jade, jadeite
and greenstone
v Impacts on history:
by working exposures as quarries, the valuable
rocks were pursued by tunneling underground,
the first steps in mining technology. The polished
axes were used for forest clearance and the
establishment of crop farming
 Neolithic Age
v Examples of Engineering Design
during the Neolithic Age:

Ø Mesopotamian engineers used clay

tablets to document irrigation systems.

Ø Babylonian engineers used

mathematical concepts such as
algebra for land excavation
calculations.

Ø Egyptian engineers built the pyramids.

 The Bronze Age
v The architectural period that included
combining copper and tin to produce bronze
v Time Period: 2,300 BC – 700 BC
v Inventions
Bronze jewelry, tools/weapons
v Impacts on history:
The use of bronze replaced stone tools and
allowed humans to greatly alter their environment.
 Iron Age
v The architectural period marked by
the prevalent use of iron or steel
v Time Period: 700 BC – 450 AD
v Inventions
Iron farming equipment, Iron weapons,
v Impacts on history:
Military dominance for cultures that could produce
iron weapons.
The iron-blade plow allowed humans to increase
food production.
 Iron Age

v Examples of Engineering Design

during the Iron Age:

v Greek engineers created the

crossbow and catapult to
conquer territories.

v Roman engineers created

aqueduct systems, sanitary
systems, and an extensive
road system.
The Medieval Age
v The architectural period after the
Roman Empire
v Time Period: 450 AD – 1,400 AD
v Inventions:
Improved harness for horses, cast iron,
cannons, mechanical clocks, compass
v Impacts on history:
v Early Middle Ages – increased
pressure from invasion lead to
depopulation and deurbanization.
v High Middle Ages – the beginning of
feudalism, population increase, and
agricultural innovation
v Late Middle Ages – famine, plague and
war, often marked by the Black Death,
which killed approximately one-third
of the population
 The Medieval Age
vExamples of Engineering Design
during the Middle Ages:

vTechnology, like the windmill,

produced mechanical labor.

vThe printing press was used

to share information and
knowledge.

vThe word “engineer” began to

appear as “ingeniare” or to
design or devise.
The Renaissance / Enlightenment
v The architectural period marked by
the revival of classical influence and
the sharing of ideas, or in Italian
(Rinascimento – “to be reborn”)

v Time Period: 1,400 AD – 1,750 AD

v Inventions:
Telescope, microscope, thermometer

v Impacts on history:
Instrumentation enabled scientists to
observe and quantify natural
phenomena.
 The Industrial Age
v The architectural period marked by the first
use of complex machinery, factories, and
urbanization.
v Time Period: 1750 AD – 1950 AD

v Inventions:
Electricity, automobile, airplane, radio,
television, telephone, rocket

v Impacts on history:
gave rise to urban centers, requiring vast
municipal services

Economic expansion created the rise of

professionals, population expansion
 Science in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
As the first inventions of mankind, we can count fire, stone, stick, clothing, ceramic
vessels, metal processing. These inventions have undergone little change over tens of
thousands of years and have been passed down from generation to generation.
Indeed, the difference between humans and other animals is their ability to work
collaboratively and to transmit their knowledge to future generations. Thus, the
knowledge and experience of humanity is constantly being added to it and
developing.

When we look at the history of civilization, we see that the first places where
science flourished were around the Euphrates-Tigris, Indus and Nile rivers. So why
here? Because the social and technological conditions necessary for science to
flourish were present here. The climate and soil were favorable and generous here.
The peoples living there took advantage of this favorable environment and
developed techniques for obtaining the most and best crops. They used the power
of animals for this, developed plowing and irrigation techniques, and finally invented
the wheel.
 Classical antiquity

Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or

classical age) is the period of cultural history between the
8th century BC and the 6th century AD centered on the
Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations
of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-
Roman world. It is the period in which both Greek and
Roman societies flourished and wielded huge influence
throughout much of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western
Asia.
 The Greeks
The first people to try and develop the theory behind their observations were the
Greeks: people such as Pythagoras, who concentrated on a mathematical view of the
world. Similarly, Aristotle and Plato developed logical methods for examining the world
around them. It was the Greeks who first suggested that matter was made up of atoms
— fundamental particles that could not be broken down further.

But it wasn't only the Greeks who moved science on. Science was also being developed
in India, China, the Middle East and South America. Despite having their own cultural
view of the world, they each independently developed materials such as gunpowder,
soap and paper. However, it wasn't until the 13th century that much of this scientific
work was brought together in European universities, and that it started to look more
like science as we know it today. Progress was relatively slow at first. For example, it
took until the 16th century for Copernicus to revolutionize (literally) the way that we
look at the Universe, and for Harvey to put forward his ideas on how blood circulated
round the human body. This slow progress was sometimes the result of religious
dogma, but it was also a product of troubled times!
 Science in Ancient Times
The biggest breaking point here was with the invention of writing. The Sumerians were the first to invent
writing around B.C. 3500, that is, about 5500 years ago. Other nations later used different types of writing
independently of each other. Thus, information is no longer orally transmitted to the next generations, but in
writing.

The Egyptians, on the other hand, wrote in ink on a kind of paper obtained from a plant called papyrus.
Already the English word paper is derived from the word papyrus. The Egyptians knew the number Pi (3.14),
the properties of triangles and other geometric shapes, and used them in their daily work.

Babylonian mathematics is built on the sexagesimal (sixty-sixty) number system. Today, 60 seconds per
minute, 60 minutes per hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle date back to the Sumerians. One of the
possible reasons for choosing the sexagesimal system is that the number 60 is divided equally by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
10, 12, 15, 20 and 30 so that the division of property can be done without a fraction. In addition, the number
12 had a special place in the Sumerians. The Babylonians were able to calculate the length of the year with
an error of only about four minutes.

It is accepted that the foundations of astronomy were laid by the Babylonians. The reason for this is that the
Babylonians' mathematical knowledge was very advanced compared to that period. Observing the periodic
movements of celestial bodies and expressing these movements in a mathematical form provided great
benefits to the Babylonians in agriculture.
 Science in Ancient Greece
It would not be correct to say that science started with the ancient Greeks. Babylonians, Sumerians, Chinese,
Egyptians and Indians made many important discoveries in mathematics, astronomy and technology before the
Greeks. But the Greeks further developed and carried forward science and philosophy. One of the important
reasons for this is that the Greeks lived in small independent city-states and were acquainted with democracy.
Science and philosophy flourish and developed where there are no oppressive regimes.

Science and technology before the Greeks remained mostly at the level of observation, and it can be said that
they were quite limited in terms of depth and scope. The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, tried to explain the
events they observed by speculating. Institutionalization of science and connecting it to a systematic took place
in the Hellenistic period. The explanation of nature in ancient Greeks was mostly through metaphysics.

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy and deals with the nature of existence, being and the world. Aristotle
called metaphysics "first philosophy" or "wisdom" and saw it as a branch that studies the "first causes" of events.

The word literally means "after physics" in Greek. This word was misinterpreted by medieval commentators as
above, beyond physical phenomena.
 Science in Ancient Greece
Metaphysics often asks the following questions: Is there god or not? How did the world come into existence
and what is the origin of creation? If bodies exist, what is their objective nature?

Although many philosophers do not think positively about metaphysics, if it is necessary to make a correct
definition, metaphysical discourses can be accepted as ideas about the world and the universe that can be
considered reasonable but cannot be verified, tested, or proven by observation and experiment.

Ancient philosophical thoughts and views about the universe, the world and natural phenomena may seem
too simplistic to us today and may not be realistic or convincing. But if we interpret ancient thoughts from
today's perspective, we can make mistakes. At that time, science and technology were extremely limited and
people explained natural phenomena with miracles, gods and supernatural powers. These thoughts and
efforts of theirs should be considered as the first step in reaching the scientific and technological level, which
is our current achievement.

Until Aristotle, and even more limitedly, explaining nature was a holistic metaphysical kind of pursuit. We find
the first clear example of the scientific method, which includes the interaction of rational thinking and
observational data, in the works of Archimedes, the distinguished researcher of the Hellenistic period.
 Science in Ancient Greece
Life in ancient Greece was oriented towards theoretical debates rather than practical problems. The society was in a
democratic attitude that allowed intellectual activities in a way; on the other hand, it exhibited a structure that
privileged a certain elite class. Coarse manual labor was almost entirely imposed on the large class, considered "slave";
the small elite had the privilege of filling their time with artistic activities and metaphysical discussions. For them, the
problem was not daily living; The important thing was to understand the truth, to grasp the meaning of life.

For Greek thinkers of the first period (600-300 BC), philosophy and science were an activity intertwined. Thales,
Anaximenes, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus etc. they were actually philosophers
towards science. At the center of his thoughts was the effort to determine the basic quality of the universe, the
common substance of objects. Their discussions were not limited to philosophy, but also covered fields such as
mathematics, astronomy, physics and medicine. His achievements were particularly brilliant in astronomy and
mathematics. The Egyptians invented many propositions about geometry; but their logical proof awaited the Greeks. We
find a striking example of this in the Pythagoras theorem. The geometric properties of the right-angled triangle were
known to both Egyptians and Babylonians. But Pythagoras was the first to prove the theorem. Although it is not as
successful in arithmetic as in geometry, prime number (a number that cannot be divided by any number other than 1
and itself), irrational number (a number that cannot be written as a vulgar fraction), etc. Some important inventions can
be mentioned. But their greatest breakthrough in mathematics is undoubtedly their success in transforming geometry
into an axiomatic system. The axiomatic system established by Euclid has been the most striking example throughout
history that demonstrates the power of deductive thinking.
The birth and development of philosophy

Prehistoric people explained all natural phenomena with gods or heroes.

They were gods who made rain, created earthquakes, created lightning.
People want to know the causes of events.
When they are not at a level to fully grasp the causes of the event, they want to explain the
event with incomplete and incorrect information to explain that event.

Here we come across conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories aren't particularly harmful as
long as they don't go to extremes and can sometimes even save lives. When he hears a rustle,
the person who thinks it is a predator runs away from there, although this rustle may have
been made by a harmless animal. But if it was a predatory and dangerous animal, the person
could escape and save his life.
Thales of Miletus was an Ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher born
in Miletus, Turkey. Since he is one of the first philosophers, he is called the pioneer of
philosophy and science. According to Bertrand Russell, Philosophy began with Thales.
Before Thales, the Greeks considered nature and the basic substance of the world; mythology,
gods and heroes. Natural events on earth (earthquakes, wind, etc.) were associated with
gods.

Thales was important in terms of both considering water as the main substance and trying to
explain nature by combining phenomena. He sought the causes of natural events in nature
rather than anthropomorphic Gods. He established a bridge between mythological
explanations and rational explanations. After Thales, his students Anaximandros and
Anaximenes also followed the same line.

We do not know why Thales brought water to the fore as the most fundamental substance in
the universe. But if we consider that water is the source of life in the world, and that there is
no life without water, we will see that this idea is not unreasonable. Thales also suggested
that the world is a piece of land floating on water. It would not be correct to say that these
ideas were not influenced by other civilizations and cultures, because this view was also
common among the ancient Egyptians. Water is also not only available in liquid form. When
water is heated, it transforms into steam, and when it freezes, it transforms into ice and
travels around the world in this way. Water is used for purification and cleaning purposes in
many religions and cultures.
Anaximander is an Ionian philosopher who lived in Miletos in the pre-Socratic period. He is a
student of Thales. He is also the first philosopher to write his teachings according to historical
sources.
He is both a natural philosopher and a nature researcher. It was groundbreaking in both fields. He
was the first person to lead science and to look at the universe from a different perspective. He is
considered by many to be the founder of astronomy and was the first to develop a cosmology or
systematic view of philosophy on the world. He also introduced the term 'arkhe' to philosophy.
He is also called the first true scientist. He conducted experiments to understand nature. He is
also known as the founder of astronomy. He studied the movements of celestial bodies relative to
the earth.
At this time, there was a search for monoism, that is, the basis and structure of everything in the
universe was wanted to be reduced to a single element. For example, Thales claimed that the basis
of everything is water, Anaximenes claimed that air, and Heraclitus claimed that fire. Anaximander
rejected them all, saying that none of them could be the basis of everything. Water is always in a
wet state, how can a wet substance be the basis of a dry substance? Anaximander also says that
the basis of the universe may be a single substance, but this basic substance is not similar to the
substances and objects we know. He called this mysterious substance "infinity" or "infinity".
Everything we perceive in the universe is derived from this mysterious infinite substance. This
eternal primitive matter does not age, does not disappear, does not decompose, and all new
products that we see with our eyes consist of this primitive substance. The universe arises from
the dissociation of opposites in this primordial matter, and things that die do not perish, they
simply return to this primordial matter that formed them. The universe is a kind of organism
powered by "cosmic breath".
Anaximenes (585 BC, Miletus, Caria - 525 BC) is a natural philosopher and the last of the
three Miletos thinkers who are traditionally considered the first philosophers of the Western
world. What survives of writings that have survived to the Hellenistic period are only parts
that later writers took into their own work. For this reason, interpretations of Anaximenes'
thoughts often contradict each other.
His thoughts were very influential in Antiquity. We see the traces of his thoughts in many
thinkers after him. The dispersal of his students in all directions as a result of the capture and
destruction of Miletus by the Iranians was effective in spreading these thoughts over a wide
area. Anaximenes is a physicist, a naturalist, just like Anaximandros. We see that he is primarily
interested in natural events. He also wanted to explain natural phenomena like a naturalist.
For this reason, religious interpretations are not found in his statements. He wrote his work
in a measured and unbiased manner.
Anaximenes, like the philosophers before him, advocated monoism, that is, oneness. He
thought that the basis of everything in the universe was air. Once everything was air, but later
everything was formed by the transformation of air into other forms. Since air is infinite and
moves everywhere, it can create almost anything. All substances are formed thanks to the
property of the air to expand when heated and contract when cooled. Solid objects are
formed by the tight contraction of air, that is, by its very tight coming together, while liquids
are formed by the coming together of less closely spaced air. The air we breathe is made up of
very sparse air.
Pythagoras

According to Pythagoras, religious and scientific views are inextricably linked. He

believed in transmigration and reincarnation, that is, incarnating in other living
forms until he became perfect after death. He was the first to suggest that the
thinking process and the soul are in the brain and not in the heart.
One of the most basic beliefs of Pythagoras is that the essence of existence is
hidden in numbers, and that the essence of existence can be reached with
mathematics. Even the reason why a person is healthy or sick can be explained
by mathematics: the ratio of elements that should be in a healthy person is at a
normal level, but in an unhealthy person, this ratio is either too little or too
much.
Pythagoras is best known for his famous "Pythagorean theorem". According to
this theorem, the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides. In fact, this theorem was
previously known and used by the Babylonians and Indians. But the first person
to prove this theorem was Pythagoras.
Pythagoras was also the first to say that the world was round. He suggested that
all planets revolve around a single center and that there is a great "fire" in this
center. But he did not know that this fire was the sun.
 Heraclitus of Ephesus (535? - 475 BC), pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in
Ephesus.
According to Heraclitus, our world was formed from eternal and living fire through change
and transformation, and eventually it will turn into fire again, so this cycle will continue.
"Neither a god nor a human created this universe, which is the whole itself. It is the eternal
fire that burns according to certain measures and goes out according to certain measures."
The reason and the only condition for existence is the war of opposites. If there was no
war between oppositions, nothing would have happened. The universe is a harmony formed
by the war of opposites. According to Heraclitus, everything was created by war. Thanks to
war, some become gods, some become human, some become slaves, some become free.
Without the opposite sexes, male and female, there would be no living beings.

According to Heraclitus, everything is relative. "The wisest man is an ape in wisdom, beauty,
and all other things compared to God"... "The most beautiful monkey is ugly compared to
man"... "Sea water is the cleanest and dirtiest. Fish can drink it, and for them it is the savior."
On the other hand, it is undrinkable and deadly for humans“

This universal relativity of good, bad; right, wrong; It gives rise to the idea that justice and injustice are actually relative concepts.
However, according to Heraclitus, there must be evil for the existence of good, there must be darkness for the existence of light, and
hunger for the existence of satiety. If there was no injustice, the name of justice would not be known.

According to Heraclitus, everything flows and changes constantly. Fire, which he sees as the main substance, is a substance that does
not stand still even for a moment. Here are the words of this great philosopher expressing the flow doctrine:
"Different waters flow over those who enter the same rivers"
Empedocles ( 494-434 BC) was one of the pre-Socratic thinkers. He is a citizen of the city
of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily.
Empedocles, one of the natural thinkers, was the first thinker to use water, fire and air as
the basic element (arkhe), which was determined by the natural thinkers before him, by
adding the element of earth and using them all together. These four elements are there
from the beginning. They neither change nor disappear, that is, they have no beginning and
no end. Their quantities in the universe always remain the same. Everything consists of
certain combinations of these four elements. After Empedocles, Aristotle added to these
four elements the ether, which he claimed to exist in heaven.
Empedocles states that everything is made up of these four elements and that these
elements are moved by two opposing forces, Love and Hate. Love and hate are not always
stable and their effects can increase and decrease over time. These four elements and two
forces are infinite and evenly distributed in the universe. The universe was formed by the
combination of all these elements and forces. These four elements, water, air, fire and
earth, do not spontaneously mix with each other and form the beings we see around us.
These interact with each other thanks to the forces called love and hate, and thanks to
the war of these two forces, all events and activities in the universe occur. Love and hate
should not be described as good or bad because both are necessary for this universe. In
the war of these two powers, sometimes hate and sometimes love wins. Love serves to
keep matter together, while hatred serves to separate substances and keep them away
from each other. If there was only love, all substances would stick together, if only hatred,
they would drift apart.
Democritus ( 460 – 370 BC) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic
philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic
theory of the universe.

Democritus’s physical and cosmological doctrines were an elaborated and systematized version
of those of his teacher, Leucippus. To account for the world’s changing physical phenomena,
Democritus asserted that space, or the Void, had an equal right with reality, or Being, to be
considered existent. He conceived of the Void as a vacuum, an infinite space in which moved an
infinite number of atoms that made up Being (i.e., the physical world). These atoms are eternal
and indivisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished (hence the name
atomon, or “indivisible”); absolutely full and incompressible, as they are without pores and
entirely fill the space they occupy; and homogeneous, differing only in shape, arrangement,
position, and magnitude. But, while atoms thus differ in quantity, differences of quality are only
apparent, owing to the impressions caused on the senses by different configurations and
combinations of atoms. A thing is hot or cold, sweet or bitter, or hard or soft only by
convention; the only things that exist in reality are atoms and the Void. Thus, the atoms of water
and iron are the same, but those of water, being smooth and round and therefore unable to
hook onto one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas those of iron, being rough,
jagged, and uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Because all phenomena are composed
of the same eternal atoms, it may be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the
absolute sense of the words, although the compounds made out of the atoms are liable to
increase and decrease, explaining a thing’s appearance and disappearance, or “birth” and “death.”
 Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of society. He attempted to
establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than theological doctrine.

Socrates pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness. Ultimate wisdom comes from knowing
oneself. The more a person knows, the greater his or her ability to reason and make choices that will bring true happiness.

Socrates believed that this translated into politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a
democracy. Instead, government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest ability, knowledge and virtue,
and possessed a complete understanding of themselves.

Born 470 B.C. in Athens, Greece

Trial of Socrates
In 399 B.C., Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and of impiety, or heresy. He chose to defend himself in court.

Rather than present himself as wrongly accused, Socrates declared he fulfilled an important role as a gadfly, one who provides an important service to his
community by continually questioning and challenging the status quo and its defenders.

The jury was not swayed by Socrates' defense and convicted him by a vote of 280 to 221. Possibly the defiant tone of his defense contributed to the
verdict and he made things worse during the deliberation over his punishment.

Athenian law allowed a convicted citizen to propose an alternative punishment to the one called for by the prosecution and the jury would decide.
Instead of proposing he be exiled, Socrates suggested he be honored by the city for his contribution to their enlightenment and be paid for his services.

The jury was not amused and sentenced him to death by drinking a mixture of poison hemlock.

Socrates' Death
Before Socrates' execution, friends offered to bribe the guards and rescue him so he could flee into exile.

He declined, stating he wasn't afraid of death, felt he would be no better off if in exile and said he was still a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by its
laws, even the ones that condemned him to death.
 Ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His
writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics,
political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Plato
founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the
Western world.
Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview
The first, or early, period occurs during Plato's travels (399-387 B.C.E.). The Apology of Socrates seems to have
been written shortly after Socrates's death. Other texts in this time period include Protagoras, Euthyphro,
Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues, Plato attempts to convey Socrates's philosophy and
teachings.

In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice, courage, wisdom
and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during this time with its exploration of
just government ruled by philosopher kings.

In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at his own early
metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and architecture, as well as ethics
and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant
and that the perceived world through our senses is deceptive and changeable.

Plato's impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his homeland of
Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics, science and nature, morals
and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in education have proven to be essential for
understanding the entire universe. His work on the use of reason to develop a more fair and just society that
is focused on the equality of individuals established the foundation for modern democracy.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient
Greece. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics,
aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology,
geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing
prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well
as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on
almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary
philosophical discussion.

Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of physical science extended
from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced
systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some
of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyli (reproductive)
arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced Judeo-Islamic
philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the
Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was
revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like
Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him “the master of those
who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval
scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan.

Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political science",
"the father of zoology", "the father of embryology", "the father of natural law", "the father of scientific
method", "the father of rhetoric", "the father of psychology", "the father of realism", "the father of
criticism", "the father of individualism", "the father of teleology", and "the father of meteorology".
 Archimedes
( 287 BC – 212 BC)
Archimedes, (born c. 287 BCE, Syracuse, Sicily [Italy]—died
212/211 BCE, Syracuse), the most famous mathematician and
inventor in ancient Greece. Archimedes is especially important
for his discovery of the relation between the surface and
volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder. He is known
for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle (known as
Archimedes’ principle) and a device for raising water, still used,
known as the Archimedes screw.
Science in the Middle Ages (400 -1400 C.E.)

The Scientific Advancement in Time

 Science in Islamic World

Ø Most scientific advancements from 500 -1300 C.E.

were made to the Islamic world

§ Medicine, astronomy, and chemistry developed considerably in these

regions
§ Ibn Sina (Avicenna )(circa 1000 C.E. ) pioneered the techniques that lead to
the modern hospital
Ø In 12th century Europe, scholasticism tried to reconcile ancient Greek thought
with biblical dogma.
 Science in Islamic World
The modern method was developed by Muslim scholars, during the Golden age of Islam
(between 10th and 14th centuries).
 Science in Islamic World
Under the Ummayads Arab conquests expanded to include the territories of modern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Libya,Tunisia,Algeria, and Morocco, most of Spain, and much of central Asia beyond the
Oxus River. From the formerly Byzantine lands that they now ruled they began to absorb Greek science.
Some Greek learning also came from Persia, whose rulers had welcomed Greek scholars (including
Simplicius) before the rise of Islam, when the Neoplatonic Academy was closed by the emperor
Justinian. Christendom’s loss became Islam’s gain.

It was in the time of the next Sunni dynasty, the caliphate of the Abbasids, that Arab science entered
its golden age. Baghdad, the capital city of the Abbasids, was built on both sides of the Tigris River in
Mesopotamia by al-Mansur, caliph from 754 to 775. It became the largest city in the world, or at least
the largest outside China. Its best-known ruler was Harun al-Rashid, caliph from 786 to 809, famous
from A Thousand and One Nights. It was under al-Rashid and his son al-Mamun, caliph from 813 to
833, that translation from Greece, Persia, and India reached its greatest scope.Al-Mamun sent a mission
to Constantinople that brought back manuscripts in Greek.The delegation probably included the
physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq, the greatest of the ninth-century translators, who founded a dynasty of
translators, training his son and nephew to carry on the work. Hunayn translated works of Plato and
Aristotle, as well as medical texts of Dioscorides, Galen, and Hippocrates. Mathematical works of
Euclid, Ptolemy, and others were also translated into Arabic at Baghdad, some through Syriac
intermediaries.The historian Philip Hitti has nicely contrasted the state of learning at this time at
Baghdad with the illiteracy of Europe in the early Middle Ages:“For while in the East al-Rashid and al-
Mamun were delving into Greek and Persian philosophy, their contemporaries in the West,
Charlemagne and his lords, were dabbling in the art of writing their names.”
It is sometimes said that the greatest contribution to science of the Abbasid caliphs was the
foundation of an institute for translation and original research, the Bayt al-Hikmah, or House of
Wisdom.This institute is supposed to have served for the Arabs somewhat the same function that the
Museum and Library of Alexandria served for the Greeks.This view has been challenged by a scholar
of Arabic language and literature, Dimitri Gutas. He points out that Bayt al-Hikmah is a translation of a
Persian term that had long been used in pre-Islamic Persia for storehouses of books, mostly of Persian
history and poetry rather than of Greek science.There are only a few known examples of works that
were translated at the Bayt al-Hikmah in the time of al-Mamun, and those are from Persian rather than
Greek. Some astronomical research, as we shall see, was going on at the Bayt al-Hikmah, but little is
known of its scope.What is not in dispute is that, whether or not at the Bayt al-Hikmah, the city of
Baghdad itself in the time of al-Mamun and al-Rashid was a great center of translation and research.

Arab science was not limited to Baghdad, but spread west to Egypt, Spain, and Morocco, and east to
Persia and central Asia. Participating in this work were not only Arabs but also Persians, Jews, and
Turks.They were very much a part of Arab civilization and wrote in Arabic (or at least in Arabic
script).Arabic then had something like the status in science that English has today. In some cases it is
difficult to decide on the ethnic background of these figures. I will consider them all together, under the
heading “Arabs.”
As a rough approximation, we can identify two different scientific traditions that divided the Arab
savants. On one hand, there were real mathematicians and astronomers who were not much concerned
with what today we would call philosophy.Then there were philosophers and physicians, not very
active in mathematics, and strongly influenced by Aristotle.Their interest in astronomy was chiefly
astrological.Where they were concerned at all with the theory of the planets, the philosopher/physicians
favored the Aristotelian theory of spheres centered on the Earth, while the astronomer/mathematicians
generally followed the Ptolemaic theory of epicycles.This was an intellectual schism that, as we shall see,
would persist in Europe until the time of Copernicus.

The achievements of Arab science were the work of many individuals, none of them clearly standing
out from the rest as, say, Galileo and Newton stand out in the scientific revolution. What follows is a
brief gallery of medieval Arab scientists that I hope may give some idea of their accomplishments and
variety.

The first of the important astronomer/mathematicians at Baghdad was al-Khwarizmi, a Persian born
around 780 in what is now Uzbekistan. Al-Khwarizmi worked at the Bayt al-Hikmah and prepared
widely used astronomical tables based in part on Hindu observations. His famous book on mathematics
was Hisah-al-Jabr w-al-Muqabalah, dedicated to the caliph al-Mamun (who was half Persian himself).
From its title we derive the word “algebra.” But this was not really a book on what is today called
algebra. Formulas like the one for the solution of quadratic equations were given in words, not in the
symbols that are an essential element of algebra. (In this respect, al-Khwarizmi’s mathematics was less
advanced than that of Diophantus.) From al-Khwarizmi we also get our name for a rule for solving
problems, “algorithm.” The text of Hisah al-Jabr w-al-Muqabalah contains a confusing mixture of
Roman numerals; Babylonian numbers based on powers of 60; and a new system of numbers learned
from India, based on powers of 10. Perhaps the most important mathematical contribution of al-
Khwarizmi was his explanation to the Arabs of these Hindu numbers, which in turn became known in
Europe as Arabic numbers.
 Scientists in Islamic World
The first of the important astronomer/mathematicians at Baghdad was Al-Khwarizmi, a Persian born
around 780 in what is now Uzbekistan. Al-Khwarizmi worked at the Bayt al-Hikmah and prepared
widely used astronomical tables based in part on Hindu observations.
Al-Biruni lived in central Asia, and in 1017 visited India, where he lectured on Greek philosophy.
He considered the possibility that the Earth rotates, gave accurate values for the latitude and longitude
of various cities, prepared a table of the trigonometric quantity known as the tangent, and measured
specific gravities of various solids and liquids. He scoffed at the pretensions of astrology. In India, al-Biruni
invented a new method for measuring the circumference of the Earth.

Omar Khayyam, the poet and astronomer, was born in 1048 in Nishapur, in Persia, and died there
around 1131. He headed the observatory at Isfahan, where he compiled astronomical tables and planned
calendar reform.

The greatest Arab contributions to physics were made in optics, first at the end of the tenth century by
Ibn Sahl, who may have worked out the rule giving the direction of refracted rays of light, and then by the
great al-Haitam (Alhazen). Al-Haitam was born in Basra, in southern Mesopotamia, around 965, but worked
in Cairo.
 Scientists in Islamic World
The Arab who was most influential among European astronomers was al-Battani (Albatenius), born
around 858 BC in northern Mesopotamia. He used and corrected Ptolemy’s Almagest, making more
accurate measurements of the ~23½° angle between the Sun’s path through the zodiac and the celestial
equator, of the lengths of the year and the seasons, of the precession of the equinoxes, and of the
positions of stars. His work was frequently quoted by Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.

The Persian astronomer al-Sufi (Azophi) made a discovery whose cosmological significance was not
recognized until the twentieth century. In 964, in his Book of the Fixed Stars, he described a “little
cloud” always present in the constellation Andromeda. This was the earliest known observation of what
are now called galaxies, in this case the large spiral galaxy M31. Working at Isfahan, al-Sufi also
participated in translating works of Greek astronomy into Arabic.

An early chemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, is now believed to have flourished in the late eighth or early
ninth century. His life is obscure, and it is not clear whether the many Arabic works attributed to him
are really the work of a single person. Jabir developed techniques of evaporation, sublimation, melting, and
crystallization. He was concerned with transmuting base metals into gold, and hence is often called an
alchemist, but the distinction between chemistry and alchemy as practiced in his time is artificial, for there
was then no fundamental scientific theory to tell anyone that such transmutations are impossible.
 The most famous of the Islamic physicians was Ibn Sina (Avicenna), another Arabic-speaking
Persian. He was born in 980 near Bokhara in central Asia, became court physician to the sultan of
Bokhara, and was appointed governor of a province. Ibn Sina was an Aristotelian, who like al-Kindi
tried to reconcile with Islam. His Al Qanum was the most influential medical text of the Middle Ages.

At the same time, medicine began to flourish in Islamic Spain. Al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) was born in
936 near Córdoba, the metropolis of Andalusia, and worked there until his death in 1013. He was the
greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages, and highly influential in Christian Europe. Perhaps because
surgery was less burdened than other branches of medicine by ill-founded theory, al-Zahrawi sought to
keep medicine separate from philosophy and theology.
One physician of Muslim Spain became more famous as a philosopher. Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was
born in 1126 at Córdoba, the grandson of the city’s imam. He became cadi (judge) of Seville in 1169
and of Córdoba in 1171, and then on the recommendation of Ibn Tufayl became court physician in 1182.
As a medical scientist, Ibn Rushd is best known for recognizing the function of the retina of the eye, but
his fame rests chiefly on his work as a commentator on Aristotle.
There was also serious astronomy done in Muslim Spain. In Toledo al-Zarqali (Arzachel) in the
eleventh century was the first to measure the precession of the apparent orbit of the Sun around the
Earth (actually of course the precession of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun), which is now known
to be mostly due to the gravitational attraction between the Earth and other planets. He gave a value for
this precession of 12.9" (seconds of arc) per year, in fair agreement with the modern value, 11.6" per
year.
There is testimony to the influence of Arab science on Europe in a long list of words derived from
Arabic originals: not only algebra and algorithm, but also names of stars like Aldebaran, Algol,
Alphecca, Altair, Betelgeuse, Mizar, Rigel, Vega, and so on, and chemical terms like alkali, alembic,
alcohol, alizarin, and of course alchemy.

This brief survey leaves us with a question: why was it specifically those who practiced medicine,
such as Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd, and ben Maimon, who held on so firmly to the teachings of
Aristotle? There are three possible reasons. First, physicians would naturally be most interested in
Aristotle’s writings on biology, and in these Aristotle was at his best. Also, Arab physicians were
powerfully influenced by the writings of Galen, who greatly admired Aristotle. Finally, medicine is a
field in which the precise confrontation of theory and observation was very difficult (and still is), so that
the failings of Aristotelian physics and astronomy to agree in detail with observation may not have
seemed so important to physicians. In contrast, the work of astronomers was used for purposes where
correct precise results are essential, such as constructing calendars; measuring distances on Earth;
telling the correct times for daily prayers; and determining the qibla, the direction to Mecca, which
should be faced during prayer. Even astronomers who applied their science to astrology had to be able
to tell precisely in what sign of the zodiac the Sun and planets were on any given date; and they were
not likely to tolerate a theory like Aristotle’s that gave the wrong answers.
The Abbasid caliphate came to an end in 1258, when the Mongols under Hulegu Khan sacked
Baghdad and killed the caliph. Abbasid rule had disintegrated well before that. Political and military
power had passed from the caliphs to Turkish sultans, and even the caliph’s religious authority was
weakened by the founding of independent Islamic governments: a translated Ummayad caliphate in
Spain, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt, the Almoravid dynasty in Morocco and Spain, succeeded by the
Almohad caliphate in North Africa and Spain. Parts of Syria and Palestine were temporarily
reconquered by Christians, first by Byzantines and then by Frankish crusaders.

Arab science had already begun to decline before the end of the Abbasid caliphate, perhaps beginning
about AD 1100. After that, there were no more scientists with the stature of al-Battani, al-Biruni, Ibn
Sina, and al-Haitam. This is a controversial point, and the bitterness of the controversy is heightened by
today’s politics. Some scholars deny that there was any decline.

It is certainly true that some science continued even after the end of the Abbasid era, under the
Mongols in Persia and then in India, and later under the Ottoman Turks. For instance, the building of
the Maragha observatory in Persia was ordered by Hulegu in 1259, just a year after his sacking of
Baghdad, in gratitude for the help that he thought that astrologers had given him in his conquests. Its
founding director, the astronomer al-Tusi, wrote about spherical geometry (the geometry obeyed by
great circles on a spherical surface, like the notional sphere of the fixed stars), compiled astronomical
tables, and suggested modifications to Ptolemy’s epicycles. Al-Tusi founded a scientific dynasty: his
student al-Shirazi was an astronomer and mathematician, and al-Shirazi’s student al-Farisi did
groundbreaking work on optics, explaining the rainbow and its colors as the result of the refraction of
sunlight in raindrops.
Observatories continued to be built in Islamic countries. The greatest may have been an observatory
in Samarkand, built in the 1420s by the ruler Ulugh Beg of the Timurid dynasty founded by Timur Lenk
(Tamburlaine). There more accurate values were calculated for the sidereal year (365 days, 5 hours, 49
minutes, and 15 seconds) and the precession of the equinoxes (70 rather than 75 years per degree of
precession, as compared with the modern value of 71.46 years per degree).

An important advance in medicine was made just after the end of the Abbasid period. This was the
discovery by the Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis of the pulmonary circulation, the circulation of blood from
the right side of the heart through the lungs, where it mixes with air, and then flows back to the heart’s
left side. Ibn al-Nafis worked at hospitals in Damascus and Cairo, and also wrote on ophthalmology.
These examples notwithstanding, it is hard to avoid the impression that science in the Islamic world
began to lose momentum toward the end of the Abbasid era, and then continued to decline. When the
scientific revolution came, it took place only in Europe, not in the lands of Islam, and it was not joined
by Islamic scientists. Even after telescopes became available in the seventeenth century, astronomical
observatories in Islamic countries continued to be limited to naked-eye astronomy (though aided by
elaborate instruments), undertaken largely for calendrical and religious rather than scientific purposes.
Reading Essay
Science as natural philosophy
Precritical science
Science, as it has been defined above, made its appearance before writing. It is necessary, therefore, to infer from archaeological remains what
was the content of that science. From cave paintings and from apparently regular scratches on bone and reindeer horn, it is known that
prehistoric humans were close observers of nature who carefully tracked the seasons and times of the year. About 2500 BCE there was a
sudden burst of activity that seems to have had clear scientific importance. Great Britain and northwestern Europe contain large stone
structures from that era, the most famous of which is Stonehenge on the Salisbury Plain in England, that are remarkable from a scientific point
of view. Not only do they reveal technical and social skills of a high order—it was no mean feat to move such enormous blocks of stone
considerable distances and place them in position—but the basic conception of Stonehenge and the other megalithic structures also seems to
combine religious and astronomical purposes. Their layouts suggest a degree of mathematical sophistication that was first suspected only in
the mid-20th century. Stonehenge is a circle, but some of the other megalithic structures are egg-shaped and, apparently, constructed on
mathematical principles that require at least practical knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem that the square of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. This theorem, or at least the Pythagorean numbers that can be generated
by it, seems to have been known throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Neolithic Europe two millennia before the birth of Pythagoras.

This combination of religion and astronomy was fundamental to the early history of science. It is found in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China
(although to a much lesser extent than elsewhere), Central America, and India. The spectacle of the heavens, with the clearly discernible order
and regularity of most heavenly bodies highlighted by extraordinary events such as comets and novae and the peculiar motions of the planets,
obviously was an irresistible intellectual puzzle to early humankind. In its search for order and regularity, the human mind could do no better
than to seize upon the heavens as the paradigm of certain knowledge. Astronomy was to remain the queen of the sciences (welded solidly to
theology) for the next 4,000 years.

Science, in its mature form, developed only in the West. But it is instructive to survey the protoscience that appeared in other areas, especially
in light of the fact that until quite recently this knowledge was often, as in China, far superior to Western science.
China
As has already been noted, astronomy seems everywhere to have been the first science to emerge. Its intimate relation to religion gave it a
ritual dimension that then stimulated the growth of mathematics. Chinese savants, for example, early devised a calendar and methods of plotting
the positions of stellar constellations. Since changes in the heavens presaged important changes on the Earth (for the Chinese considered the
universe to be a vast organism in which all elements were connected), astronomy and astrology were incorporated into the system of
government from the very dawn of the Chinese state in the 2nd millennium BCE. As the Chinese bureaucracy developed, an accurate calendar
became absolutely necessary to the maintenance of legitimacy and order. The result was a system of astronomical observations and records
unparalleled elsewhere, thanks to which there are, today, star catalogs and observations of eclipses and novae that go back for millennia.
In other sciences too the overriding emphasis was on practicality, for the Chinese, almost alone among ancient peoples, did not fill the cosmos
with gods and demons whose arbitrary wills determined events. Order was inherent and, therefore, expected. It was for humans to detect and
describe this order and to profit from it. Chemistry (or, rather, alchemy), medicine, geology, geography, and technology were all encouraged by
the state and flourished. Practical knowledge of a high order permitted the Chinese to deal with practical problems for centuries on a level not
attained in the West until the Renaissance.

India
Astronomy was studied in India for calendrical purposes to set the times for both practical and religious tasks. Primary emphasis was placed on
solar and lunar motions, the fixed stars serving as a background against which these luminaries moved. Indian mathematics seems to have been
quite advanced, with particular sophistication in geometrical and algebraic techniques. This latter branch was undoubtedly stimulated by the
flexibility of the Indian system of numeration that later was to come into the West as the Hindu-Arabic numerals.

America
Quite independently of China, India, and the other civilizations of Europe and Asia, the Maya of Central America, building upon older cultures,
created a complex society in which astronomy and astrology played important roles. Determination of the calendar, again, had both practical
and religious significance. Solar and lunar eclipses were important, as was the position of the bright planet Venus. No sophisticated mathematics
are known to have been associated with this astronomy, but the Mayan calendar was both ingenious and the result of careful observation.
The Middle East
In the cradles of Western civilization in Egypt and Mesopotamia, there were two rather different situations. In Egypt there was an
assumption of cosmic order guaranteed by a host of benevolent gods. Unlike China, whose rugged geography often produced
disastrous floods, earthquakes, and violent storms that destroyed crops, Egypt was surpassingly placid and delightful. Egyptians found it
difficult to believe that all ended with death. Enormous intellectual and physical labour, therefore, was devoted to preserving life after
death. Both Egyptian theology and the pyramids are testaments to this preoccupation. All of the important questions were answered
by religion, so the Egyptians did not concern themselves overmuch with speculations about the universe. The stars and the planets had
astrological significance in that the major heavenly bodies were assumed to “rule” the land when they were in the ascendant (from the
succession of these “rules” came the seven-day week, after the five planets and the Sun and the Moon), but astronomy was largely
limited to the calendrical calculations necessary to predict the annual life-giving flood of the Nile. None of this required much
mathematics, and there was, consequently, little of any importance.

Mesopotamia was more like China. The life of the land depended upon the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, as that of
China depended upon the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze (Chang Jiang). The land was harsh and made habitable only by
extensive damming and irrigation works. Storms, insects, floods, and invaders made life insecure. To create a stable society required
both great technological skill, for the creation of hydraulic works, and the ability to hold off the forces of disruption. These latter were
early identified with powerful and arbitrary gods who dominated Mesopotamian theology. The cities of the plain were centred on
temples run by a priestly caste whose functions included the planning of major public works, like canals, dams, and irrigation systems,
the allocation of the resources of the city to its members, and the averting of a divine wrath that could wipe everything out.
Mathematics and astronomy thrived under these conditions. The number system, probably drawn from the system of weights and
coinage, was based on 60 (it was in ancient Mesopotamia that the system of degrees, minutes, and seconds developed) and was
adapted to a practical arithmetic. The heavens were the abode of the gods, and because heavenly phenomena were thought to
presage terrestrial disasters, they were carefully observed and recorded. Out of these practices grew, first, a highly developed
mathematics that went far beyond the requirements of daily business, and then, some centuries later, a descriptive astronomy that
was the most sophisticated of the ancient world until the Greeks took it over and perfected it.

Nothing is known of the motives of these early mathematicians for carrying their studies beyond the calculations of volumes of dirt
to be removed from canals and the provisions necessary for work parties. It may have been simply intellectual play—the role of
playfulness in the history of science should not be underestimated—that led them onward to abstract algebra. There are texts from
about 1700 BCE that are remarkable for their mathematical suppleness. Babylonian mathematicians knew the Pythagorean
relationship well and used it constantly. They could solve simple quadratic equations and could even solve problems in compound
interest involving exponents. From about a millennium later there are texts that utilize these skills to provide a very elaborate
mathematical description of astronomical phenomena.

Although China and Mesopotamia provide examples of exact observation and precise description of nature, what is missing is
explanation in the scientific mode. The Chinese assumed a cosmic order that was vaguely founded on the balance of opposite forces
(yin–yang) and the harmony of the five elements (water, wood, metal, fire, and earth). Why this harmony obtained was not discussed.
Similarly, the Egyptians found the world harmonious because the gods willed it so. For Babylonians and other Mesopotamian
cultures, order existed only so long as all-powerful and capricious gods supported it. In all these societies, humans could describe
nature and use it, but to understand it was the function of religion and magic, not reason. It was the Greeks who first sought to go
beyond description and to arrive at reasonable explanations of natural phenomena that did not involve the arbitrary will of the gods.
Gods might still play a role, as indeed they did for centuries to come, but even the gods were subject to rational laws.
Greek science
The birth of natural philosophy
There seems to be no good reason why the Hellenes, clustered in isolated city-states in a relatively poor and backward land, should have
struck out into intellectual regions that were only dimly perceived, if at all, by the splendid civilizations of the Yangtze,Tigris and Euphrates, and
Nile valleys. There were many differences between ancient Greece and the other civilizations, but perhaps the most significant was religion.
What is striking about Greek religion, in contrast to the religions of Mesopotamia and Egypt, is its puerility. Both of the great river civilizations
evolved complex theologies that served to answer most, if not all, of the large questions about humankind’s place and destiny. Greek religion
did not. It was, in fact, little more than a collection of folk tales, more appropriate to the campfire than to the temple. Perhaps this was the
result of the collapse of an earlier Greek civilization, the Mycenaean, toward the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, when the Dark Age
descended upon Greece and lasted for three centuries. All that was preserved were stories of gods and men, passed along by poets, that dimly
reflected Mycenaean values and events. Such were the great poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, in which heroes and gods mingled
freely with one another. Indeed, they mingled too freely, for the gods appear in these tales as little more than immortal adolescents whose
tricks and feats, when compared with the concerns of a Marduk or Jehovah, are infantile. There really was no Greek theology in the sense that
theology provides a coherent and profound explanation of the workings of both the cosmos and the human heart. Hence, there were no easy
answers to inquiring Greek minds. The result was that ample room was left for a more penetrating and ultimately more satisfying mode of
inquiry. Thus were philosophy and its oldest offspring, science, born.

The first natural philosopher, according to Hellenic tradition, was Thales of Miletus, who flourished in the 6th century BCE.We know of him
only through later accounts, for nothing he wrote has survived. He is supposed to have predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BCE and to have
invented the formal study of geometry in his demonstration of the bisecting of a circle by its diameter. Most importantly, he tried to explain all
observed natural phenomena in terms of the changes of a single substance, water, which can be seen to exist in solid, liquid, and gaseous states.
What for Thales guaranteed the regularity and rationality of the world was the innate divinity in all things that directed them to their divinely
appointed ends. From these ideas there emerged two characteristics of classical Greek science. The first was the view of the universe as an
ordered structure (the Greek kósmos means “order”). The second was the conviction that this order was not that of a mechanical
contrivance but that of an organism: all parts of the universe had purposes in the overall scheme of things, and objects moved naturally toward
the ends they were fated to serve. This motion toward ends is called teleology and, with but few exceptions, it permeated Greek as well as
much later science.
Thales inadvertently made one other fundamental contribution to the development of natural science. By naming a specific
substance as the basic element of all matter, Thales opened himself to criticism, which was not long in coming. His own
disciple, Anaximander, was quick to argue that water could not be the basic substance. His argument was simple: water, if it
is anything, is essentially wet; nothing can be its own contradiction. Hence, if Thales were correct, the opposite of wet could
not exist in a substance, and that would preclude all of the dry things that are observed in the world. Therefore, Thales was
wrong. Here was the birth of the critical tradition that is fundamental to the advance of science.

Thales’ conjectures set off an intellectual explosion, most of which was devoted to increasingly refined criticisms of his
doctrine of fundamental matter. Various single substances were proposed and then rejected, ultimately in favour of a
multiplicity of elements that could account for such opposite qualities as wet and dry, hot and cold. Two centuries after
Thales, most natural philosophers accepted a doctrine of four elements: earth (cold and dry), fire (hot and dry), water
(cold and wet), and air (hot and wet). All bodies were made from these four.

The presence of the elements only guaranteed the presence of their qualities in various proportions. What was not
accounted for was the form these elements took, which served to differentiate natural objects from one another. The
problem of form was first attacked systematically by the philosopher and cult leader Pythagoras in the 6th century BCE.
Legend has it that Pythagoras became convinced of the primacy of number when he realized that the musical notes
produced by a monochord were in simple ratio to the length of the string. Qualities (tones) were reduced to quantities
(numbers in integral ratios). Thus was born mathematical physics, for this discovery provided the essential bridge between
the world of physical experience and that of numerical relationships. Number provided the answer to the question of the
origin of forms and qualities.
Aristotle and Archimedes
Hellenic science was built upon the foundations laid by Thales and Pythagoras. It reached its zenith in the works of
Aristotle and Archimedes. Aristotle represents the first tradition, that of qualitative forms and teleology. He was himself a
biologist whose observations of marine organisms were unsurpassed until the 19th century. Biology is essentially
teleological—the parts of a living organism are understood in terms of what they do in and for the organism—and
Aristotle’s biological works provided the framework for the science until the time of Charles Darwin. In physics, teleology
is not so obvious, and Aristotle had to impose it on the cosmos. From Plato, his teacher, he inherited the theological
proposition that the heavenly bodies (stars and planets) are literally divine and, as such, perfect. They could, therefore,
move only in perfect, eternal, unchanging motion, which, by Plato’s definition, meant perfect circles. The Earth, being
obviously not divine, and inert, was at the centre. From the Earth to the sphere of the Moon, all things constantly changed,
generating new forms and then decaying back into formlessness. Above the Moon the cosmos consisted of contiguous and
concentric crystalline spheres moving on axes set at angles to one another (this accounted for the peculiar motions of the
planets) and deriving their motion either from a fifth element that moved naturally in circles or from heavenly souls
resident in the celestial bodies. The ultimate cause of all motion was a prime, or unmoved, mover (God) that stood outside
the cosmos.

Aristotle was able to make a great deal of sense of observed nature by asking of any object or process: what is the
material involved, what is its form and how did it get that form, and, most important of all, what is its purpose? What
should be noted is that, for Aristotle, all activity that occurred spontaneously was natural. Hence, the proper means of
investigation was observation. Experiment, that is, altering natural conditions in order to throw light on the hidden
properties and activities of objects, was unnatural and could not, therefore, be expected to reveal the essence of things.
Experiment was thus not essential to Greek science.
The problem of purpose did not arise in the areas in which Archimedes made his most important contributions. He was,
first of all, a brilliant mathematician whose work on conic sections and on the area of the circle prepared the way for the
later invention of the calculus. It was in mathematical physics, however, that he made his greatest contributions to science.
His mathematical demonstration of the law of the lever was as exact as a Euclidean proof in geometry. Similarly, his work
on hydrostatics introduced and developed the method whereby physical characteristics, in this case specific gravity, which
Archimedes discovered, are given mathematical shape and then manipulated by mathematical methods to yield
mathematical conclusions that can be translated back into physical terms.

In one major area the Aristotelian and the Archimedean approaches were forced into a rather inconvenient marriage.
Astronomy was the dominant physical science throughout antiquity, but it had never been successfully reduced to a
coherent system. The Platonic-Aristotelian astral religion required that planetary orbits be circles. But, particularly after
the conquests of Alexander the Great had made the observations and mathematical methods of the Babylonians available
to the Greeks, astronomers found it impossible to reconcile theory and observation. Astronomy then split into two parts:
one was physical and accepted Aristotelian theory in accounting for heavenly motion, and the other ignored causation and
concentrated solely on the creation of a mathematical model that could be used for computing planetary positions.
Ptolemy, in the 2nd century CE, carried the latter tradition to its highest point in antiquity in his Hē mathēmatikē syntaxis
(“The Mathematical Collection,” better known under its Greek-Arabic title, Almagest).
Medicine
The Greeks not only made substantial progress in understanding the cosmos but also went far beyond their predecessors
in their knowledge of the human body. Pre-Greek medicine had been almost entirely confined to religion and ritual.
Disease was considered the result of divine disfavour and human sin, to be dealt with by spells, prayers, and other
propitiatory measures. In the 5th century BCE a revolutionary change came about that is associated with the name of
Hippocrates. It was Hippocrates and his school who, influenced by the rise of natural philosophy, first insisted that disease
was a natural, not a supernatural, phenomenon. Even maladies as striking as epilepsy, whose seizures appeared to be
divinely caused, were held to originate in natural causes within the body.

The height of medical science in antiquity was reached late in the Hellenistic period. Much work was done at the museum
of Alexandria, a research institute set up under Greek influence in Egypt in the 3rd century BCE to sponsor learning in
general. The heart and the vascular system were investigated, as were the nerves and the brain. The organs of the thoracic
cavity were described, and attempts were made to discover their functions. It was on these researches, and on his own
dissections of apes and pigs, that the last great physician of antiquity, Galen of Pergamum, based his physiology. It was,
essentially, a tripartite system in which so-called spirits—natural, vital, and animal—passed respectively through the veins,
the arteries, and the nerves to vitalize the body as a whole. Galen’s attempts to correlate therapeutics with his physiology
were not successful, and so medical practice remained eclectic and a matter of the physician’s choice. Usually the optimal
choice was that propounded by the Hippocratics, who relied primarily on simple, clean living and the ability of the body to
heal itself.
Science in Rome and Christianity
The apogee of Greek science in the works of Archimedes and Euclid coincided with the rise of Roman power in the Mediterranean. The Romans were deeply
impressed by Greek art, literature, philosophy, and science, and after their conquest of Greece many Greek intellectuals served as household slaves tutoring
noble Roman children. The Romans were a practical people, however, and, while they contemplated the Greek intellectual achievement with awe, they also
could not help but ask what good it had done the Greeks. Roman common sense was what kept Rome great; science and philosophy were either ignored or
relegated to rather low status. Even such a Hellenophile as the statesman and orator Cicero used Greek thought more to buttress the old Roman ways than
as a source of new ideas and viewpoints.

The spirit of independent research was quite foreign to the Roman mind, so scientific innovation ground to a halt. The scientific legacy of Greece was
condensed and corrupted into Roman encyclopaedias whose major function was entertainment rather than enlightenment. Typical of this spirit was the 1st-
century-CE aristocrat Pliny the Elder, whose Natural History was a multivolume collection of myths, odd tales of wondrous creatures, magic, and some
science, all mixed together uncritically for the titillation of other aristocrats. Aristotle would have been embarrassed by it.

At its height Rome incorporated a host of peoples with different customs, languages, and religions within its empire. One religious sect that proved more
significant than the rest was Christianity. Jesus and his kingdom were not of this world, but his disciples and their followers were. This world could not be
ignored, even though concern with worldly things could be dangerous to the soul. So the early Christians approached the worldly wisdom of their time with
ambivalence: on the one hand, the rhetoric and the arguments of ancient philosophy were snares and delusions that might mislead the simple and the unwary;
on the other hand, the sophisticated and the educated of the empire could not be converted unless the Christian message was presented in the terms and
rhetoric of the philosophical schools. Before they knew it, the early Christians were enmeshed in metaphysical arguments, some of which involved physics.
What, for example, was the nature of Jesus, in purely physical terms? How was it possible that anybody could have two different essential natures, as was
claimed for Jesus? Such questions revealed how important knowledge of the arguments of Greek thinkers on the nature of substance could be to those
engaged in founding a new theology.

Ancient learning, then, did not die with the fall of Rome and the occupation of the Western Empire by tribes of Germanic barbarians. To be sure, the lamp of
learning burned very feebly, but it did not go out. Monks in monasteries faithfully copied out classics of ancient thought and early Christianity and preserved
them for posterity. Monasteries continued to teach the elements of ancient learning, for little beyond the elementary survived in the Latin West. In the East
the Byzantine Empire remained strong, and there the ancient traditions continued. There was little original work done in the millennium following the fall of
Rome, but the ancient texts were preserved along with knowledge of the ancient Greek language. This was to be a precious reservoir of learning for the Latin
West in later centuries.
Science in Islam
The torch of ancient learning passed first to one of the invading groups that helped bring down the Eastern Empire. In the 7th century the
Arabs, inspired by their new religion, burst out of the Arabian peninsula and laid the foundations of an Islamic empire that eventually rivalled
that of ancient Rome. To the Arabs, ancient science was a precious treasure. The Qurʿān, the sacred book of Islam, particularly praised medicine
as an art close to God. Astronomy and astrology were believed to be one way of glimpsing what God willed for humankind. Contact with
Hindu mathematics and the requirements of astronomy stimulated the study of numbers and of geometry. The writings of the Hellenes were,
therefore, eagerly sought and translated, and thus much of the science of antiquity passed into Islamic culture. Greek medicine, Greek
astronomy and astrology, and Greek mathematics, together with the great philosophical works of Plato and, particularly, Aristotle, were
assimilated in Islam by the end of the 9th century. Nor did the Arabs stop with assimilation. They criticized and they innovated. Islamic
astronomy and astrology were aided by the construction of great astronomical observatories that provided accurate observations against
which the Ptolemaic predictions could be checked. Numbers fascinated Islamic thinkers, and this fascination served as the motivation for the
creation of algebra (from Arabic al-jabr) and the study of algebraic functions.

Medieval European science

Medieval Christendom confronted Islam chiefly in military crusades, in Spain and the Holy Land, and in theology. From this confrontation came
the restoration of ancient learning to the West. The Reconquista in Spain gradually pushed the Moors south from the Pyrenees, and among the
treasures left behind were Arabic translations of Greek works of science and philosophy. In 1085 the city of Toledo, with one of the finest
libraries in Islam, fell to the Christians. Among the occupiers were Christian monks who quickly began the process of translating ancient works
into Latin. By the end of the 12th century much of the ancient heritage was again available to the Latin West.

The medieval world was caricatured by thinkers of the 18th-century Enlightenment as a period of darkness, superstition, and hostility to
science and learning. On the contrary, it was one of great technological vitality. The advances that were made may appear today as trifling, but
that is because they were so fundamental. They included the horseshoe and the horse collar, without which horsepower cannot be efficiently
exploited. The invention of the crank, the brace and bit, the wheelbarrow, and the flying buttress made possible the great Gothic cathedrals.
Improvements in the gear trains of waterwheels and the development of windmills harnessed these sources of power with great efficiency.
Mechanical ingenuity, building on experience with mills and power wheels, culminated in the 14th century in the mechanical clock, which not
only set a new standard of chronometrical accuracy but also provided philosophers with a new metaphor for nature itself.
An equal amount of energy was devoted to achieving a scientific understanding of nature, but it is essential to understand to what use
medieval thinkers put this kind of knowledge. As the fertility of the technology shows, medieval Europeans had no deep prejudices
against utilitarian knowledge. But the areas in which scientific knowledge could find useful expression were few. Instead, science was
viewed chiefly as a means of understanding God’s creation and, thereby, the Godhead itself. The best example of this attitude is found in
the medieval study of optics. Light, as Genesis makes clear, was among the first creations of God. The 12th–13th-century cleric-scholar
Robert Grosseteste saw in light the first creative impulse. As light spread, it created both space and matter, and, in its reflection from
the outermost circle of the cosmos, it gradually solidified into the heavenly spheres. To understand the laws of the propagation of light
was to understand, in some slight way, the nature of the creation.

In the course of studying light, particular problems were isolated and attacked. What, for example, is the rainbow? It is impossible to get
close enough to a rainbow to see clearly what is going on, for as the observer moves, so too does the rainbow. It does seem to depend
upon the presence of raindrops, so medieval investigators sought to bring the rainbow down from the skies into their studies. Insight
into the nature of the rainbow could be achieved by simulating the conditions under which rainbows occur. For raindrops the
investigators substituted hollow glass balls filled with water, so that the rainbow could be studied at leisure. Valid conclusions about
rainbows could then be drawn by assuming the validity of the analogy between raindrops and water-filled globes. This involved the
implicit assumptions that nature was simple (i.e., governed by a few general laws) and that similar effects had similar causes. Such a
nature was what could be expected of a rational, benevolent deity. Hence, the assumption could be persuasively adopted.

Medieval philosophers were not content, as the above example shows, to repeat what the ancients had said. They subjected ancient
texts to close critical scrutiny. Usually, the intensity of the criticism was directly proportional to the theological significance of the
problem involved. Such was the case with motion. Medieval philosophers examined all aspects of motion with great care, for the nature
of motion had important theological implications. Thomas Aquinas used Aristotle’s dictum, that everything that moves is moved by
something else, to show that God must exist, for otherwise the existence of any motion would imply an infinite regression of prior
causal motions.
It should be clear that there was no conscious conflict between science and religion in the Middle Ages. As Aquinas
pointed out, God was the author of both the book of Scripture and the book of nature. The guide to nature was reason,
the faculty that was the image of God in which humankind was made. Scripture was direct revelation, although it
needed interpretation, for there were passages that were obscure or difficult. The two books, having the same author,
could not contradict each other. For the short term, science and revelation marched hand in hand. Aquinas carefully
wove knowledge of nature into his theology, as in his proof from motion of the existence of God. But if his scientific
concepts of motion should ever be challenged, there would necessarily be a theological challenge as well. By working
science into the very fabric of his theology, he virtually guaranteed that someday there would be conflict. Theologians
would side with theology and scientists with science, to create a breach that neither particularly desired.

The glory of medieval science was its integration of science, philosophy, and theology into a magnificent and
comprehensible whole. It can be best contemplated in the greatest of all medieval poems, Dante’s Divine Comedy. Here
was an essentially Aristotelian cosmos, finite and easily understood, over which God, his Son, and his saints reigned.
Humanity and Earth occupied the centre, as befitted their centrality in God’s plan. The nine circles of hell were
populated by humans whose exercise of their free will had led to their damnation. Purgatory contained lesser sinners
still capable of salvation. The heavenly spheres were populated by the saved and the saintly. The natural hierarchy gave
way to the spiritual hierarchy as one ascended toward the throne of God. Such a hierarchy was reflected in the social
and political institutions of medieval Europe, and God, the supreme monarch, ruled his creation with justice and love. All
fit together in a grand cosmic scheme, one not to be abandoned lightly.

https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science/Science-as-natural-philosophy
BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENCE -2
§ Renaissance
§ New Scientific Method
§ Scientific Revolution
§ Copernican Revolution
§ Darwin and Modern Biology
§ Industrial Revolution
§ Einstein and Relativity Theory
§ Quantum Theory
§ Reading Essay
The Italian Renaissance

From the 1300s to the 1500s, Western Europe enjoyed a golden age in the arts
and literature, known as the Renaissance. The word literally means “rebirth.”
The Renaissance was a time of great creativity and change in many areas—
economic, political, social, and above all, cultural.

A New Worldview
- Rediscovered interest of Greek and Roman philosophers
- Rebirth after disorder and disunity of the late Middle Ages
- Focused on the here and now rather then the afterlife
- Ideal Renaissance person was multi-talented

A Spirit of Adventure and Curiosity

- Exploration of Earth and Space during this time

Renaissance Humanism
- Focused on secular subjects
- Looking at the importance of humans
The Renaissance Begins in Italy

The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid-1300s and later spread north
to the rest of Europe. It reached its height in the 1500s. The
Renaissance emerged in Italy for several reasons.

Italy’s History and Geography

- Looking at ancient civilizations Rome was a great place to start
- Architecture, coins, statues, and inscriptions served as a reminder
- Coastal cities allowed for massive trade, led to larger cities and
powerful banks

Florence and the Medicis

- Florence was a major Italian city that supported the Renaissance
- Medici family started with banking, expanded to manufacturing,
mining and other business ventures
- Powerful and wealthy families supported the arts
Art Reflects New Ideas and Attitudes
- Focuses on the individual
- Produced portraits of famous figures of the time
- Had Greek and Roman influences throughout
Renaissance Architecture
- Reused old styles of columns, arches, and domes

The Big 3
§ Leonardo da Vinci
§ Michelangelo
§ Raphael
Northern Renaissance Humanists and Writers
Erasmus
- Called for reform in the church, wanted Bible to be in
the vernacular
Sir Thomas More
- Published the book Utopia
- Called for economic and social reforms
Rabelais’s Comic Masterpiece
- Printed work in the vernacular, also argued for social
changes
Shakespeare Explores Universal Themes
- Focused on everyday realistic events (humanist)
- Midsummer Nights Dream (young love) / Richard III
(English Kings) / Romeo and Juliet (teenagers and
family feuds)
The Printing Revolution
The great works of Renaissance literature reached a
large audience. The reason for this was a crucial
breakthrough in technology—the development of
printing in Europe.

The New Technology

- Johannes Gutenburg – Mainz, Germany – created
printing press in 1456
- Shortly afterwards printing presses were found in
Germany, Italy, England, and the Netherlands

The Impact of the Printed Book

- Mass production of books (increased in education)
- Books were now more affordable
- Spread ideas more rapidly
Johannes Gutenberg with the first printing press in 1450s Mainz, Germany
 Causes of the Reformation
During the Renaissance, Christians from all levels of society
grew impatient with the corruption of the clergy and the
worldliness of the Roman Catholic Church. In the words of
one unhappy peasant, “Instead of saving the souls of the
dead and sending them to Heaven, [the clergy] gorge
themselves at banquets after funerals . . . They are wicked
wolves! They would like to devour us all, dead or alive.”

Abuses Within the Church

- Popes competed with secular rulers for political power
- Popes began to live lavish lifestyles
- Increased fees for church services (marriages, baptisms,
indulgences)
During the 1500s, European villages were busy places, with
markets, artisan shops, and homes. The church was the center of
Early Reformers village life.
- John Wycliffe called for reform and stop selling indulgences
- John Hus – argued for vernacular
Martin Luther's Protests Bring Change

Protests against the Church continued to grow. In 1517, these

protests erupted into a full scale revolt. The man who triggered the
revolt was a German monk and professor of theology named Martin
Luther.

Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg. The theses also contained an invitation
to church leaders to debate Luther on the issues raised by his theses. The invitation was ignored.
 Changing Views of the Universe
Both the Renaissance and the Reformation looked to the past for
models. Humanists turned to ancient classical learning. Religious
reformers looked to the Bible and early Christian times for
inspiration. The Renaissance spirit of inquiry led scientists to
explore beyond the knowledge of the ancients.

Old Views
v - Greek Philosophers and the Church both said Earth was
center of Universe
v 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a sun centered model
v Took multiple other scientists to confirm Copernicus’ The ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy believed that the
theory, most notable was Johannes Kepler Earth was at the center of the universe and the sun and
stars revolved around it. This is an image of Ptolemy’s
v Galileo Galilei used new technology to create first Geocentric Universe.
astronomical telescope. Church was upset with his
findings and sentenced him to house arrest in early 17th
century
 A New Scientific Method

Despite the opposition of the Church, by the early 1600s a new approach to science had emerged. Unlike
most earlier approaches, it started not with Aristotle or Ptolemy or even the Bible but with observation and
experimentation. Most important, complex mathematical calculations were used to convert the observations
and experiments into scientific laws. In time, this approach became known as the scientific method.

Revolutionary Scientific Thinkers

- Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon were early scientific “thinkers”
- “The Truth is not known at the beginning, but only at the end after a long
process of investigation”
- These ideas created what we call the Scientific Method
 Bacon and the Scientific Method
Ø The scholastic world- view deferred to Aristotle as the
authority on science.
Ø Challenged Aristotle’s idea quoting “ Being a genius is like
being able to run fast – you travel far, but unless you have a
map you’ll be lost.”
Francis Bacon (1561 –1626)

Ø Bacon provided a map – the first ‘scientific method.’

1. Empirical observation and experimentation
2. Rational analysis, mathematical modeling and deductive reasoning.
 COGITO, ERGO SUM Düşünüyorum, o halde varım.

• Descartes is often called the 'father' of modern philosophy.

• Descartes argued that knowledge is genuinely possible, and
that a mathematically-based scientific knowledge of the
material world is possible.
• He rejected religious authority in the quest for scientific and
philosophical knowledge (but he was a devout Catholic)
• He argued for a rational justification for a universal, mathematical/
quantitative understanding of nature.
Rene Descardes (1596 -1650)
• We still rely largely on the Cartesian view of the universe – a
mechanistic view of nature.
• Although Descartes and other philosophers established spaces for
coexistence between science and religion, it would still be quite
some time before Europe would be able to embrace evolution.
A New Scientific Method
 Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry
The 1500s and 1600s saw dramatic changes in many of the sciences, especially medicine and chemistry.
Like Copernicus, Bacon, and Descartes, scientists rejected long-held assumptions. They relied on new
technology, such as the microscope, and benefited from better communication, especially the availability
of printed books.

English surgeon John Banister dissects a corpse to

teach students about human anatomy. New
approaches to scientific investigation helped to
change how physicians learned about the human
body.
Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry 2. The Microscope
1. Human Anatomy

4. Isaac Newton – Theory of Gravity 3. The New Science of Chemistry

 New Theories and Technologies

William Harvey realized the heart does not

generate blood but serves as a circulator – a pump.

William Harvey (1578 – 1657)

Scientific Revolution

Ø There is a shift back to the idea that human

reason, not faith has the power to discover truth.

Ø Nicholaus Copernicus proposes a heliocentric

(‘ sun-centered’) view of the universe.

§ This ‘Copernican Revolution’ challenged the Ptolemic/

geocentric view that dominated for 1400 years (and was
church doctrine).
 Problems with Copernicans

Ø Copernicus’ system could explain things that the old Ptolemaic system could
not.
Ø The math did not work (because Copernicus thought that the earth’s orbit
was circular)
Ø Andreas Osiander wrote the (posthumous) intro to Copernicus’ book
claiming his system was ‘just a predictive tool’, not a ‘true description of nature.’ -
- instrumentalism --
Ø Copernicans were condemned heretics and burned at
the stake.
Ø 100 yrs. Later Galileo improved the telescope and
published his findings in support of Copernicus which
encouraged a revolution
Ø “ The bible is a book about how to go to heaven. It is
not a book about how the heavens go.”

Ø theories on motion and falling objects

Ø universal law of acceleration
Ø telescope
 Universal Laws of Science Isaac Newton (1643 -1727)

Ø The ‘Age of Enlightenment’ was a golden age for ‘natural philosophers’

Ø They turned away from the Aristotelian model of trying to find the ‘purpose of
motion.’
Ø Instead, they started looking for ‘laws and mechanisms in nature.

Ø Prior to Newton, science was scattered and explained on isolated phenomena.

Ø The Universal Law of Gravitation was the first truly UNIVERSAL scientific law.

Ø Mechanism – Newton thought the whole universe was one big machine, a
deterministic system of causes and their necessary effects.
The Birth of Modern Science
It was in the 17th century that modern science was really born, and the world began to be
examined more closely, using instruments such as the telescope, microscope, clock and
barometer. It was also at this time that scientific laws started to be put forward for such
phenomena as gravity and the way that the volume, pressure and temperature of a gas are
related. In the 18th century much of basic biology and chemistry was developed as part of the
Age of Enlightenment.

The 19th century saw some of the great names of science: people like the chemist John Dalton,
who developed the atomic theory of matter, Michael Faraday and James Maxwell who both put
forward theories concerning electricity and magnetism, and Charles Darwin, who proposed the
(still) controversial theory of evolution. Each of these developments forced scientists radically to
re-examine their views of the way in which the world worked.

The last century brought discoveries such as relativity and quantum mechanics, which, again,
required scientists to look at things in a completely different way. It makes you wonder what the
iconoclastic discoveries of this century will be.
Up until Darwin, the predominant understanding of the world
came from the Bible and Church doctrine. In this respect, truth
had been revealed (via the Bible and Christ) . . . There was no need
to question God’s creation . . . .

This set of beliefs meant that people were highly resistant to

evidence to the contrary and even went so far to create elaborate
explanations to “fit” contradictions into religious belief.
 Evidence supporting evolution prior to Darwin

Sir Charles Lyell (1797 – 1875)

Wrote: Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man in

1863 and Principles of Geology

Lyell argued that presently observable

Geological processes were adequate
to explain geological history; the action
of the rain, sea, volcanoes, earthquakes,
etc., explained the geological history of
more ancient times.
 Evidence supporting evolution prior to Darwin

JEAN-BAPTISTE LAMARCK (1744-1829)

Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lamarck stressed two main themes in his biological work (neither
of them to do with soft inheritance).

Ø The first was that the environment gives rise to changes in

animals. He cited examples of blindness in moles, the
presence of teeth in mammals and the absence of teeth in
birds as evidence of this principle.

Ø The second principle was that life was structured in an orderly

manner and that many different parts of all bodies make
possible the organic movements of animals
 Evidence supporting evolution prior to Darwin
ØCatastrophism
ØOpposed Lamarck
ØConvinced others that extinction was a fact
ØKnown as the father of Comparative anatomy

Cuvier’s work demonstrated that some

species had become extinct à this raised two issues:
1. Why would God allow some of his creations to disappear? Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

2. Young earth theory: how could so many strange species go

extinct, be covered by sediments, if the earth was young?
 Evidence supporting evolution prior to Darwin
Sequence of Fossil types

• By the 1830’s there was general recognition that fossils had been organisms.
• Further, it was apparent that older strata contained very simple animals. As one moved through time, the
organisms became more and more complex.
• There was no reason to believe that catastrophes had occurred . . . .

Existence of Rudimentary Organs

• By the late 1700s, biologists recognized that some animals retained parts
they didn’t use
• snakes with vestiges of limbs
• Flightless insects retained stunted wings.
• These observations contradicted the argument from design theory.
 Evidence supporting evolution prior to Darwin
Structural similarities
• A human hand, fin of seal, wing of bat, etc. all show similar structure.
• While Creationists argued that this was evidence of the uniform plan of
God, evolutionists would argue that this was due to a common
evolutionary past.

Embryological development
• 18th century comparative anatomists noted that as animals went through
embryonic development, it was difficult in the early stages to tell what type
of animal it was. Chicken, lizard and human embryos look very similar and
have similar structures (gill slits, etc.).
• Darwin would use this to argue common descent.

Artificial Selection
Animal breeders had demonstrated that species are not immutable . . .
That is, they can be changed through selective breeding.
 Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

If not for me, Darwin would

• Travels to Amazon & Malay Archipelago (1848-62) not have published his ideas .
. Yet, no one remembers my
name!!

• Independently developed theory of natural selection

(drew same conclusion from Malthus as had Darwin)

• Wrote an essay “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart

Indefinitely From the Original Type”

• Send ms off to Darwin for review – Darwin submitted his

own, beating Wallace to the punch!!
 Darwin and modern biology
Ø Carl Linnaeus developed the first biological taxonomy which
inspired young Darwin.
Ø While travel, Darwin saw patterns in organisms and their
environments, how they interbred, etc.
Ø Though Darwin was not the first who theorized about evolution,
but he was the first to provide a mechanism for it.

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which holds that all species of plants and animals
developed from earlier forms by hereditary transmission of slight variations in successive Charles Robert Darwin
(1809 – 1882)
generations, and that natural selection determines which forms will survive.

Darwinian theory, proposed by Charles Darwin, is defined as a theory that suggests that
organisms with the strongest and most desirable characteristics are best able to survive and
reproduce.
An example of Darwinian theory is that if dogs that have a good sense of smell are better able
to survive than dogs without a good sense of smell, then all dogs evolve to have a good sense
of smell because those with a bad sense of smell die out.
 Industrial Revolution.
Watt steam engine
The Watt steam engine, alternatively known as the Boulton
and Watt steam engine, was an early steam engine and was
one of the driving forces of the Industrial Revolution.

James Watt (1736–1819)

1. Markets: England had many overseas colonies (markets)

2. Population:
¨ skilled workers
¨ wealthy entrepreneurs
¨ vast number of laborers (workers)

3. Agricultural Changes:
¨ Enclosure Acts - tenant farmers forced off the farms; moved to cities (urban areas) to find work in factories.

4. Natural Resources:
¨ coal, iron ore
¨ good harbors, canals
¨ colonies had raw materials - lumber, cotton

5. Government:
¨ stable & unified country; Parliament; Limited Monarchy
¨ fair taxes & solid banking system

6. Other Factors:
¨ Island - isolated; had not been through devastating wars
¨ capitalist economy
¨ encouraged science and research
 Scientific Community
Branches of Science
§ natural sciences (Biology, chemistry and physics)
§ formal sciences (logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information
theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics.
§ social sciences (anthropology, sociology, psychology, political science, and economics)
§ applied sciences (Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions
from the method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and
medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific
theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.)

Institutions
Scientists also have institutions that support them, and they work within a community of individuals with whom
they share ideas.
Literature
comprises scientific publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social
sciences.
 Albert Einstein
(1879 – 1955)
Physicist, Scientist
Ø photoelectric effect
Ø atomic energy
Most disturbing of all, the enunciation of
the special theory of relativity by Albert Ø theory of relativity
Einstein in 1905 not only destroyed the
ether and all the physics that depended on
it but also redefined physics as the study of
relations between observers and events,
rather than of the events themselves. What
was observed, and therefore what
happened, was now said to be a function of
the observer’s location and motion relative
to other events. Absolute space was a
fiction. The very foundations of physics
threatened to crumble.
Quantum vs Classical Mechanics

Quantum mechanics and classical mechanics are two cornerstones of physics we

know today. Classical mechanics describes the behavior of macroscopic bodies,
which have relatively small velocities compared to the speed of light. Quantum
mechanics describes the behavior of microscopic bodies such as subatomic
particles, atoms, and other small bodies. These two are the most important fields
in physics. It is vital to have a proper understanding in these fields in order to
excel in any part of physics. In this article, we are going to discuss what quantum
mechanics and classical mechanics are, where they are applied, their special
characteristics, the similarities between quantum mechanics and classical
mechanics, their variations, and finally the difference between quantum mechanics
and classical mechanics.
What is Classical Mechanics?
Classical mechanics is the study of macroscopic bodies. The movements and statics of
macroscopic bodies are discussed under classical mechanics. Classical mechanics is applied in
places such as planetary motion, projectiles, and most of the events in daily lives. In classical
mechanics, energy is treated as a continuous quantity. A system can take any amount of energy
in classical mechanics. We can determine the motion by using the Newtonian mechanics.

What is Quantum Mechanics?

Quantum mechanics is the study of microscopic bodies. The term “quantum” comes from the
fact that energy of a microscopic system is quantized. The photon theory is one of the
cornerstones of quantum mechanics. It states that the energy of light is in the form of wave
packets. Heisenberg, Max Plank, Albert Einstein are some of the prominent scientists involved
in developing the quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics falls into two categories. The first
one is quantum mechanics of non-relativistic bodies. This field studies the quantum mechanics
of particles with relatively small speeds compared to the speed of light. The other form is
relativistic quantum mechanics, which studies particles moving with speeds compatible with
the speed of light. Heisenberg’s uncertainty Principal is also a very important theory behind
quantum mechanics. It states that the linear momentum of a particle and the position of that
particle in the same direction cannot be measured simultaneously with 100% accuracy.
What is the difference between Classical Mechanics and Quantum
Mechanics?

• Quantum mechanics is applied to microscopic bodies whereas classical

mechanics is only applicable to macroscopic bodies.

• Quantum mechanics can be applied to macroscopic bodies but classical

mechanics cannot be applied to microscopic systems.

• Classical mechanics can be considered as a special case of quantum

mechanics.

• Classical mechanics is a fully developed field whereas quantum mechanics

is still a developing field.

• In classical mechanics, most of the quantum effects such as energy

quantization, uncertainty principal are not useful.
Louis Pasteur
(1822 – 1895)
Chemist, Scientist, Inventor
Ø Vaccine discoveries
a. Cholera
b. Anthrax
c. Tuberculosis
d. Small pox
e. Rabies
 Alexander Graham Bell
(1847 – 1922)
Educator, Scientist, Inventor
Ø harmonic telegraph
Ø telephone
Alexander Fleming
(1881- 1955)
Biologist, Scientist, Doctor, Bacteriologist
Ø lysozyme
Ø Penicillin
 Results of Scientific Revolution

Hiroshima after atomic bomb Yuri Gagarin, first man in space

Neil Armstrong, first man in the Moon Genetic engineering

Reading Essay
The rise of modern science

The authority of phenomena

Even as Dante was writing his great work, deep forces were threatening the unitary cosmos he celebrated. The pace of
technological innovation began to quicken. Particularly in Italy, the political demands of the time gave new importance to
technology, and a new profession emerged, that of civil and military engineer. These people faced practical problems that
demanded practical solutions. Leonardo da Vinci is certainly the most famous of them, though he was much more as well. A
painter of genius, he closely studied human anatomy in order to give verisimilitude to his paintings. As a sculptor, he mastered
the difficult techniques of casting metal. As a producer-director of the form of Renaissance dramatic production called the
masque, he devised complicated machinery to create special effects. But it was as a military engineer that he observed the
path of a mortar bomb being lobbed over a city wall and insisted that the projectile did not follow two straight lines—a slanted
ascent followed by a vertical drop—as Aristotle had said it must. Leonardo and his colleagues needed to know nature truly; no
amount of book learning could substitute for actual experience, nor could books impose their authority upon phenomena.
What Aristotle and his commentators asserted as philosophical necessity often did not gibe with what could be seen with
one’s own eyes. The hold of ancient philosophy was too strong to be broken lightly, but a healthy skepticism began to emerge.

The first really serious blow to the traditional acceptance of ancient authorities was the discovery of the New World at the end
of the 15th century. Ptolemy, the great astronomer and geographer, had insisted that only the three continents of Europe,
Africa, and Asia could exist, and Christian scholars from St. Augustine on had accepted it, for otherwise men would have to
walk upside down at the antipodes. But Ptolemy, St. Augustine, and a host of other authorities were wrong. The dramatic
expansion of the known world also served to stimulate the study of mathematics, for wealth and fame awaited those who
could turn navigation into a real and trustworthy science.
In large part the Renaissance was a time of feverish intellectual activity devoted to the complete recovery of the ancient heritage. To the
Aristotelian texts that had been the foundation of medieval thought were added translations of Plato, with his vision of mathematical
harmonies, of Galen, with his experiments in physiology and anatomy, and, perhaps most important of all, of Archimedes, who showed
how theoretical physics could be done outside the traditional philosophical framework. The results were subversive.

The search for antiquity turned up a peculiar bundle of manuscripts that added a decisive impulse to the direction in which Renaissance
science was moving. These manuscripts were taken to have been written by or to report almost at first hand the activities of the
legendary priest, prophet, and sage Hermes Trismegistos. Hermes was supposedly a contemporary of Moses, and the Hermetic writings
contained an alternative story of creation that gave humans a far more prominent role than the traditional account. God had made
humankind fully in his image: a creator, not just a rational animal. Humans could imitate God by creating. To do so, they must learn
nature’s secrets, and this could be done only by forcing nature to yield them through the tortures of fire, distillation, and other
alchemical manipulations. The reward for success would be eternal life and youth, as well as freedom from want and disease. It was a
heady vision, and it gave rise to the notion that, through science and technology, humankind could bend nature to its wishes. This is
essentially the modern view of science, and it should be emphasized that it occurs only in Western civilization. It is probably this
attitude that permitted the West to surpass the East, after centuries of inferiority, in the exploitation of the physical world.

The Hermetic tradition also had more specific effects. Inspired, as is now known, by late Platonist mysticism, the Hermetic writers had
rhapsodized on enlightenment and on the source of light, the Sun. Marsilio Ficino, the 15th-century Florentine translator of both Plato
and the Hermetic writings, composed a treatise on the Sun that came close to idolatry. A young Polish student visiting Italy at the turn
of the 16th century was touched by this current. Back in Poland, he began to work on the problems posed by the Ptolemaic
astronomical system. With the blessing of the church, which he served formally as a canon, Nicolaus Copernicus set out to modernize
the astronomical apparatus by which the church made such important calculations as the proper dates for Easter and other festivals.
The scientific revolution

Copernicus
In 1543, as he lay on his deathbed, Copernicus finished reading the proofs of his great work; he died just as it was published.
His De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”) was the
opening shot in a revolution whose consequences were greater than those of any other intellectual event in the history of
humankind. The scientific revolution radically altered the conditions of thought and of material existence in which the
human race lives, and its effects are not yet exhausted.

All this was caused by Copernicus daring to place the Sun, not the Earth, at the centre of the cosmos. Copernicus actually
cited Hermes Trismegistos to justify this idea, and his language was thoroughly Platonic. But he meant his work as a serious
work in astronomy, not philosophy, so he set out to justify it observationally and mathematically. The results were
impressive. At one stroke, Copernicus reduced a complexity verging on chaos to elegant simplicity. The apparent back-and-
forth movements of the planets, which required prodigious ingenuity to accommodate within the Ptolemaic system, could
be accounted for just in terms of the Earth’s own orbital motion added to or subtracted from the motions of the planets.
Variation in planetary brightness was also explained by this combination of motions. The fact that Mercury and Venus were
never found opposite the Sun in the sky Copernicus explained by placing their orbits closer to the Sun than that of the
Earth. Indeed, Copernicus was able to place the planets in order of their distances from the Sun by considering their speeds
and thus to construct a system of the planets, something that had eluded Ptolemy. This system had a simplicity, coherence,
and aesthetic charm that made it irresistible to those who felt that God was the supreme artist. His was not a rigorous
argument, but aesthetic considerations are not to be ignored in the history of science.
Copernicus did not solve all of the difficulties of the Ptolemaic system. He had to keep some of the cumbrous apparatus of epicycles and
other geometrical adjustments, as well as a few Aristotelian crystalline spheres. The result was neater, but not so striking that it
commanded immediate universal assent. Moreover, there were some implications that caused considerable concern: Why should the
crystalline orb containing the Earth circle the Sun? And how was it possible for the Earth itself to revolve on its axis once in 24 hours
without hurling all objects, including humans, off its surface? No known physics could answer these questions, and the provision of such
answers was to be the central concern of the scientific revolution.

More was at stake than physics and astronomy, for one of the implications of the Copernican system struck at the very foundations of
contemporary society. If the Earth revolved around the Sun, then the apparent positions of the fixed stars should shift as the Earth moves
in its orbit. Copernicus and his contemporaries could detect no such shift (called stellar parallax), and there were only two interpretations
possible to explain this failure. Either the Earth was at the centre, in which case no parallax was to be expected, or the stars were so far
away that the parallax was too small to be detected. Copernicus chose the latter and thereby had to accept an enormous cosmos
consisting mostly of empty space. God, it had been assumed, did nothing in vain, so for what purposes might he have created a universe
in which Earth and humankind were lost in immense space? To accept Copernicus was to give up the Dantean cosmos. The Aristotelian
hierarchy of social place, political position, and theological gradation would vanish, to be replaced by the flatness and plainness of
Euclidean space. It was a grim prospect and not one that recommended itself to most 16th-century intellectuals, and so Copernicus’s
grand idea remained on the periphery of astronomical thought. All astronomers were aware of it, some measured their own views
against it, but only a small handful eagerly accepted it.

In the century and a half following Copernicus, two easily discernible scientific movements developed. The first was critical, the second,
innovative and synthetic. They worked together to bring the old cosmos into disrepute and, ultimately, to replace it with a new one.
Although they existed side by side, their effects can more easily be seen if they are treated separately.
Tycho, Kepler, and Galileo
The critical tradition began with Copernicus. It led directly to the work of Tycho Brahe, who measured stellar and planetary positions more
accurately than had anyone before him. But measurement alone could not decide between Copernicus and Ptolemy, and Tycho insisted that
the Earth was motionless. Copernicus did persuade Tycho to move the centre of revolution of all other planets to the Sun. To do so, he had
to abandon the Aristotelian crystalline spheres that otherwise would collide with one another. Tycho also cast doubt upon the Aristotelian
doctrine of heavenly perfection, for when, in the 1570s, a comet and a new star appeared, Tycho showed that they were both above the
sphere of the Moon. Perhaps the most serious critical blows struck were those delivered by Galileo after the invention of the telescope. In
quick succession, he announced that there were mountains on the Moon, satellites circling Jupiter, and spots upon the Sun. Moreover, the
Milky Way was composed of countless stars whose existence no one had suspected until Galileo saw them. Here was criticism that struck at
the very roots of Aristotle’s system of the world.

Tycho Brahe
At the same time Galileo was searching the heavens with his telescope, in Germany Johannes Kepler was searching them with his mind.
Tycho’s precise observations permitted Kepler to discover that Mars (and, by analogy, all the other planets) did not revolve in a circle at all,
but in an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus. Ellipses tied all the planets together in grand Copernican harmony. The Keplerian cosmos was
most un-Aristotelian, but Kepler hid his discoveries by burying them in almost impenetrable Latin prose in a series of works that did not
circulate widely.

Johannes Kepler
What Galileo and Kepler could not provide, although they tried, was an alternative to Aristotle that made equal sense. If the Earth revolves
on its axis, then why do objects not fly off it? And why do objects dropped from towers not fall to the west as the Earth rotates to the east
beneath them? And how is it possible for the Earth, suspended in empty space, to go around the Sun—whether in circles or ellipses—
without anything pushing it? The answers were long in coming.
Galileo attacked the problems of the Earth’s rotation and its revolution by logical analysis. Bodies do not fly off the Earth because they are not
really revolving rapidly, even though their speed is high. In revolutions per minute, any body on the Earth is going very slowly and, therefore,
has little tendency to fly off. Bodies fall to the base of towers from which they are dropped because they share with the tower the rotation of
the Earth. Hence, bodies already in motion preserve that motion when another motion is added. So, Galileo deduced, a ball dropped from the
top of a mast of a moving ship would fall at the base of the mast. If the ball were allowed to move on a frictionless horizontal plane, it would
continue to move forever. Hence, Galileo concluded, the planets, once set in circular motion, continue to move in circles forever. Therefore,
Copernican orbits exist. Galileo never acknowledged Kepler’s ellipses; to do so would have meant abandoning his solution to the Copernican
problem.
Kepler realized that there was a real problem with planetary motion. He sought to solve it by appealing to the one force that appeared to be
cosmic in nature, namely magnetism. The Earth had been shown to be a giant magnet by William Gilbert in 1600, and Kepler seized upon this
fact. A magnetic force, Kepler argued, emanated from the Sun and pushed the planets around in their orbits, but he was never able to quantify
this rather vague and unsatisfactory idea.

By the end of the first quarter of the 17th century Aristotelianism was rapidly dying, but there was no satisfactory system to take its place. The
result was a mood of skepticism and unease, for, as one observer put it, “The new philosophy calls all in doubt.” It was this void that accounted
largely for the success of a rather crude system proposed by René Descartes. Matter and motion were taken by Descartes to explain everything
by means of mechanical models of natural processes, even though he warned that such models were not the way nature probably worked.
They provided merely “likely stories,” which seemed better than no explanation at all.
Armed with matter and motion, Descartes attacked the basic Copernican problems. Bodies once in motion, Descartes argued, remain in
motion in a straight line unless and until they are deflected from this line by the impact of another body. All changes of motion are the result of
such impacts. Hence, the ball falls at the foot of the mast because, unless struck by another body, it continues to move with the ship. Planets
move around the Sun because they are swept around by whirlpools of a subtle matter filling all space. Similar models could be constructed to
account for all phenomena; the Aristotelian system could be replaced by the Cartesian. There was one major problem, however, and it sufficed
to bring down Cartesianism. Cartesian matter and motion had no purpose, nor did Descartes’s philosophy seem to need the active
participation of a deity. The Cartesian cosmos, as Voltaire later put it, was like a watch that had been wound up at the creation and continues
ticking to eternity.
Newton
The 17th century was a time of intense religious feeling, and nowhere was that feeling more intense than in Great Britain.
There a devout young man, Isaac Newton, was finally to discover the way to a new synthesis in which truth was revealed
and God was preserved.

Newton was both an experimental and a mathematical genius, a combination that enabled him to establish both the
Copernican system and a new mechanics. His method was simplicity itself: “from the phenomena of motions to investigate
the forces of nature, and then from these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena.” Newton’s genius guided him in the
selection of phenomena to be investigated, and his creation of a fundamental mathematical tool—the calculus
(simultaneously invented by Gottfried Leibniz)—permitted him to submit the forces he inferred to calculation. The result
was Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, usually called simply the
Principia), which appeared in 1687. Here was a new physics that applied equally well to terrestrial and celestial bodies.
Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo were all justified by Newton’s analysis of forces. Descartes was utterly routed.

Newton’s three laws of motion and his principle of universal gravitation sufficed to regulate the new cosmos, but only,
Newton believed, with the help of God. Gravity, he more than once hinted, was direct divine action, as were all forces for
order and vitality. Absolute space, for Newton, was essential, because space was the “sensorium of God,” and the divine
abode must necessarily be the ultimate coordinate system. Finally, Newton’s analysis of the mutual perturbations of the
planets caused by their individual gravitational fields predicted the natural collapse of the solar system unless God acted to
set things right again.
The diffusion of scientific method

The publication of the Principia marks the culmination of the movement begun by Copernicus and, as such, has always stood as the symbol
of the scientific revolution. There were, however, similar attempts to criticize, systematize, and organize natural knowledge that did not
lead to such dramatic results. In the same year as Copernicus’s great volume, there appeared an equally important book on anatomy:
Andreas Vesalius’s De humani corporis fabrica (“On the Fabric of the Human Body,” called the De fabrica), a critical examination of Galen’s
anatomy in which Vesalius drew on his own studies to correct many of Galen’s errors. Vesalius, like Newton a century later, emphasized the
phenomena—i.e., the accurate description of natural facts. Vesalius’s work touched off a flurry of anatomical work in Italy and elsewhere
that culminated in the discovery of the circulation of the blood by William Harvey, whose Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et
Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Exercise Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals) was published in 1628. This
was the Principia of physiology that established anatomy and physiology as sciences in their own right. Harvey showed that organic
phenomena could be studied experimentally and that some organic processes could be reduced to mechanical systems. The heart and the
vascular system could be considered as a pump and a system of pipes and could be understood without recourse to spirits or other forces
immune to analysis.

In other sciences the attempt to systematize and criticize was not so successful. In chemistry, for example, the work of the medieval and
early modern alchemists had yielded important new substances and processes, such as the mineral acids and distillation, but had obscured
theory in almost impenetrable mystical argot. Robert Boyle in England tried to clear away some of the intellectual underbrush by insisting
upon clear descriptions, reproducibility of experiments, and mechanical conceptions of chemical processes. Chemistry, however, was not
yet ripe for revolution.

In many areas there was little hope of reducing phenomena to comprehensibility, simply because of the sheer number of facts to be
accounted for. New instruments like the microscope and the telescope vastly multiplied the worlds with which humans had to reckon. The
voyages of discovery brought back a flood of new botanical and zoological specimens that overwhelmed ancient classificatory schemes.
The best that could be done was to describe new things accurately and hope that someday they could all be fitted together in a coherent
way.
The growing flood of information put heavy strains upon old institutions and practices. It was no longer sufficient to publish scientific results in an
expensive book that few could buy; information had to be spread widely and rapidly. Nor could the isolated genius, like Newton, comprehend a world
in which new information was being produced faster than any single person could assimilate it. Natural philosophers had to be sure of their data, and
to that end they required independent and critical confirmation of their discoveries. New means were created to accomplish these ends. Scientific
societies sprang up, beginning in Italy in the early years of the 17th century and culminating in the two great national scientific societies that mark
the zenith of the scientific revolution: the Royal Society of London for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge, created by royal charter in 1662, and the
Académie des Sciences of Paris, formed in 1666. In these societies and others like them all over the world, natural philosophers could gather to
examine, discuss, and criticize new discoveries and old theories. To provide a firm basis for these discussions, societies began to publish scientific
papers. The Royal Society’s Philosophical Transactions, which began as a private venture of its secretary, was the first such professional scientific
journal. It was soon copied by the French academy’s Mémoires, which won equal importance and prestige. The old practice of hiding new discoveries
in private jargon, obscure language, or even anagrams gradually gave way to the ideal of universal comprehensibility. New canons of reporting were
devised so that experiments and discoveries could be reproduced by others. This required new precision in language and a willingness to share
experimental or observational methods. The failure of others to reproduce results cast serious doubts upon the original reports. Thus were created
the tools for a massive assault on nature’s secrets.

Even with the scientific revolution accomplished, much remained to be done. Again, it was Newton who showed the way. For the macroscopic world,
the Principia sufficed. Newton’s three laws of motion and the principle of universal gravitation were all that was necessary to analyze the mechanical
relations of ordinary bodies, and the calculus provided the essential mathematical tools. For the microscopic world, Newton provided two methods.
Where simple laws of action had already been determined from observation, as the relation of volume and pressure of a gas (Boyle’s law, pv = k),
Newton assumed forces between particles that permitted him to derive the law. He then used these forces to predict other phenomena, in this case
the speed of sound in air, that could be measured against the prediction. Conformity of observation to prediction was taken as evidence for the
essential truth of the theory. Second, Newton’s method made possible the discovery of laws of macroscopic action that could be accounted for by
microscopic forces. Here the seminal work was not the Principia but Newton’s masterpiece of experimental physics, the Opticks, published in 1704, in
which he showed how to examine a subject experimentally and discover the laws concealed therein. Newton showed how judicious use of
hypotheses could open the way to further experimental investigation until a coherent theory was achieved. The Opticks was to serve as the model in
the 18th and early 19th centuries for the investigation of heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical atoms.
The classic age of science

Mechanics
Just as the Principia preceded the Opticks, so too did mechanics maintain its priority among the sciences in the 18th century, in
the process becoming transformed from a branch of physics into a branch of mathematics. Many physical problems were reduced
to mathematical ones that proved amenable to solution by increasingly sophisticated analytical methods. The Swiss Leonhard
Euler was one of the most fertile and prolific workers in mathematics and mathematical physics. His development of the calculus
of variations provided a powerful tool for dealing with highly complex problems. In France, Jean Le Rond d’Alembert and Joseph-
Louis Lagrange succeeded in completely mathematizing mechanics, reducing it to an axiomatic system requiring only mathematical
manipulation.

The test of Newtonian mechanics was its congruence with physical reality. At the beginning of the 18th century it was put to a
rigorous test. Cartesians insisted that the Earth, because it was squeezed at the Equator by the etherial vortex causing gravity,
should be somewhat pointed at the poles, a shape rather like that of an American football. Newtonians, arguing that centrifugal
force was greatest at the Equator, calculated an oblate sphere that was flattened at the poles and bulged at the Equator. The
Newtonians were proved correct after careful measurements of a degree of the meridian were made on expeditions to Lapland
and to Peru. The final touch to the Newtonian edifice was provided by Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace, whose masterly Traité de
mécanique céleste (1798–1827; Celestial Mechanics) systematized everything that had been done in celestial mechanics under
Newton’s inspiration. Laplace went beyond Newton by showing that the perturbations of the planetary orbits caused by the
interactions of planetary gravitation are in fact periodic and that the solar system is, therefore, stable, requiring no divine
intervention.
Chemistry
Although Newton was unable to bring to chemistry the kind of clarification he brought to physics, the Opticks did provide a method for the
study of chemical phenomena. One of the major advances in chemistry in the 18th century was the discovery of the role of air, and of gases
generally, in chemical reactions. This role had been dimly glimpsed in the 17th century, but it was not fully seen until the classic experiments of
Joseph Black on magnesia alba (basic magnesium carbonate) in the 1750s. By extensive and careful use of the chemical balance, Black showed
that an air with specific properties could combine with solid substances like quicklime and could be recovered from them. This discovery served
to focus attention on the properties of “air,” which was soon found to be a generic, not a specific, name. Chemists discovered a host of specific
gases and investigated their various properties: some were flammable, others put out flames; some killed animals, others made them lively.
Clearly, gases had a great deal to do with chemistry.

The Newton of chemistry was Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier. In a series of careful balance experiments Lavoisier untangled combustion reactions to
show that, in contradiction to established theory, which held that a body gave off the principle of inflammation (called phlogiston) when it
burned, combustion actually involves the combination of bodies with a gas that Lavoisier named oxygen. The chemical revolution was as much
a revolution in method as in conception. Gravimetric methods made possible precise analysis, and this, Lavoisier insisted, was the central
concern of the new chemistry. Only when bodies were analyzed as to their constituent substances was it possible to classify them and their
attributes logically and consistently.

The imponderable fluids

The Newtonian method of inferring laws from close observation of phenomena and then deducing forces from these laws was applied with
great success to phenomena in which no ponderable matter figured. Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism were all entities that were not
capable of being weighed—i.e., imponderable. In the Opticks, Newton had assumed that particles of different sizes could account for the
different refrangibility of the various colours of light. Clearly, forces of some sort must be associated with these particles if such phenomena as
diffraction and refraction are to be accounted for. During the 18th century, heat, electricity, and magnetism were similarly conceived as
consisting of particles with which were associated forces of attraction or repulsion. In the 1780s, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was able to
measure electrical and magnetic forces, using a delicate torsion balance of his own invention, and to show that these forces follow the general
form of Newtonian universal attraction. Only light and heat failed to disclose such general force laws, thereby resisting reduction to Newtonian
mechanics.
Science and the Industrial Revolution

It has long been a commonsensical notion that the rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were closely connected. It is difficult
to show any direct effect of scientific discoveries upon the rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry in Great Britain, the home of
the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly was a similarity in attitude to be found in science and nascent industry. Close observation and
careful generalization leading to practical utilization were characteristic of both industrialists and experimentalists alike in the 18th century.
One point of direct contact is known: namely, James Watt’s interest in the efficiency of the Newcomen steam engine, an interest that grew
from his work as a scientific-instrument maker and that led to his development of the separate condenser that made the steam engine an
effective industrial power source. But, in general, the Industrial Revolution proceeded without much direct scientific help. Yet the potential
influence of science was to prove of fundamental importance.

What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful observation and experimentation might improve industrial production
significantly. In some areas, it did. The potter Josiah Wedgwood built his successful business on the basis of careful study of clays and glazes
and by the invention of instruments like the pyrometer with which to gauge and control the processes he employed. It was not, however,
until the second half of the 19th century that science was able to provide truly significant help to industry. It was then that the science of
metallurgy permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications, that the science of chemistry permitted the creation of new
substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial importance, and that electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric
dynamo and motor. Until that period science probably profited more from industry than the other way around. It was the steam engine that
posed the problems that led, by way of a search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics. Most importantly, as
industry required ever more complicated and intricate machinery, the machine tool industry developed to provide it and, in the process,
made possible the construction of ever more delicate and refined instruments for science. As science turned from the everyday world to the
worlds of atoms and molecules, electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and galaxies, instruments
increasingly provided the sole contact with phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae was as
much a product of 19th-century heavy industry as were the steam locomotive and the steamship.
The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the development of modern science. The prospect of
applying science to the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science. The first great scientific
school of the modern world, the École Polytechnique in Paris, was founded in 1794 to put the results of science in the
service of France. The founding of scores more technical schools in the 19th and 20th centuries encouraged the
widespread diffusion of scientific knowledge and provided further opportunity for scientific advance. Governments, in
varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting science even more directly, by making financial grants to
scientists, by founding research institutes, and by bestowing honours and official posts on great scientists. By the end
of the 19th century the natural philosopher following his private interests had given way to the professional scientist
with a public role.

The Romantic revolt

Perhaps inevitably, the triumph of Newtonian mechanics elicited a reaction, one that had important implications for the
further development of science. Its origins are many and complex, and it is possible here to focus on only one, that
associated with the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant challenged the Newtonian confidence that the scientist
can deal directly with subsensible entities such as atoms, the corpuscles of light, or electricity. Instead, Kant insisted, all
that the human mind can know is forces. This epistemological axiom freed Kantians from having to conceive of forces as
embodied in specific and immutable particles. It also placed new emphasis on the space between particles; indeed, if
one eliminated the particles entirely, there remained only space containing forces. From these two considerations were
to come powerful arguments, first, for the transformations and conservation of forces and, second, for field theory as a
representation of reality. What makes this point of view Romantic is that the idea of a network of forces in space tied
the cosmos into a unity in which all forces were related to all others, so that the universe took on the aspect of a cosmic
organism. The whole was greater than the sum of all its parts, and the way to truth was contemplation of the whole,
not analysis.
What Romantics, or nature philosophers, as they called themselves, could see that was hidden from their Newtonian
colleagues was demonstrated by Hans Christian Ørsted. He found it impossible to believe that there was no connection
between the forces of nature. Chemical affinity, electricity, heat, magnetism, and light must, he argued, simply be
different manifestations of the basic forces of attraction and repulsion. In 1820 he showed that electricity and
magnetism were related, for the passage of an electrical current through a wire affected a nearby magnetic needle.
This fundamental discovery was explored and exploited by Michael Faraday, who spent his whole scientific life
converting one force into another. By concentrating on the patterns of forces produced by electric currents and
magnets, Faraday laid the foundations for field theory, in which the energy of a system was held to be spread
throughout the system and not localized in real or hypothetical particles.

The transformations of force necessarily raised the question of the conservation of force. Is anything lost when
electrical energy is turned into magnetic energy, or into heat or light or chemical affinity or mechanical power?
Faraday, again, provided one of the early answers in his two laws of electrolysis, based on experimental observations
that quite specific amounts of electrical “force” decomposed quite specific amounts of chemical substances. This work
was followed by that of James Prescott Joule, Robert Mayer, and Hermann von Helmholtz, each of whom arrived at a
generalization of basic importance to all science, the principle of the conservation of energy.
The nature philosophers were primarily experimentalists who produced their transformations of forces by clever
experimental manipulation. The exploration of the nature of elemental forces benefitted as well from the rapid
development of mathematics. In the 19th century the study of heat was transformed into the science of
thermodynamics, based firmly on mathematical analysis; the Newtonian corpuscular theory of light was replaced
by Augustin-Jean Fresnel’s mathematically sophisticated undulatory theory; and the phenomena of electricity and
magnetism were distilled into succinct mathematical form by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and James Clerk
Maxwell. By the end of the century, thanks to the principle of the conservation of energy and the second law of
thermodynamics, the physical world appeared to be completely comprehensible in terms of complex but precise
mathematical forms describing various mechanical transformations in some underlying ether.

The submicroscopic world of material atoms became similarly comprehensible in the 19th century. Beginning with
John Dalton’s fundamental assumption that atomic species differ from one another solely in their weights, chemists
were able to identify an increasing number of elements and to establish the laws describing their interactions.
Order was established by arranging elements according to their atomic weights and their reactions. The result was
the periodic table, devised by Dmitry Mendeleyev, which implied that some kind of subatomic structure underlay
elemental qualities. That structure could give rise to qualities, thus fulfilling the prophecy of the 17th-century
mechanical philosophers, was shown in the 1870s by Joseph-Achille Le Bel and Jacobus van ’t Hoff, whose studies
of organic chemicals showed the correlation between the arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms in space and
specific chemical and physical properties.
The founding of modern biology

The study of living matter lagged far behind physics and chemistry, largely because organisms are so much more complex
than inanimate bodies or forces. Harvey had shown that living matter could be studied experimentally, but his achievement
stood alone for two centuries. For the time being, most students of living nature had to be content to classify living forms
as best they could and to attempt to isolate and study aspects of living systems.

As has been seen, an avalanche of new specimens in both botany and zoology put severe pressure on taxonomy. A giant
step forward was taken in the 18th century by the Swedish naturalist Carl von Linné—known by his Latinized name,
Linnaeus—who introduced a rational, if somewhat artificial, system of binomial nomenclature. The very artificiality of
Linnaeus’s system, focusing as it did on only a few key structures, encouraged criticism and attempts at more natural
systems. The attention thus called to the organism as a whole reinforced a growing intuition that species are linked in some
kind of genetic relationship, an idea first made scientifically explicit by Jean-Baptiste, chevalier de Lamarck.
Problems encountered in cataloging the vast collection of invertebrates at the Museum of Natural History in Paris led Lamarck to suggest
that species change through time. This idea was not so revolutionary as it is usually painted, for, although it did upset some Christians
who read the book of Genesis literally, naturalists who noted the shading of natural forms one into another had been toying with the
notion for some time. Lamarck’s system failed to gain general assent largely because it relied upon an antiquated chemistry for its causal
agents and appeared to imply a conscious drive to perfection on the part of organisms. It was also opposed by one of the most powerful
paleontologists and comparative anatomists of the day, Georges Cuvier, who happened to take Genesis quite literally. In spite of Cuvier’s
opposition, however, the idea remained alive and was finally elevated to scientific status by the labours of Charles Darwin. Darwin not
only amassed a wealth of data supporting the notion of transformation of species, but he also was able to suggest a mechanism by which
such evolution could occur without recourse to other than purely natural causes. The mechanism was natural selection, according to
which minute variations in offspring were either favoured or eliminated in the competition for survival, and it permitted the idea of
evolution to be perceived with great clarity. Nature shuffled and sorted its own productions, through processes governed purely by
chance, so that those organisms that survived were better adapted to a constantly changing environment.

Darwin’s On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, published
in 1859, brought order to the world of organisms. A similar unification at the microscopic level had been brought about by the cell theory
announced by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838, whereby cells were held to be the basic units of all living tissues.
Improvements in the microscope during the 19th century made it possible gradually to lay bare the basic structures of cells, and rapid
progress in biochemistry permitted the intimate probing of cellular physiology. By the end of the century the general feeling was that
physics and chemistry sufficed to describe all vital functions and that living matter, subject to the same laws as inanimate matter, would
soon yield up its secrets. This reductionist view was triumphantly illustrated in the work of Jacques Loeb, who showed that so-called
instincts in lower animals are nothing more than physicochemical reactions, which he labelled tropisms.

The most dramatic revolution in 19th-century biology was the one created by the germ theory of disease, championed by Louis Pasteur in
France and Robert Koch in Germany. Through their investigations, bacteria were shown to be the specific causes of many diseases. By
means of immunological methods first devised by Pasteur, some of humankind’s chief maladies were brought under control.
The 20th-century revolution
By the end of the 19th century, the dream of the mastery of nature for the benefit of humankind, first expressed in all its richness by Sir
Francis Bacon, seemed on the verge of realization. Science was moving ahead on all fronts, reducing ignorance and producing new tools for
the amelioration of the human condition. A comprehensible, rational view of the world was gradually emerging from laboratories and
universities. One savant went so far as to express pity for those who would follow him and his colleagues, for they, he thought, would have
nothing more to do than to measure things to the next decimal place.

But this sunny confidence did not last long. One annoying problem was that the radiation emitted by atoms proved increasingly difficult to
reduce to known mechanical principles. More importantly, physics found itself relying more and more upon the hypothetical properties of a
substance, the ether, that stubbornly eluded detection. Within a span of 10 short years, roughly 1895–1905, these and related problems
came to a head and wrecked the mechanistic system the 19th century had so laboriously built. The discovery of X rays and radioactivity
revealed an unexpected new complexity in the structure of atoms. Max Planck’s solution to the problem of thermal radiation introduced a
discontinuity into the concept of energy that was inexplicable in terms of classical thermodynamics. Most disturbing of all, the enunciation of
the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905 not only destroyed the ether and all the physics that depended on it but also
redefined physics as the study of relations between observers and events, rather than of the events themselves. What was observed, and
therefore what happened, was now said to be a function of the observer’s location and motion relative to other events. Absolute space was a
fiction. The very foundations of physics threatened to crumble.

This modern revolution in physics has not yet been fully assimilated by historians of science. Suffice it to say that scientists managed to come
to terms with all of the upsetting results of early 20th-century physics but in ways that made the new physics utterly different from the old.
Mechanical models were no longer acceptable, because there were processes (like light) for which no consistent model could be constructed.
No longer could physicists speak with confidence of physical reality, but only of the probability of making certain measurements.

All this being said, there is still no doubt that science in the 20th century worked wonders. The new physics—relativity, quantum mechanics,
particle physics—may have outraged common sense, but it enabled physicists to probe to the very limits of physical reality. Their instruments
and mathematics permitted modern scientists to manipulate subatomic particles with relative ease, to reconstruct the first moment of
creation, and to dimly glimpse the grand structure and ultimate fate of the universe.
The 21st century
In the 21st century the revolution in physics spilled over into chemistry and biology and led to hitherto
undreamed-of capabilities for the manipulation of atoms and molecules and of cells and their genetic
structures. Chemists perform molecular tailoring today as a matter of course, cutting and shaping molecules at
will. Genetic engineering and the subsequent development of gene editing, a highly accurate and efficient
means of altering DNA, made possible active human intervention in the evolutionary process and held out the
possibility of tailoring living organisms, including the human organism, to specific tasks. This second scientific
revolution may prove to be, for good or ill, one of the most important events in the history of humankind.

https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science/The-rise-of-modern-science
Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology
 What is Nanoscience?

“Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular

and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a larger
scale”*

when particles assume nano-scale dimension, the principles of classical physics are no longer
capable of describing their behaviour (movement, energy, etc). At these dimensions, quantum
mechanics principles apply

The same material (e.g., gold) at the nanoscale can have properties (e.g., optical, mechanical, electrical,
etc.) which are very different from (even opposite to!) the properties the material has at the macro
scale (bulk).

* Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties, report by The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering 2004,
Image credit: L. Filipponi, iNANO, Aarhus University.
 What is Nanotechnology?
“Nanotechnologies are the design, characterisation, production and application of
structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at nanometre scale.”

What is Nanometer scale?

The nanometre scale is conventionally defined as 1 to 100 nm. One nanometre is one billionth of a metre.

«Why 100nm, and not 150nm?», or «why not 1 to 1000nm?»

The reason why the “1 to 100nm range” is approximate is that
the definition itself focuses on the effect that the dimension has on a certain material rather than at what
exact dimension this effect arises. Nanoscience is not just the science of the small, but the science in which
materials with small dimension show new physical phenomena, collectively called quantum effects, which
are size-dependent and dramatically different from the properties of macro-scale materials.
 What is Nanomaterial?
A nanomaterial is an object that has at least one dimension in the nanometre scale (approximately 1-100nm)
 What makes “nano” special
At the nanometre scale, the properties of matter change. Properties like electrical
conductivity, colour, strength and weight change when the nanoscale level is reached. The same
metal can become a semiconductor or an insulator at the nanoscale level.

They can be fabricated atom-by-atom, with a process called bottom-up. The information
for this fabrication process is embedded in the material building blocks, so that these
can self-assemble in the final product.

They have an increased surface-to-volume ratio compared to bulk materials. This has
important consequences for all those processes that occur at a material surface, such
as catalysis and detection

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies depend on the exceptional properties of matter at the nanoscale level. In
this context, “nano” doesn’t only mean “1000 times smaller than micro”, and nanotechnologies are not just an
extension of microtechnologies to a smaller scale. It is an entirely new paradigm that opens entirely new
scientific opportunities.
 Nanomaterials

non-intentionally made nanomaterials intentionally made

which refers to nano-sized particles or materials that nanomaterials, which means nanomaterials
belong naturally to the environment (e.g., proteins, produced deliberately through a defined fabrication
viruses, nanoparticles produced during volcanic process.
eruptions, etc.) or that are produced by human
activity without intention (such as nanoparticles
produced from diesel combustion).

Nanotechnologies does not generally include “non-intentionally made nanomaterials”, and is therefore limited
to “intentionally made nanomaterials”
Bayda, Samer et al. “The History of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: From Chemical–Physical Applications to Nanomedicine.” Molecules 25 (2019): n. pag.
 Insect wings and opals Gecko feet

Natural
nanomaterials
(non-intentionally
made
nanomaterials)
Paper and cotton Spider silk

Minerals Lotus leaf

Self-cleaning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_NYDwU_v4Y https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SIiv-hkRvZE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhfXbSSrabw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQ3lRXH1OvI
https://www.youtub https://www.youtube.com/w
e.com/watch?v=2d1 atch?v=RuLAn3XpYAU
VrCvdzbY
History of Nanotechnology
Bayda, Samer et al. “The History of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: From Chemical–Physical Applications to Nanomedicine.” Molecules 25 (2019): n. pag.
Nano effects
Surface properties
Electrical properties
Quantum confinement causes the energy of the bandgap to increase. Also, at very small dimensions when the
energy levels are quantified, the band overlap present in metals disappears and is actually transformed into a
bandgap. This explains why some metals become semiconductors as their size is decreased

This thus gives a

method of tuning the
optical absorption
and emission
properties of a nano-
sized semiconductor
over a range of
wavelengths
by controlling its
crystallite size.
 Some nanomaterials exhibit electrical properties that are absolutely exceptional. Their
electrical properties are related to their unique structure. Two of these are fullerenes and
carbon nanotubes. For instance, carbon nanotubes can be conductors or semi-conductors
depending on their nanostructure.
 Optical properties
Some nanomaterials display very different optical properties, such as colour and transparency,
compared to bulk materials.

One of the distinguishing properties of metal nanoparticles in general is their optical properties, which
are different from those of their bulk counterpart. This is due to an effect called localised surface
plasmon resonance. In simple words, when light hits a metal surface (of any size) some of the light wave
propagates along the metal surface giving rise to a surface plasmon – a group of surface conduction
electrons that propagate in a direction parallel to the metal/dielectric (or metal/vacuum) interface.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQggDnScsvI
Tuning the size of the semiconductor nanocrystal is a means to tune the bandgap, and therefore the wavelength
absorbed/emitted by the crystal. As a result the same material (e.g., CdSe) emits different colours depending on
its size
Mechanical properties
Some nanomaterials have inherent exceptional mechanical properties which are connected to their
structure. One such material is carbon nanotubes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3OoKbL7eod8
 Characterisation methods
Scanning tunnelling microscope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HE2yE8SvHmA
Figure 1. A nanocatalyst used for
cleaning up sulphur from crude oil.
The STM image shows two
molybdenum-disulfide nanoclusters
consisting each of 15 Mo atoms and
42 S atoms. Copyright iNANO,
reprint not permitted.
 Atomic Force Microscope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6KqJS1GZNE
Spectroscopy methods

X-ray methods: There are various methods that use X-rays : X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction
(XRD), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). In the context of nanomaterials the most important method is analysis.
Like XRD, this method is based on the principle of scattering of X-rays. Diffraction of X-rays is a result of scattering from
atoms configured in regular arrays.
UV-Visible absorption and emission

Plasmon resonance light scattering

Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering: Metal surfaces with nanometre scale roughness have the property of amplifying
the Raman scattering signals of absorbed molecules. In simple words, Raman scattering is the inelastic scattering of
photons.

Non-radiative and non-electron characterisation methods: They include methods to determine particle size, surface area and
porosity; thermodynamic methods (such as thermogravimetric analysis, TGA) to evaluate the temperature dependence of
the nanomaterial (melting, etc.); and mass spectroscopy, to determine the chemical composition of the nanomaterial. An
important surface method is the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), which can measure mass changes as small as a few
nanograms per square centimetr
Fabrication Methods
Methods for fabricating In the top-down method
nanomaterials can be nanomaterials are derived
generally subdivided into from a bulk substrate and
two groups: top-down obtained by progressive
methods, and bottom-up removal of material, until the
methods. desired nanomaterial is
obtained.
Bottom-up methods work
in the opposite direction:
the nanomaterial, such as
a nanocoating, is obtained
starting from the atomic or
molecular precursors and
gradually assembling it
until the desired structure
is formed. The method
resembles building with
Lego® bricks.
Top-down
These methods are collectively called lithography and use a light or electron beam to selectively remove
micron-scale structures from a precursor material called resist. Nowadays it is possible to obtain single features
below 100nm (the transistors in latest generation processors are about 45 nm). Therefore in the semiconductor industry
nanostructures are routinely fabricated.

Lithography includes a series of fabrication techniques that share the principle of transferring an image
from a mask to a receiving substrate.

Lithographic techniques can be broadly divided in two main groups:

1. Methods that use a physical mask, where the resist is irradiated through the mask which is in
contact or in proximity with the resist surface. These methods are collectively called mask lithography,
among which photolithography is the most used.
2. Methods that use software mask. Here, a scanning beam irradiates the surface of the resist
sequentially, point by point, through a computer-controlled program where the mask pattern is defined.
These methods are collectively called scanning lithography.
 Photolithography

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBKhN4n-EGI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9x3Lh1ZfggM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ju6wENPtXu8
Bottom Up
Bottom up methods can be divided into gas-phase and liquid-
phase methods. in both cases, the nanomaterial is fabricated
through a controlled fabrication route that starts from the
single atom or
molecules:

Gas-phase methods: these include plasma arcing and

chemical vapour deposition;
Liquid phase: the most established method is sol-gel
synthesis; molecular self-assembly is emerging
as a new method

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPzY2HL9_VE
Medical Applications of Nanotechnologies

https://ww https://www.y
w.youtube. outube.com/w
com/watch atch?v=aFU5Q
?v=tOg1ClL x-cLu8
F2Gk
Environmental Applications of Nanotechnologies

https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=nv-
1PeE0rQQ
Nanotechnologies in Energy

https://www.you https://www.yo
tube.com/watch utube.com/wat
?v=Y2vvTPc30fE ch?v=LWSv3b60
tB8
CORE0202 NATURE, SCIENCE, HUMAN II
Spring 2022

What is Space,me?
What is Dark ma2er?
Why does the Sun Shine?
Spacetime
- The fabric of space-time is a conceptual model
combining the three dimensions of space with the fourth
dimension of time.
- In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model which
fuses the three dimensions of space and the
one dimension of time into a single four-
dimensional manifold.

- Spacetime diagrams can be used to

visualize relativistic effects, such as why different
observers perceive differently where and when events
occur.
- According to the best of current physical theories, space-
time explains the unusual relativistic effects that arise
from traveling near the speed of light as well as the
motion of massive objects in the universe.
The world line (yellow path) of a photon, which is at
location x = 0 at time ct = 0.
Space)me
• Un#l the 20th century, it was assumed that the three-dimensional geometry of the universe (its spa#al
expression in terms of coordinates, distances, and direc#ons) was independent of one-dimensional #me.

• The famous physicist Albert Einstein helped develop the idea of

space-#me as part of his theory of rela+vity.
• Prior to his pioneering work, scien#sts had two separate theories
to explain physical phenomena:

v Isaac Newton's laws of physics described the mo#on of massive

objects,
v while James Clerk Maxwell's electromagne#c models explained
the proper#es of light.
Space)me
• Measurements showed that light always traveled at the same speed, no
ma6er what.

• Light was known to be an electromagne<c phenomenon, but it did not

obey the same laws of mechanics as ma6er. Experiments by Albert A.
Michelson (1852-1931) and others in the 1880s showed that it always
traveled with the same velocity, regardless of the speed of its source.

• In 1892 George F. FitzGerald (1851-1901) and Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-

1928) independently found that they could reconcile theory and Hendrik Lorentz Henri Poincaré
experiment if they postulated that the detector apparatus was changing
its size and shape in a characteris<c way that depended on its state of
mo<on.
• In 1898, J. Henri Poincaré (1854-1912) suggested that intervals of <me, as
well as length, might be observer-dependent, and he even speculated (in
1904) that the speed of light might be an "unsurpassable limit".

• Around that same <me, other researchers were considering the

possibility that objects changed in size and mass, depending on their
speed.
Space)me
• None of these eminent physicists, however, put the whole story together.
That was leX to the young Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who already
began approaching the problem in a new way at the age of sixteen (1895-
6) when he wondered what it would be like to travel along with a light
ray.

- By 1905 he had shown that FitzGerald and Lorentz's results followed

from one simple but radical assump<on:

- the laws of physics and the speed of light must be the same for all Albert Einstein
uniformly moving observers, regardless of their state of rela9ve
mo9on.

- The laws of physics are invariant (i.e., identical) in all inertial

systems (i.e., non-accelerating frames of reference).

- The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers,

regardless of the motion of the light source.
Space)me
- For this to be true, space and 3me can no longer be independent. They had to be combined
into a single framework.

- They are "converted" into each other in such a way as to keep the speed of light constant for
all observers.

- This is why moving objects appear to shrink, as suspected by FitzGerald and Lorentz, and
why moving observers may measure >me differently, as speculated by Poincaré.

- Space and 3me are rela3ve (i.e., they depend on the mo3on of the observer who measures
them) — and light is more fundamental than either.

- This is the basis of Einstein's theory of special rela3vity ("special" refers to the restric3on to
uniform mo3on).

• A person in a superfast rocket will measure 3me to be moving slower and the lengths of
objects to be shorter compared with a person traveling at a much slower speed.
Space)me
The Fourth Dimension

• The conclusion that space-0me is a single fabric wasn't one that

Einstein reached by himself.
• That idea came from German mathema0cian Hermann Minkowski, who
said in a 1908 colloquium, "Henceforth space by itself, and 0me by
itself, are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of
union of the two will preserve an independent reality.”
• The space-0me he described is s0ll known as Minkowski space-0me
and serves as the backdrop of calcula0ons in both rela0vity and Herman Minkowski
quantum-field theory.
• Nowadays, when people talk about space-0me, they oKen describe it
as resembling a sheet of rubber. This, too, comes from Einstein, who
realized as he developed his theory of general rela0vity that the force
of gravity was due to curves in the fabric of space-0me.
Space)me in special rela)vity

• In three dimensions, the distance ∆𝑑 between two points can be defined using the Pythagorean
theorem:
(∆𝑑)! = (∆𝑥)! + (∆𝑦)! + (∆𝑧)!

• Although two viewers may measure the x, y, and z posi#on of the two points using different
coordinate systems, the distance between the points will be the same for both (assuming that they
are measuring using the same units). The distance is "invariant".

• In special rela#vity, however, the distance between two points is no longer the same if measured by
two different observers when one of the observers is moving, because of Lorentz contrac+on.

"
𝛾= (Lorentz factor)
!"
"# "
#
Space)me in special rela)vity
• The situa0on is even more complicated if the two points are separated in 0me as
well as in space.

• For example, if one observer sees two events occur at the same place, but at
different 0mes, a person moving with respect to the first observer will see the two
events occurring at different places, because (from their point of view) they are
sta0onary, and the posi0on of the event is receding or approaching.

• Thus, a different measure must be used to measure the effec0ve "distance"

between two events.
Space)me in special rela)vity
• In four-dimensional space0me, the analog to distance is the interval.
• Although 0me comes in as a fourth dimension, it is treated differently than the
spa0al dimensions.

• Minkowski space hence differs in important respects from four-dimensional

Euclidean space.

• The fundamental reason for merging space and 0me into space0me is that space
and 0me are separately not invariant, which is to say that, under the proper
condi0ons,
• different observers will disagree on the length of 0me between
two events (because of 7me dila7on)
• or the distance between the two events (because of length contrac7on).
Space)me in special rela)vity ()me dila)on)
• Left: Observer at rest measures time 2L/c between co-local events of light signal generation at A and
arrival at A.
• Right: Events according to an observer moving to the left of the setup: bottom mirror A when signal
is generated at time t'=0, top mirror B when signal gets reflected at time t'=D/c, bottom mirror A
when signal returns at time t'=2D/c.
∆#
∆𝑡 ! = "
!
$% "
#
Space-me in special rela-vity (length contrac-on) - Rela-vity of length

• We aUach a light source to one end of a ruler and a mirror to the other end.
• The ruler is at rest in reference frame S', and its length in this frame is l0.
Space-me in special rela-vity (length contrac-on) - Rela-vity of length
• In reference frame S the ruler is moving to the right with speed u.
• The length of the ruler is shorter in S.

© 2016 Pearson Educa2on, Ltd.

Spacetime in special relativity (length contraction) - Relativity of length
• A length measured in the frame in which the body is at rest (the rest
frame of the body) is called a proper length.
• Thus l0 is a proper length in S', and the length measured in any other
frame moving rela>ve to S is less than l0.
• This effect is called length contrac>on.

© 2016 Pearson Educa2on, Ltd.

Space)me in special rela)vity
• But special rela#vity provides a new invariant, called the space#me interval, which combines
distances in space and in #me.
• All observers who measure the #me and distance between any two events will end up
compu#ng the same space#me interval.

• Suppose an observer measures two events as being separated in #me by ∆t and a spa#al
distance ∆x.
• Then the space#me interval (∆𝑠)! between the two events that are separated by a distance ∆x
in space and by ∆ct=c ∆t in the ct-coordinate is:

(∆𝑠)! = (∆𝑐𝑡)! − (∆𝑥)!

• or for three space dimensions,

(∆𝑠)! = (∆𝑐𝑡)! − (∆𝑥)! −(∆𝑦)! −(∆𝑧)!

The constant c the speed of light, converts #me units (like second) into space units (like meter).
Second #mes meter/second = meter.
Lightcone
• Four-dimensional Minkowski space<me is oXen pictured in the form of a
two-dimensional lightcone diagram, with the horizontal axes represen<ng
"space" (x) and the ver<cal axis "<me" (ct).

• The walls of the cone are defined by the evolu<on of a flash of light passing
from the past (lower cone) to the future (upper cone) through the present
(origin).

• All physical reality is contained within this cone; the region outside
("elsewhere") is inaccessible because one would have to travel faster than light
to reach it.
• The trajectories of all real objects lie along "worldlines" inside the cone (like the
one shown here in red).
• The apparently sta<c nature of this picture, in which history does not seem to
"happen" but is rather "already there", has given writers and philosophers a
new way to think about old issues involving determinism and free will.
Lightcone

• The light cone has an essen#al role within the concept of causality.

• It is possible for a not-faster-than-light-speed signal to travel from the

posi#on and #me of O to the posi#on and #me of D.

• It is hence possible for event O to have a causal influence on event D.

• The future light cone contains all the events that could be causally
influenced by O.
• Likewise, it is possible for a not-faster-than-light-speed signal to travel from
the position and time of A, to the position and time of O.
• The past light cone contains all the events that could have a causal
influence on O.
Lightcone
• In contrast, assuming that signals cannot travel faster than the speed of
light, any event, like e.g. B or C, in the spacelike region (Elsewhere),
cannot either affect event O, nor can they be affected by event O
employing such signalling.

• Under this assump#on any causal rela#onship between event O and any
events in the spacelike region of a light cone is excluded.
Rela)vity of simultaneity
• All observers will agree that for any given event, an event
within the given event's future light cone occurs aKer the
given event.

• Likewise, for any given event, an event within the given

event's past light cone occurs before the given event.

• The before–aKer rela0onship observed for 0melike-

separated events remains unchanged no maUer what
the reference frame of the observer, i.e. no maUer how the
observer may be moving.

• The situa0on is quite different for spacelike-separated

events.
Rela)vity of simultaneity
• Figure was drawn from the reference frame of an observer
moving at v = 0.
• From this reference frame, event C is observed to occur aKer
event O, and event B is observed to occur before event O.
• From a different reference frame, the orderings of these non-
causally-related events can be reversed.
• In par0cular, one notes that if two events are simultaneous in
a par0cular reference frame, they are necessarily separated
by a spacelike interval and thus are noncausally related.
• The observa0on that simultaneity is not absolute, but
depends on the observer's reference frame, is termed
the rela0vity of simultaneity.
Rela)vity of simultaneity

• This animation illustrates the use of spacetime diagrams in the

analysis of the relativity of simultaneity.
• The events in spacetime are invariant, but the coordinate frames
transform.
• The three events (A, B, C) are simultaneous from the reference frame
of an observer moving at v = 0.
• From the reference frame of an observer moving at v = 0.3c, the
events appear to occur in the order C, B, A.
• From the reference frame of an observer moving at v = −0.5c, the
events appear to occur in the order A, B, C.
• The white line represents a plane of simultaneity being moved from
the past of the observer to the future of the observer, highlighting
events residing on it.
• The gray area is the light cone of the observer, which remains
invariant.
Gravity as Curved Space)me
• Einstein eventually iden#fied the property of space#me which is responsible for gravity as its curvature.
• Space and #me in Einstein's universe are no longer flat (as implicitly assumed by Newton) but can
pushed and pulled, stretched and warped by ma_er.
• Gravity feels strongest where space#me is most curved, and it vanishes where space#me is flat.
• This is the core of Einstein's theory of general rela#vity, which is oaen summed up in words as
follows: "ma5er tells space+me how to curve, and curved space+me tells ma5er how to move".

v Massive objects — like the Earth, sun or you — create

distor#ons in space-#me that cause it to bend.
v These curves, in turn, constrict the ways in which
everything in the universe moves, because objects have
to follow paths along this warped curvature.
v Mo#on due to gravity is actually mo#on along the twists
and turns of space-#me.

h6p://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gpb/gpb_012.html
Gravity as Curved Space)me
• A standard way to illustrate this idea is to place a bowling ball (represen<ng a massive object such as the sun) onto
a stretched rubber sheet (represen<ng space<me).
• If a marble is placed onto the rubber sheet, it will roll toward the bowling ball, and may even be put into "orbit"
around the bowling ball. This occurs, not because the smaller mass is "a6racted" by a force emana<ng from the
larger one, but because it is traveling along a surface which has been deformed by the presence of the larger mass.
• In the same way gravita<on in Einstein's theory arises not as a force propaga<ng through space<me, but rather as a
feature of space<me itself.
• According to Einstein, your weight on earth is due to the fact that your body is traveling through warped
space<me!

h6ps://ysjournal.com/a-new-look-at-the-informa<on-paradox/
Gravity as Curved Spacetime
Dark Ma@er
• Dark maUer is the mysterious stuff that fills the universe, but no one has ever seen.
• Dark maUer is a hypothe0cal form of maUer.
• Over 80% of all maUer in the universe is made up of material scien0sts have never
seen. It's called dark maUer and we only assume it exists because without it, the
behavior of stars, planets and galaxies simply wouldn't make sense.

vDark maUer is called "dark" because it does not

appear to interact with the electromagne0c
field, which means it does not absorb, reflect, or
emit electromagne0c radia0on (like light) and is,
therefore, difficult to detect by conven0onal
sensors and detectors.
WHY DO WE THINK DARK MATTER EXISTS?
• Various astrophysical observa#ons — including gravita#onal effects which cannot be explained by
currently accepted theories of gravity unless more ma_er is present than can be seen — imply dark
ma_er's presence.
• For this reason, most experts think that dark ma_er is abundant in the universe and has had a strong
influence on its structure and evolu#on.

• Since the 1920s, astronomers have hypothesized that

the universe must contain more ma_er than we can see
because the gravita#onal forces that seem to be at play
in the universe simply appear stronger than the visible
ma_er alone would account for.
• Astronomers examining spiral galaxies in the 1970s
expected to see material in the center moving faster
than at the outer edges. Instead, they found the stars in
both loca#ons traveled at the same velocity, indica#ng
the galaxies contained more mass than could be seen.
WHY DO WE THINK DARK MATTER EXISTS?
v Studies of gas within elliptical galaxies also indicated a need
for more mass than found in visible objects.

v Different galaxies seem to contain different amounts of dark

matter.

v The force of gravity doesn't only affect the orbits of stars in

galaxies but also the trajectory of light.

v Albert Einstein showed in the early 20th century that massive

objects in the universe bend and distort light due to the force
of their gravity. The phenomenon is called gravitational
lensing. By studying how light is distorted by galaxy clusters,
astronomers have been able to create a map of dark matter in
the universe.
Dark Ma@er
v In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the total mass-energy content of the universe contains
5% ordinary ma_er and energy, 27% dark ma_er, and 68% of a form of energy known as dark energy.
v Thus, dark ma_er cons#tutes 85% of the total mass, while dark energy and dark ma_er cons#tute 95% of
the total mass-energy content.
v Because no one has directly observed dark ma_er yet – assuming it exists – it must barely interact with
ordinary baryonic ma_er and radia#on except through gravity.
v Most dark ma_er is thought to be non-baryonic; it may be composed of some as-yet-
undiscovered subatomic par#cles.

h"ps://www.technologyshout.com
/scien4sts-publish-the-most-
accurate-dark-ma"er-
measurement-ever-2/
Dark Ma@er

vThe primary candidate for dark maAer is some new kind of elementary
par>cle that has not yet been discovered, par>cularly weakly interac>ng
massive par>cles(WIMPs).

vMany experiments to directly detect and study dark maAer par>cles are
being ac>vely undertaken, but none have yet succeeded.

vDark maAer is classified as "cold," "warm," or "hot" according to

its velocity (more precisely, its free streaming length). Current models favor
a cold dark maAer scenario, in which structures emerge by the gradual
accumula>on of par>cles.
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?
• The Sun shines because it is hot.
• The Sun is made of dense gas.
• The average density of the Sun is about 1400 kilograms
per cubic meter, 40 percent greater than the density of
water.
• A hot, dense, opaque object (such as the Sun, or the
filament of a light bulb) produces a con#nuous
blackbody spectrum of light.
• The temperature at the Sun's surface is 5800 Kelvin; the
Sun's blackbody spectrum thus peaks at a wavelength
of 500 nanometers, in the visible range of the
spectrum.
• The luminosity of the Sun (that is, the amount of
energy it radiates away per second in the form of light)
is very large, thanks to the Sun's high temperature and
large surface area. The total luminosity of the Sun is 3.9
x 1026 wa_s. (That is, 390 trillion trillion wa_s.) Source: NASA/SDO
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?

• The Sun remains hot because it is powered by nuclear

fusion in its core.
• The Sun has been shining away for 4.6 billion years. For
well over 3 billion years, according to the fossil record,
life has existed on Earth.
• The fact that life was not scorched or frozen out of
existence during that #me span indicates that the
luminosity of the Sun has been fairly steady.

• What energy source has kept the Sun hot for billions of
years, instead of cooling off like an unplugged iron?
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?
• The Sun, or any star for that ma_er, “shines” or “burns” due to a process of thermonuclear fusion, not
due to a chemical reac#on like the oxygen-driven fires on Earth.
• Because the Sun is so massive, it has great gravity and so its core is under tremendous levels of pressure
and heat.
• This pressure and heat is so high in the Sun’s core (about 15 million °C) that the protons of the
hydrogen atoms which largely make up the Sun collide into each other with enough speed that they s#ck
together or “fuse” to create helium nuclei.
• It effec#vely takes four hydrogen nuclei to fuse together to produce one nucleus of helium, although it is
actually a more complicated three-part process (hydrogen to deuterium, deuterium to helium-3 and
helium-3 to helium).

The nuclear fusion process in the sun

(Source: U. Of Berkely: h"p://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/bmendez/
ay10/2002/notes/lec12.html)
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?
• The trick to gesng atoms to fuse is having extremely high
temperature and density.
• Under the pressure of a few oc#llion tons of gas, the sun’s center
is heated to about 10 million degrees Celsius.
• At that temperature, the bare protons of a hydrogen nucleus are
moving fast enough to overcome their mutual repulsion.
• Through a series of collisions, the intense pressure at the sun’s
core con#nually fuses four protons together to form helium.
• With every fusion, energy is released into the stellar interior.
• Millions of these events occurring each second produces enough
energy to push back against the force of gravity and keep the star
in balance for billions of years.
• The released gamma rays follow a tortuous path higher and
higher through the star un#l eventually emerging from the
surface, millions of years later, in the form of visible light.
The steps in one of the paths that four
hydrogen nuclei take to fuse one helium
nuclei. At each step, energy is emitted as
gamma rays. Credit: Wikipedia user Borb.
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?
• However, the net mass of the fused helium nuclei is slightly smaller than the sum of the masses of its
cons#tuent hydrogen atoms, and this #ny amount of lost mass is converted into an enormous amount
of energy, according to the mass-energy equivalence rela#onship E = mc².

• To give an idea of the scale of this process, each second of every day our Sun converts about 700 million
tons of hydrogen into about 695 million tons of helium.

• The missing 5 million tons is converted into energy equivalent to the detona#on of about 100 billion
one-megaton bombs, two hundred million #mes the explosive yield of every nuclear weapon ever
detonated on Earth. And this happens every second.
WHY DOES THE SUN SHINE?

• The fusion process therefore releases huge amounts

of energy, ini#ally as gamma ray photons, that traverse the
interior of the Sun through a combina#on of radia#on and
convec#on, and are then radiated into space
as electromagne#c energy, including visible light.

• The process also emits par#cle radia#on, known as the

“stellar wind”, a steady stream of electrically charged
par#cles, such as free protons, alpha par#cles and beta
par#cles, as well as a steady stream of neutrinos.
• It is the internal pressure of this nuclear fusion process that
prevents the Sun from collapsing further under its
own gravity (known as a state of hydrosta#c equilibrium).
Earth's magne<c field slices through harsh solar
winds like a ship cruises through water. Scien<sts
might finally know how. (Image credit: NASA)
 Chemistry answers the questions?

 Why a bad apple spoils others?

 Can water be poisonous?
 How do we taste?
 Have you heard of saturnism?
 What causes scale?
 Does everything have a chemical formula?
 Can chemistry make you cry, laugh, happy
Can water be poisonous?
 Comments
Water Kills?????
The concentration of sodium in body fluids is normally maintained
in a critical range. Either an increase or a decrease in sodium levels
In 2007, a 28-year-old medical secretary living in California with her
can have serious medical consequences. When very large amounts
husband and three children entered a water-drinking contest sponsored
of water are consumed, there is a drop in plasma sodium
by a local radio station. Along with about 18 other contestants, she
concentration (hyponatremia) because the increased volume of
began drinking 8-oz bottles of water every 15 min starting at around 9
fluid dilutes the sodium. Hyponatremia can cause headache,
a.m. The contestant who could drink the most water without using the
restroom would receive a popular video-game system. The contest nausea, dizziness, and muscle weakness that may progress to

lasted for about 3 h, and the secretary finished in second place. Toward hallucinations, seizures, coma, and death. Water intoxication-

the end of the contest she was feeling nauseous and developed a related deaths caused by intentional or forced water consumption
severe headache. She drove home to recuperate. She was found dead in are rare. Situations in which this might occur include fraternity
her home by her mother at around 2 p.m. that same day. The cause of hazing, child abuse, water diets, endurance sports, and in some
death was hyponatremia due to water intoxication. No criminal charges psychiatric and metabolic disorders. Individuals using stimulant
were filed, but several radio station employees lost their jobs and the drugs in prolonged rave situations can lose large amounts of fluids
secretary’s family was awarded several million dollars in a wrongful through perspiration and, in an effort to compensate for this fluid
death suit. loss, can drink excessive amounts of water leading to
hyponatremia.
Nearly 500 years ago, Swiss physician and chemist Paracelsus expressed the
basic principle of toxicology:
“All things are poison and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a
thing not a poison.” This is often condensed to: “The dose makes the poison.”.
Paracelsus

DOSE

MEDICINE TOXIC

Prof. Dr. Salih CENGİZ 7 4/17/2022

 Saturnism: an old story of poisoning

Definition of lead poisoning : chronic intoxication that is produced by the absorption

of lead into the system and is characterized especially by fatigue, abdominal pain,
nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite, anemia, a dark line along the gums, and muscular
paralysis or weakness of limbs— called also saturnism
Pb in pigments and Dyes
http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/beethoven-
baliktan-degil-armonikadan-olmus-39227040
one bad apple spoils the whole bunch
Some fruits, like apples and pears, produce a gaseous hormone
called ethylene, which is, among other things, a ripening agent. When you store
fruits together, the ethylene each piece emits prods the others around it to ripen
further, and vice versa.

During ripening, the fruit becomes softer and starches are converted to sugar, making
the fruit sweeter. Ethylene triggers ripening, and ripening triggers more ethylene
production, accelerating the process. This is a classic example of a positive feedback
mechanism. Ethylene, a gas, can spread to nearby fruit, triggering more ripening and
more ethylene production. Over time, exposure to ethylene will make the fruit
overripe and lead to rotting.
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3546679/The-fruit-veg-apart-cut-food-waste.html
https://www.fruitsandveggiesmorematters.org/certain-
fruits-and-vegetables-should-not-be-stored-together
Taste is one of the five senses that people have.

Something may have a sweet, bitter, sour, or salty taste.

The value of this system of five basic tastes comes in part through its use as a basic survival
mechanism. Taste allows us to evaluate the nutritious content of food while preventing us from
eating toxic substances.
Salty taste allows us to identify foods and liquids that contain essential salts necessary for the
maintenance of electrolyte balance.
Sweet taste allows us to identify food that is high in energy‐rich nutrients.
Umami allows recognition of amino acids and proteins necessary as building blocks for proteins in
our bodies.
Bitter and sour tastes give us a warning against the intake of potentially noxious or poisonous
substances.
What do the various basic tastes tell us?
• Sweetness tells us that the food contains sugars and the metabolic by-products of carbohydrate breakdown, which provide energy
and calories.
• Saltiness indicates the presence of minerals and salts, such as those from sodium and potassium that are vital for preserving a
proper electrolyte balance in our cells and organs to ensure their proper functions.
• Bitterness sends a strong message that the food may contain poisonous substances—for example, alkaloids—that we should
avoid.
• It is less obvious why we taste sourness. Acidity might steer us toward substances that regulate the pH balance in our bodies
while at the same time sharpening the appetite and improving digestion. At any rate, sourness helps us to stay away from foods,
such as unripe fruit or rancid fats, that contain so much acid that they can be unpleasant to eat or even poisonous.
 If it smells - it's chemistry

To be smelt, the molecules must vaporise, either as a result of evaporation if a liquid or sublimation if a solid.
Molecules that can be smelt must also at least have some solubility in water and be lipophilic. (Note: some volatile
molecules cannot be smelled, such as H2O, O2, N2 and, tragically, CO.)
The scent in roses comes from one or more of over 300 compounds. These volatile compounds are
picked up by our nose receptors.
taste or flavor? In ordinary speech, the terms taste and flavor
are often used interchangeably, but strictly speaking, they are
quite different.
A taste has to fall into one of the known classifications for which
there are distinct taste bud receptors.
Flavor, on the other hand, is a perception based on three
essential elements: the combination of tastes in the food (think,
for example, of real black licorice, which is both salty and sweet),
the effect of the aromatic components on the olfactory
receptors, and the feelings related to texture, temperature, and
so on that are evoked in the mouth.
Can The chemicals make you cry, laugh, happy ?
Laughing Gas and it’s Formula

Laughing gas, (Nitrous Oxide, or Nitrous) is Dinitrogen monoxide and its chemical formula is N2O. It is a
colorless gas at room temperature and is non-flammable. It has a slightly metallic taste and smell and
has been around for nearly 300 years, after first being synthesized in 1722 by Joseph Priestley. However,
it wasn’t used for recreational or other purposes until the 1790s.

Laughing gas is popularly used as an analgesic and anesthetic agent. People instantly start laughing
upon inhaling the gas.

However, is it actually that effective and fast-acting?

N2O triggers the release of dopamine molecules in our body, possibly through the antagonization of
NMDA receptors (let’s keep an explanation of this mechanism for another time). Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter, and plays an important role in the reward system of our body. Our reward system is
basically when our body rewards us for doing a particular action – in this case, the reward is dopamine
secretion. Dopamine is needed by our body in the right amounts at the right place. A shortage of
dopamine causes diseases like Parkinson’s, etc. while an excess of dopamine induces euphoria.

Therefore, technically, N2O makes a person euphoric. In this state, people feel happy, which leads to
them laugh. The effect of the gas also starts quickly, within minutes of its inhalation.
 WHAT CHEMICAL MAKES YOU HAPPY?

Our brain chemistry is designed to support these efforts by releasing chemicals into our brain
and body that make us feel good. There are numerous neurotransmitters, or substances
released by nerve fibers, that affect happiness. There are four primary chemicals that can drive
the positive emotions you feel throughout the day: dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, and
endorphins
What causes scale?
scale occurs when calcium carbonate precipitated out of solution, and deposited on surfaces or
equipment–most likely in the hottest places first.
Why the hottest places first?
Because the solubilty of CaCO3 decreases when the temperature increases.

Carbonate Scale is a buildup of hardened calcium carbonate (CaCO3) on pool surfaces or

equipment. Scale can be a big problem for a pool and its plumbing system (and other
water systems besides pools, like fountains).

Hard water can result in scale buildup within a delivery

system's pipes
Chemically limestone is mainly calcium carbonate
(CaCO3): a mix of the calcium ion (Ca++) and the
carbonate or carbone oxide (CO3--). Limestone is formed
(scaling) when water containing particles of calcium
carbonate evaporate, leaving behind the sediment
deposit. The water pressure compacts the sediment,
creating limestone.
Everything is a chemical?
AZURİT MALAKİT
[Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2] [Cu2(CO3)(OH)2]

TEBEŞİR LAPİZ LAZULİ

(CaCO3) (Na3Ca(Al3Si3O12)S
 Caffeine

Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) is the common name for trimethylxanthine (systematic

name is 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine or 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-
dione). The chemical is also known as coffeine, theine, mateine, guaranine, or
methyltheobromine.
 MATTER
 is anything that occupies space and has mass
 All matter is formed from one or more of 114 presently
known elements—fundamental substances
Diamond and Graphite

Diamond is composed of the single element carbon, and it is the arrangement of the C atoms
in the lattice that give diamond its amazing properties. Compare the structure of diamond and
graphite, both composed of just carbon. In diamond we have the hardest known material, in
graphite we have one of the softest, simply by rearranging the way the atoms are bonded
together.
 Microprocessors

LED
Semiconductors

Capacitors
Transistors
Why semiconductors are preferred?
The conductivity of semiconductors easily can be controlled.
It is not easy to change the conductivity of the conductor and insulators.
We can change the conductivity of semiconductor material by doping. By
doping, we can increase the conductivity of semiconductor material.
Advantages of semiconductors
• Semiconductors have no requirement of filament heating so
semiconductors device such as transistor takes place in almost all
vacuum tube applications.
• Semiconductor devices are solid-state devices. So they are shockproof.
• Semiconductor devices are so small in size which makes it easily
portable.
• It has Less cost than a vacuum tube.
• Semiconductor devices require less input power for operation.
• During the operation period, it does not make any noise. So we can see
semiconductor devices are noise-free devices.
• Semiconductor materials have a longer lifespan. They have an almost
unlimited life
Some of the devices based on semiconductors

•Gunn diode
•IMPATT diode
Field-effect transistor
•Laser diode
Darlington transistor
•Zener diode
Unijunction transistor
•Schottky diode
Silicon-controlled rectifier
•PIN diode
Thyristor
•Tunnel diode
TRIAC
•Light-emitting diode (LED)
•Photo transistor Photocoupler
•Photocell Hall effect sensor
•Solar cell
•Diode
 Semiconductors possess specific electrical properties. A substance that conducts
electricity is called a conductor, and a substance that does not conduct electricity
is called an insulator. Semiconductors are substances with properties
somewhere between them.

http://www.jiwaji.edu/pdf/ecourse/physics/Semiconductor-Band%20Structure.pdf
Optical and Quantum Electronics 145(4):19 DOI:10.1007/s11082-017-0961-3
Silicon is a very common element, the main element
in sand & quartz.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors

Two-dimensional representation of the silicon At room temperature, some of the covalent

crystal. The circles represent the inner core of bonds are broken by thermal generation.
silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive Each broken bond gives rise to a free
charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the electron and a hole, both of which become
charge of the four valence electrons. Observe available for current conduction.
how the covalent bonds are formed by
sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K, all
bonds are intact and no free electrons are
available for current conduction.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

A silicon crystal doped by a A silicon crystal doped with a

pentavalent element. Each dopant trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom
atom donates a free electron and is gives rise to a hole, and the
thus called a donor. The doped semiconductor becomes p type
semiconductor becomes n type
 Electrical properties can be indicated by resistivity. Conductors such as gold,
silver and copper have low resistance and conduct electricity easily. Insulators
such as rubber, glass and ceramics have high resistance and are difficult for
electricity to pass through. Semiconductors have properties somewhere between
these two.

https://www.hitachi-hightech.com/global/products/device/semiconductor/history.html
Temperature dependence of resistivity

https://msestudent.com/what-are-semiconductors/
 Energy Band

The electrons cannot orbit the nucleus at any distance in the atomic space surrounding
the nucleus, but only certain, very specific orbits are allowed, and only exist in specific
discrete levels. These energies are called energy levels. A large number of atoms gather
to form a crystal, and interacts in a solid material, then the energy levels became so
closely spaced that they form bands.

https://www.hitachi-hightech.com/global/products/device/semiconductor/history.html
 Energy Band

https://msestudent.com/what-are-semiconductors/
 Conduction Electrons and Holes
An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence
band into the conduction band, becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also
called conduction electrons.

Pearson - Introduction to Semiconductors

Pearson - Introduction to Semiconductors
 Application areas

Neumaier, D., Pindl, S. & Lemme, M.C. Integrating graphene into semiconductor fabrication lines. Nat. Mater. 18, 525–529 (2019).
 New Applications for Semiconductor Quantum Dots

García de Arquer et al.: Semiconductor quantum dots: Technological progress and future challenges. Science 373
 Progress in Semiconductor Industry

https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/ https://blog.okricky.com/research/everything-about-semiconductors/
https://www.hitachi-hightech.com/global/products/device/semiconductor/history.html
Milestones of Semiconductor

1824

John Jacob Berzelis

First to isolate and identify silicon.

Remains little more than a scientific curiosity until
the 1900s.
 1833

Michael Faraday Resistance (Ohms)

Temperature (ºC)

Discovers that electrical resistively decreases as

temperature increases in silver sulfide.
This is the first investigation of a semiconductor.
 1873

William Smith

Discovers the photoconductivity of selenium and

invents a selenium photometer.
 1874

Ferdinand Braun

The first semiconductor device was born.

Radio receivers required a device called a rectifier to
detect signals.

He used the rectifying properties of the galena

crystal, a semiconductor material composed of lead
sulfide, to create the cat's whisker diode for this
purpose.
 1927

Sommerfeld Bloch

Applied quantum mechanics to solids, helping

explain the conduction of electricity in
semiconductors.
 1947

Working at Bell Telephone, they were trying to

understand the nature of the electrons at the
interface between a metal and a semiconductor
(germanium).
 First Transistor

It consisted of a plastic triangle lightly suspended above a germanium crystal which itself
was sitting on a metal plate attached to a voltage source.

The germanium acted as a semiconductor so that a small electric current entering on

one side of the gold strip came out the other side as a proportionately amplified current.
 1959

The First I.C.

Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Camera,

came up with a solution to the problem of large numbers of components,
and the integrated circuit was developed.
 Instead of making transistors one-by-one, several
transistors could be made at the same time, on the same
piece of semiconductor( a silicon wafer).

Not only transistors, but other electric components such as

resistors, capacitors and diodes could be made by the
same process with the same materials.
 1970

4004 8080
4–bit unit 8–bit processor

First microprocessor invented at Intel.

First commercial MPU in 1975.

 1981

The IBM PC model 5150 was announced at a press conference in New York
on August 12, 1981 and became available for purchase in early Fall 1981.

The base model retailed for $2880!

This included 64 kilobytes of RAM and a single-sided 160K 5.25" floppy drive.

The IBM PC was powered by a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 processor.

 Fabrication Process
https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=AMgQ1-
HdElM

https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=c9arR8T
0Qts

An ingot has been The wafers are polished until they have flawless, mirror-
produced from Electronic smooth surfaces. Intel buys those manufacturing ready wafers
Grade Silicon. One ingot from third party companies. Intel’s highly advanced 45nm
weights about 100 kilograms High-K/Metal Gate process uses wafers with a diameter of 300
(=220 pounds) and has a millimeter (~12 inches). When Intel first began making chips,
Silicon purity of 99.9999%. the company printed circuits on 2-inch (50mm) wafers. Now
the company uses 300mm wafers, resulting in decreased
costs per chip.
http://bwrcs.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/icdesign/ee141_f01/Notes/chapter2.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWV9pvdRBNY

http://bwrcs.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/icdesign/ee141_f01/Notes/chapter2.pdf
Light Emitting Diodes
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an
electric current is passed through it.
Inside the semiconductor material of the LED, the electrons and holes are
contained within energy bands. The separation of the bands (i.e. the bandgap)
determines the energy (color) of the photons that are emitted by the LED.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0T5ZkOEkrL8
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical Volume 329, 1 October 2021, 112817
https://onlinesale.factory2022.ru/category?name=benefits%20of%20led%20lighting
 Semiconductor Lasers
A semiconductor laser diode is a device capable of
producing a lasing action by applying a potential difference
across a modified pn-junction. This modified pn-junction is
heavily doped and contained within a cavity thus providing
the gain medium for the laser. A feedback circuit is also
implemented in order to control the amount of current sent to
the laser diode.

http://www-ee.eng.buffalo.edu/faculty/cartwright/teaching/ee494s01/Presentations/Semiconductor_Laser_Diodes.pdf
 When in use, the S.L.D. is normally mounted in a laser diode
module. The S.L.D. is driven and its current controlled by the
drive circuit. A lens provides the desired beam shape

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpePZjTXqRw
http://www-ee.eng.buffalo.edu/faculty/cartwright/teaching/ee494s01/Presentations/Semiconductor_Laser_Diodes.pdf
Working principle

This diagram shows a cross section of the inside of the laser diode.
The L.D. consists mainly of a pn-junction separated by a thin active layer.
The sides of the L.D. form the mirrors of the cavity and the beam is sent in
the two opposite directions.
A potential difference creates the pumping action and starts the lasing
process.
Solar Panels
Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. Some scientists call them
photovoltaics which means, basically, "light-electricity."
A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Lots of small solar cells spread over a large area
can work together to provide enough power to be useful. The more light that hits a cell, the
more electricity it produces, so spacecraft are usually designed with solar panels that can
always be pointed at the Sun even as the rest of the body of the spacecraft moves around,
much as a tank turret can be aimed independently of where the tank is going.
https://www.altenergy.org/renewables/solar/solartechnolgy.html
https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-energy-solar-electricity/
Soft Matter
 Many everyday materials – food, medicines, Soft composites are employed as self-
cleaning agents, paints and plastics – are highly organising biomimetic models for
complex at the microscopic and molecular scale, understanding biological processes.
often consisting of several kinds of molecules or
tiny particles, which are held together by weak Furthermore,
electrostatic forces in a highly organized way. At advanced functional composites with
room temperature, these forces are usually not nanoscale and microscale structures,
strong enough to prevent the materials from often inspired by biology, are now being
deforming under stress – which is why they are designed for sophisticated applications
‘soft’. in electronics and medicine.

Finally, the
subtle architecture and emergent
Soft composites show properties of soft composites provide a
complex behavior. On gentle heating, fertile research area for understanding the
or if subjected to shear forces (for organising principles of nature at the
example, by stirring), they may melt most fundamental scientific level
or
change their molecular organization
– in other words ‘change phase’.
for Soft Materials, tau is large because microstructures are
large they are viscoelastic
In hard condensed matter physics,
it is possible to predict material
properties based on the The subtle interplay between
interactions between the interactions and thermal
individual atoms, which are fluctuations can lead to
organized on a regular complex emergent behavior,
crystalline lattice. such as
spontaneous pattern
For soft matter systems, with their formation, self assembly, and
intrinsically heterogeneous a large response to small
structure, complex interactions external forces.
across different length scales, and
slow dynamics, this is much more
difficult.
 Building bases for solid and soft matters
Atoms and small molecules, in Nature Colloids, polymers and other
or synthesized macromolecules, the
in the laboratory, on the size of which lies between 5
(sub)nanometer scale are nanometers and 5
the building blocks of solid matter. micrometers, may be
considered the building blocks
of soft matter.
 The weak interactions between While at the nanometer scale the
particles may be used as the defining shape of the particles is fixed, at
characteristic of soft the micrometer scale the
matter. particles may be shaped and
sculpted in almost any way. It is
Soft matter comprises a variety of not only the sizes of the
states, best distinguished as being particles that differ but the blocks
dominated by energies of the order of can be made to take a much wider
room temperature range of forms.
thermal energy.

At these temperatures, quantum

aspects are generally unimportant
Polymers Soft colloids
These are long-chain molecules which These are suspensions, usually in a
can have a variety of shapes and chemical liquid or soft solid, of minute particles,
properties. As well as having useful which can be metals, minerals, gas
bulk mechanical properties, they may bubbles, micelles or polymers, or any
stabilise a material or provide a strong combination of these. Colloidal
coating for a surface. composites often form glasses or softer
gels, consisting of a network of
randomly arranged particles.

Amphiphiles including surfactants

These are molecules with a water loving
(hydrophilic) component and Biological materials
a water-hating (hydrophobic) Living tissue represents the ultimate
hydrocarbon tail. This means that they soft composite, with a hierarchical
dissolve in both oil and water and also architecture composed of all of the
act as detergents. In solution, they above. Cell membranes are particularly
selforganise into intricate structures interesting because they are composed
such as minute vesicles called micelles. of molecules that self-organise on the
same principles as surfactants.
 POLYMERS
Polymers are macromolecules formed by linking together of a large number of small molecules called
monomers. The polymers are giant molecules with high molecular masses.
The single repeating unit is called as monomer, and the resultant high molecular weight compound is
called as polymer
 On the basis of this physical property, the polymers with high
degree of polymerization are known as high polymers while those having
comparatively low degree of polymerization are known as oligopolymers. The
molecular weights of polymers are generally in the range of 5000 to 200,000. Hence,
these are also known as macromolecules.

The total number (n) of single monomer units combined togetherto form a polymer is
known as degree of polymerization (DP). DP affect physical properties of polymers.
 Based on source
Natural: e.g starch, cellulose, protein

Semi synthetic: Nitro cellulose

Synthetic: Polythene, polyvinyl chloride

 The nature of monomer
Homo-polymers: A polymer containing identical monomers.
A-A-A-A

Co-polymers are the compounds formed by two different small

molecules. A-B-A-B-A-A-B
arrangement of monomeric units
linear, branched or cross-linked
 effect of heat
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting
configuration of macromolecule known as Tacticity of polymers
 COLLOIDS
A colloid is a mixture in which one substance consisting of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended
throughout another substance.
Dispersions
COLLOIDS-Basic Shapes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZlO0xz88uAY
 Applications of Colloids

1. Therapy--- Colloidal system are used as therapeutic agents in different areas.

Silver colloid-germicidal, Copper colloid-anticancer, Mercury colloid-Antisyphilis
2. Stability---e.g. lyophobic colloids prevent flocculation in suspensions.
Colloidal dispersion of gelatin is used in coating over tablets and granules which
upon drying leaves a uniform dry film over them and protect them from adverse
conditions of the atmosphere.
3. Absorption--- As colloidal dimensions are small enough, they have a huge surface
area. Hence, the drug constituted colloidal form is released in large amount.
sulphur colloid gives a large quantity of sulphur and this often leads to sulphur
toxicity
4. Targeted Drug Delivery--- Liposomes are of colloidal dimensions and are
preferentially taken up by the liver and spleen.
 Plastics
It is hard to imagine life without Food
modern synthetic plastics and Many foods such as yoghurt, sauces,
rubbers. These polymers can be spreads and cream desserts are typical
moulded into almost any shape, emulsions – minute droplets of oil
extruded into thin films and fibres, suspended in water or vice versa –
applied as coatings, and given bright stabilised by a surfactant.
colours or made transparent.

Beauty
Cleaning agents Soft matter Cosmetics and toiletries
Supermarket shelves are bursting with
specialist cleaning agents for washing and life encompass a wide variety of soft-
composite materials, from
clothes, dishes, and household surfaces.
shampoos and toothpaste
They generally contain surfactants (p.6,
Home to skin creams and eye shadow.
18) which loosen and bind oily dirt
Home-improvement products are
just as complex. Paints are usually
designed to be ‘non-drip’, which
means that they are gel-like.
Thesurface properties of coatings,
fillers and glues may also be
tailored.
 Soft materials and society
environment health Technology innovation
Soft materials are helping Because soft matter is largely Soft-matter composites are
us to source constructed from molecular generally structurally
and use energy building blocks similar organised at the micro- or
efficiently. They are to those in living tissues, it nanoscale and offer
considerably lighter than can be designed to mimic the amazing potential for new
metals, and are self-organising and technologies. The first step
increasingly being used in molecular-recognition in this direction was liquid
the bodywork of characteristics of crystals – fluids in which
vehicles, which improves biological systems. Using this molecules change their
fuel efficiency. Polymers approach, orientation in response to a
incorporated in fuels minute surfactant vesicles voltage.
themselves inhibit the called liposomes, or coated Liquid-crystal displays are
formation of soot, thus metal nanoparticles now the device of choice
reducing pollution can be used to deliver anti- for TV screens and
cancer drugs computer monitors.
to tumors.
Smart Materials
Smart materials have one or more properties that can be dramatically altered. These are
materials that respond to changes in external stimuli such as humidity, pH, temperature
and pressure.
 Piezoelectric materials Shape memory materials
They can convert mechanical They have the ability to change the shape, even
energy into electrical energy and returning to their original shape, when exposed to
vice versa. For example, they a heat source, among other stimuli.
change their shape in response to
an electrical impulse or produce an
electrical charge in response to an
applied mechanical stress. Magnetorheological materials
They change their properties
Photoactive materials when exposed to a magnetic
There are several types: field. For example, they are
electroluminescents emit currently used in shock
light when they are fed absorbers to prevent seismic
with electrical impulses, vibrations in bridges or
fluorescents reflect light skyscrapers.
with greater intensity and
phosphorescents are able
to emit light after the
initial source has ceased.
Chromoactive materials
They change colour when subjected to a certain variation in temperature, light,
pressure, etc. Nowadays, they are used in sectors such as optics, among others.
Redox responsive polymers Redox-Responsive Polymers. Redox-responsive stimuli are most important for disease
therapy and are widely used in polymer drug delivery systems.
 Light/photo responsive polymers
Photo-responsive polymers are a special part of stimuli-responsive materials, which use light irradiation to change.
Typically, the light that is being used is in the ultraviolet (UV), visible (vis) or infrared (IR) region.
Top 3 future applications
1. Phototherapy: 2. Actuators:

3. Adhesives
Block-co-polymers (blue-green rods) are
loaded with a drug (pink pyramide) while self-
assembling into a carrier system which is
disassembled after light irradiation.

Sun, W.; Parowatkin, M.; Steffen, W.; Butt, H.-J.; Mailänder, V.; Wu, S., Advanced Healthcare Materials 2016, 5 (4), 467-473.
Yu, Y.; Nakano, M.; Ikeda, T., Photomechanics: Directed bending of a polymer film by light. Nature 2003, 425 (6954), 145-145.
Akiyama, H.; Fukata, T.; Yamashita, A.; Yoshida, M.; Kihara, H., The Journal of Adhesion 2017, 93 (10), 823-830.
 Light/photo responsive polymers

https://www.youtube.co Schiphorst, J.T. (2018). Light

m/watch?v=zTcArzp_bXA responsive polymers : from
&t=6s molecule to device.

Figure 2.1. Isomerization of a protonated merocyanine (McH+)

and the spiropyran (Sp) form (A) with the corresponding effect
on the size of a hydrogel by irradiation with light (B),
implemented as light-responsive valve in microfluidics (C).
 Thermoresponsive polymers
Thermoresponsive polymers are a class of “smart”
materials that have the ability to respond to a change in
temperature; a property that makes them useful
materials in a wide range of applications and
consequently attracts much scientific interest.

A summary of the main applications is given following

the different studies on thermoresponsive polymers
which are categorized based on their 3-dimensional
structure; hydrogels, interpenetrating networks, micelles,
crosslinked micelles, polymersomes, films and particles.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfVj4J
giJWw&t=8s

Kotsuchibashi, Y. Recent advances in multi-temperature-responsive polymeric materials. Polym J 52, 681–689 (2020).
 Electro and magneto responsive polymers
Magneto-/ electro-responsive polymers (MERPs) are a class of
stimuli-responsive materials that are actuated when triggered
by external magnetic/ electric fields. MERPs exhibit rapid,
reversible, and safe multi-functional and dynamic (i.e.,
changing with time) properties, which can effectively be
manipulated at different length scales. These features make
MERPs very attractive particularly in biomedical engineering
(e.g., drug delivery systems and tissue engineering), soft matter
engineering (e.g., soft robotics), and structural design of smart
materials with unprecedented properties (e.g., complex shape
morphing).

https://www.youtube.co https://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=2TjdGuBK9mI m/watch?v=hTTlT7CWRL
Q
https://bme240.eng.uci.edu/students/06s/phamtn/content_frame.html
Applied Materials Today,Volume 26,2022,101306
 pH responsive polymers

pH-responsive polymers are smart polymers that

undergo changes in structures and properties such
as conformation, hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity,
solubility, volume, and so on in response to a
change in pH. Polymers with acidic or basic groups
like carboxy, sulfonyl, and amino groups are
typically described as pH-responsive polymers
because the ionization of the groups by pH
changes results in changes in structures and
properties of the polymer chains.

Polymer Chemistry 8(1):144-176

Shape memory polymers?

a shape memory polymer (SMP) is a kind of material that has the potential of showing large elastic deformation in
response to environmental stimuli
How do shape memory polymers work?

https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=s62PL5
vmfNw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SpqHwtdRdCI&t=1s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50zu5HSdlLc&t=90s
 Some examples of shape memory polymers

Inactive

AFTER
BEFORE DURING TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFORMATION TRANSFORMATION

Active - Bending

Active - Twist
University of Maryland BEFORE TRANSFORMATION DURING TRANSFORMATION AFTER TRANSFORMATION
Gao, H., Li, J., Zhang, F., Liu, Y., & Leng, J. (2019). The research status and challenges of shape memory polymer-based flexible electronics. Materials Horizons.
 Applications of shape memory polymers

Nanoscale Horiz., 2020, 5, 1155-1173

 CORE0202 NATURE, SCIENCE, HUMAN II

Spring 2022

Quantum Computing
• Classical Computers • Quantum Computers
 Bits, Binary system  Qubits, Measurements,
 Logic Gates  Represntation of Qubits: Bloch Sphere
 Moore’s law  Quantum Logic Gates
 Multiple qubits and entanglement
 A Quantum Computing Application:
Quantum Database Search – Grover’s
Algorithm
Computers
Computers have been changing the world.

We use this revolutionary technology daily (in our offices, in our homes and pockets).

When you look inside a computer, you would see

• Wires,
• Plugs,
• Electric circuits,
• Chips,
• Speaker, and all sorts of other stuff.

 This is the hardware of a computer!

 What you don’t see is the software (all of the computer programs or codes running on the machine).

 The sofware could be anything (applications, games, web pages, data science sofware used for the analysis of sytems).

But,
• how do the computers work?
• how do the hardware and sofware interact with one another?
Computers
Any computer must be able to perform four different tasks:
1. Input,
2. Storage,
3. Processing,
4. Output.

• Any input is stored in the memory of the computer.

• The computers processor takes the information in the memory, manipulates it using algorithms (a series of
commands), and send the processed information back to the memory again.
• This continues until the the processed information is ready to be output.
• The output can be in the form of
 Text,
 Photos,
 Videos,
 Games,
 The solution of a differential equation.
• If connected, the output of one computer can be the input of another computer.
Computers
In a computer, the information is carried by electric wires and circuits.

• But, how can you use electricity to represent/store information?

If you consider a single wire with electric current flowing through it, the signal could be

ON or OFF
YES or NO
TRUE or FALSE
1 or 0

• This ON and OFF (1 and 0) state of a single wire is called a BIT (the smallest possible information that a
computer can store).

• More wires means more BITs to store more complicated information!

• To understand this you need to learn the Binary Number System.

Decimal Number System:

Binary Number System:

What is this number quoted in the binary system?

Any number can be represented by zeros and ones!

Any number can be represented by ZEROs and ONEs

Decimal numerals represented by binary digits

decimal binary conversion

0 0 0 ( 20 )
1 1 1 ( 20 )
Computers use the binary system of counting.
2 10 1 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
3 11 1 ( 21 ) + 1 ( 2 0 )
4 100 1 ( 22 ) + 0 ( 2 1 ) + 0 ( 20 )
5 101 1 ( 22 ) + 0 ( 2 1 ) + 1 ( 20 )
6 110 1 ( 22 ) + 1 ( 2 1 ) + 0 ( 20 )
7 111 1 ( 22 ) + 1 ( 2 1 ) + 1 ( 20 )
8 1000 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 0 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
9 1001 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 0 ( 21 ) + 1 ( 2 0 )
10 1010 1 ( 23 ) + 0 ( 2 2 ) + 1 ( 21 ) + 0 ( 2 0 )
Any letter (text) can be represented by ZEROs and ONEs
Letter ASCII Code Binary Letter ASCII Code Binary
a 097 01100001 A 065 01000001
b 098 01100010 B 066 01000010
Binary Codes for Letters c 099 01100011 C 067 01000011
d 100 01100100 D 068 01000100
e 101 01100101 E 069 01000101
• Each symbol is assigned its ASCII code number in binary f 102 01100110 F 070 01000110
g 103 01100111 G 071 01000111
form, and appended a parity check bit (for error detection h 104 01101000 H 072 01001000
purposes). i 105 01101001 I 073 01001001
j 106 01101010 J 074 01001010
k 107 01101011 K 075 01001011
• For example, team can be coded as l 108 01101100 L 076 01001100
m 109 01101101 M 077 01001101
n 110 01101110 N 078 01001110
01110100 01100101 01100001 01101101. o 111 01101111 O 079 01001111
p 112 01110000 P 080 01010000
q 113 01110001 Q 081 01010001
r 114 01110010 R 082 01010010
s 115 01110011 S 083 01010011
t 116 01110100 T 084 01010100
• Similar assignments can be done for colors and sound to u 117 01110101 U 085 01010101
v 118 01110110 V 086 01010110
represent images and sound in binary number system. w 119 01110111 W 087 01010111
x 120 01111000 X 088 01011000
y 121 01111001 Y 089 01011001
z 122 01111010 Z 090 01011010
Computers – Logic gates
The manipulation of data (data processing) is done by the application of logic gates.
• Gates have distinct graphic symbols, and their operation can be described by means of algebraic expressions.

• The seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

NOT Gate

Input Output
A NOT A
0 1
1 0
Reversibility
• In classical computing, when a gate is applied to some information, the original information is often lost.

• Consider the AND Gate:

• If the output is 0, there is no way to determine if the input

was 00, 01, or 10.

• Thus, some information is lost by applying the AND gate

to two bits.

• We say the AND gate is irreversible.

• Most classical logic Gates are irreversible (The NOT Gate is reversible).

• Irreversible Gates increase the entropy, heat is generated and the observer loses the ability to extract useful work from the
system.

• Reversible Gates preserve the entropy and the energy dissipation would not occur if computation is made reversible.
Transistors
- Tiny switches used to turn current ON and OFF.

Since the invention of the computer transistor in 1947 [Bell Laboratories

in New Jersey - John Bardeen (1908–1991), Walter Brattain (1902–1987),
and William Shockley (1910–1989)], the number of transistors per silicon A scanning electron microscope image of individual
chip (density of transistors) has nearly doubled over the last 70 years, as transistors on IBM's new chip, each measuring 2
predicted by Moore’s law. nanometers wide – narrower than a strand of human
DNA. Source: IBM
Moore’s law: a prediction made by American engineer Gordon Moore in
1965 that the number of transistors per silicon chip doubles every year.

REMARKS:
• The current industry standard is chips with 7-nm transistors, with some high-end consumer devices,
such as Apple’s M1 processors, beginning to make the move to 5 nm.
• Experimental chips have shrunk as small as 2.5 nm.

How small is 5 nm?

100 nm 5 nm 2.5 nm
Diameter of a human hair Diameter of the newest transistors Diameter of a human chromosome
Plot of MOS transistor counts
for microprocessors against
dates of introduction.

The curve shows counts

doubling every two years, per
Moore's law.
QC

2011 2014 2016

Quantum Computers
A quantum computer performs calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the description
of particles at the sub-atomic level.

Why do we need quantum computers?

• To solve difficult problems, we have used supercomputers which are basically very large classical computers,
often with thousands of classical central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU) cores.

• However, even supercomputers aren’t very good at solving certain types of problems, which seem easy at first
glance. This is why we need quantum computers.
Quantum Computers – Grover’s search algorithm
One promising quantum algorithm that uses these techniques is called Grover's Search. This search involves
finding one item from a list of N items.

To find the answer,

• On a classical computer you'd have to check N/2 items on average, and in the worst case you would need to
check all N.

• Using Grover's search algorithm on a quantum computer you would find the item after checking roughly 𝑁 of
them.

• This represents a remarkable increase in processing efficiency and time saved.

• For example, if you wanted to find one item in a list of 1 trillion, and each item took 1 microsecond to check:

 Time on a classical computer: About 1 week

 Time on a quantum computer: About 1 second

How big are quantum computers?
Quantum computers are currently about the size of a domestic fridge, with an accompanying wardrobe-sized
box of control electronics.

Similar to the way bits are used in classical computers, quantum bits (qubits) are used in quantum computers
to store/process information.

IBM’s 127-qubit chip Eagle

The world's 10 fastest quantum chips by qubits (November 2021)

Name/Designation Manufacturer Architecture Release date Qubits

IBM Eagle IBM Superconducting Late 2023 127
Jiuzhang USTC Photonics 2020 76
Bristlecone Google Superconducting 5 March, 2018 72
IBM Manhattan IBM Superconducting 65
Nonlinear
Sycamore Google superconducting 2019 53
resonator
IBM Q 53 IBM Superconducting 1 October, 2019 53
IBM Q 50 prototype IBM Superconducting 50
N/A Google Superconducting Q4 2017 (planned) 49
Tangle Lake Intel Superconducting 9 January, 2018 49
IBM Dublin IBM Superconducting 27

Source: IBM, Verdict, Wikipedia (sources cited: Nature, Live Science, IBM, Futurism, MIT Technology Review, IEEE Spectrum, SPIE)
Quantum representation of data - Qubits
• Recall that classical computers use bits which can be either 0 or 1.

• A quantum computer uses two stationary states of a quantum

system (e.g., an atom) denoted by |0 and |1 as counterparts of
the classical bits 0 and 1.

• A quantum bit (qubit) can be either one of the states |0 and |1 .

• But, in general, it can be in a linear combination (superposition) of

these two states. In a notation introduced by Dirac, we write

  a 0 b 1 , a  b  1, a, b  .
2 2

• We say the state vector | is a vector in the 2-dimensional

Hilbert space of the quantum system, and tells us everything we
could possibly know about the qubit.
Quantum representation of data – Qubit Notation
• Any state vector can be represented with a linear combination of the states |0 and |1 since they form an orthonormal basis.

• Orthonormal means both orthogonal and normalized.

 Orthogonal means the vectors are at right angles.

 Normalized means their magnitudes (lengths) are equal to 1.

• In Dirac notation, a vector | is called a ket vector, which is represented by a column vector.

• Every ket | has a corresponding bra | which is represented by a row vector.

• A bra is the complex conjugate and transpose of its corresponding ket.

EXAMPLES: Bras and kets.

  , 0  0 , 11
* * *
Quantum measurements - Rules
 When measurements are carried out on classical systems, the disturbance of the measurement on the system can be
neglected.

 However in quantum mechanics, the act of a measurement interferes with the system, and the system collapses into one of
its possible states (an eigenstate).

• Consider the general state of a qubit represented by   a 0 b 1 .

• When a measurement is made, the general state will collapse to one of its possible states |0 and |1 ,
i.e., it will be found in either |0 or |1 .

• The probability of finding the qubit in state |𝑛 (n = 0, 1) is given by the scalar (inner) product
2
n

where n  represents the scalar (inner) product of |𝑛 and | .

The Inner Product - Rules

Consider a qubit with the state vector   a 0 b 1 .

• First, the inner product of |0 and | : 0   0  a 0  b 1   a 0 0  b 0 1  a.

1 0

• And, the inner product of |1 and | : 1   1  a 0  b 1   a 1 0  b 1 1  b.

0 1

 The constants a and b represent the probability amplitudes of finding the qubit in states |0 and |1 .
Measurements - Rules
Consider a qubit with the state vector   a 0 b 1 , 0   a, 1   b.

P 0   0 
2
a .
2
• The probability of finding the qubit in state |0 :

P 1   1
2
b .
2
• The probability of finding the qubit in state |1 :

REMARK: If we want the probabilities to add up to 1, the state vector must be normalized, i.e., we must have

    a * 0  b* 1   a 0  b 1   a 0 0  b 1 1  a  b  1.
2 2 2 2

1 1

EXAMPLE: Consider a qubit with the state vector

1 1
  0  1.  The probability of finding the qubit in state |0 is 1/2.
2 2
 The probability of finding the qubit in state |1 is 1/2.
Measurements – Global and relative phases
Recall that an arbitrary state vector of a qubit is written as   a 0 b 1 , a, b  .

However, any complex number z can be written as 𝑐𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 . Hence, writing 𝑎 = 𝑐0 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 and 𝑏 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑖𝜑1 , we obtain

0 1 0

  c0 ei 0  c1ei 1  ei c0 0  c1ei   1 1 0

The term 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 is called "global phase", and the term 𝑒 𝑖(𝜑1 −𝜑0 ) is termed "relative phase".

The states   a 0  b 1 , and   e i0

a 0 b 1  are indistinguishable since a  ae
2 i0 2
, and b  be
2 i0 2
.
 The global phase is irrelevant!

REMARK: Imposing | to be normalized, we can write the state vector as

 
  c0 0  c1ei 1  cos 0  sin ei 1 ,   0,   ,   0, 2 .
2 2
c0 c1
Representing qubits - Bloch sphere
Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of the state space of a 2-level quantum system (a qubit).
 
  c0 0  c1ei 1  cos 0  sin ei 1 ,    0,   ,   0, 2 .
2 2

• Bloch sphrere consists of points (x, y, z) on the unit sphere.

• Any linear combination of the states |0 and |1 corresponds

to a point on the Bloch sphere.

• Two state vectors with different relative phases  correspond

to different point on the Bloch sphere. Hence, the relative
phase matters!
Quantum representation of data - Qubits
An n qubit system has 2n possible states.

EXAMPLES:

• The posssible states for a two qubit system: 00 , 01 , 10 , 11 .

• The posssible states for a three qubit system: 000 , 001 , 010 , 100 , 101 , 110 , 011 , 111 .

• A two qubit system with an equally weighted superposition of possible states:

1 1 1 1
  00  01  10  11 .
4 4 4 4
Quantum representation of data - Qubits

• It is possible to extend two-level qubits to qudits or d-dimensional systems (d ≥ 2).

• This leads to an extension of the binary quantum logic.

• Using d computational levels we can reduce the number n2 of qubits needed for a
computation by a factor of
log 2 d
since the Hilbert space of nd qudits contains the space of qubits provided that

d nd  2n2 .
Quantum Circuit Model

Classical Circuit Quantum Circuit

Smallest information unit: Bit Smallest information unit: Qubit

Step 1: Prepare n bit input Step 1: Prepare n qubit input

Step 2: Process data using 1- and 2-bit Step 2: Process data using 1- and 2-
logic gates. qubit Unitary quantum logic gates.

Step 3: Readout the value of bits. Step 3: Readout partial information

about qubits.
Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic
• Recall that, in classical computing, when a gate is applied to some information, the original information is
often lost.

Example: The AND Gate:

Input Output

• The destruction of information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can destroy the superposition
of qubits.

• Hence, this type of gate (irreversible gate) cannot be used. We must use (reversible) Quantum Gates.
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
- operations that change a qubit between possible states. Notation: 0 1  outer product of 0 and 1

The Pauli Gates

1. The X-Gate – represented by Pauli X-matrix X 0 11 0.

X 0  0 1  1 0  0  0 1 0  1 0 0  1 .
0 1

The Pauli Gates

2. The Y & Z-Gates – represented by Pauli Y & Z matrices Y  i 0 1  i 1 0 ,
Z  0 0  1 1.
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
X Z
The Hadamard Gate (a fundamental quantum gate): H
2
• The H gate puts a qubit in states |0 and |1 into a superposition state.

 X Z 
H 0  0 
1
 0 1  1 0  0 0  1 1  0   0  1 .
1
 2  2 2

 X Z 
H 1  1 
1
 0 1  1 0  0 0  1 1  1   0  1 .
1
 2  2 2
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates
The Phase Gate (P-Gate)

• performs a rotation of  around the z-axis direction. P    1 0  ei 0 1

For  = /2, the P Gate is called the S Gate:

P  / 2   S  1 0  ei /2 0 1  1 0  i 0 1

S 0   1 0 i 0 1  0  1 ,

S 1   1 0 i 0 1  1  i 0 .
Quantum Gates – single-qubit gates

The Identity Gate (I-Gate): I  XX  0 0  1 1 ,

X 0 11 0.

• The identity gate is useful when the computer is required

to perform a ‘do nothing’ or ‘none’ operation.
Multiple Qubits and Entanglement – the true power of quantum computers
The interactions between qubits reveals the true power of quantum computing.

Representing Multi-Qubit States

• (Four) Possible states for a two-qubit system: 00, 01, 10, 11

c00 
c 
•   c00 00  c01 01  c10 10  c11 11    ,
The general state of a two qubit 01

system is defined by a 4D vector as c10 

 
c11 
P  00   00 
2
 c00 ,
2

c00  c01  c10  c11  1.

2 2 2 2

REMARK: For an n-qubit system, there are 2n combinations of zeros and ones.
Multi-Qubit States
For two (or more) separated qubits, the general state is described by a (tensor) product:

EXAMPLES:

 
1
 0  1   0  1 
1
 001  101 
2 2
 
1
 0  1  1
0  1  
1
0  1  
1
 000  001  010  100  101  110  011  111 
2 2 2 8

• Multiple qubit states that are tensor products of single qubit states are called separable states.

• States that cannot be written as the product of single-qubit states are called entangled states.
Entangled States
Examples (Bell States):  
1
 00  11  ,  
1
 00  11  ,
2 2
 
1
 01  10  ,  
1
 01  10  .
2 2

• When the two qubits are entangled, we cannot determine the state of each qubit separately.

• There is a particular correlation between the measurement outcomes on the two qubits.

• For the entangled state above, if a measurement is made on the second qubit, and it is found to be in
state |1 , the first qubit would be found in state |1 with 100% probability.

REMARK: An entangled state could be used to steer a distant particle into one of a set of states, with a
certain probability.
 How to produce an entangled state?
- Apply a CNOT (controlled NOT) gate (let them interact).
c c

• The CNOT Gate flips the 2nd qubit if the 1st qubit is |1 , t ct
and returns the 2nd qubit as-is if the 1st qubit is |0 .

• The 1st qubit is simply not changed.

CNOT  0 0  I  1 1  X

EXAMPLE:
1
0 1  0   00  10    00  11
1 1

2 target
2 2
control
Quantum Entanglement
Consider two-qubits:

• Assume we let them interact so that the combined state of the system is an entangled state given by

 
1
 00  11  .
2
 This state has 50% probability of being measured in the state |00 , and 50% chance of being measured in the state |11 .

 Now, suppose we separate the qubits, without letting them interact with the environment, by 8000 km (e.g., one in
Istanbul and the other in New York).

 If we measured the qubit in Istanbul and got the state |1 , the collective state of our qubits changes like so:

1
 00  11 
measure
   11 .
2

 Measuring one qubit collapses the superposition and appears to have an immediate effect on the other. This is the
‘spooky action at a distance’ that upset so many physicists in the early 20th century.
Quantum parallellism
Now think of a logic gate with a single input bit x and a single output bit f (x). Input 0 returns f (0) and input 1 returns f (1). Now
imagine we prepare a qubit in a superposition state of 0 and 1, written |0 +|1 (up to a normalization factor) and let the
corresponding quantum logic gate operate on this input state. We then obtain
0  1  f  0   f 1 .

So even though we ran the gate only once, we obtain a superposition of the two possible output values.

Let's extend this idea to a logic gate with two input bits. Whereas the state of two classical bits can be only one of the four
combinations 00, 01, 10 or 11 at any time, two qubits can be in a superposition state of these four possibilities. A quantum logic
gate acting on such an input would give

00  01  10  11  f  00   f  01  f 10   f 11 ,

thus computing f (x) for all four possible input values simultaneously. Similarly, a computer with three qubits, will be able to
do eight computations in parallel.

• In general, an n-qubit computer can perform 2n computations at the same time.

• As David Deutsch noted already in 1985, this suggests that the computational capability of a quantum computer goes up
exponentially with its size (compared to only linearly for a classical computer)!
A Quantum Computing Application: Quantum Database Search
– Grover’s Algorithm
The Problem: Find a particular item in a very large unsorted database containing N >> 1 items.

• Mathematically, the database is represented by a table, of a function f (x), with x  {0, 1, 2, …, N-1}.

• We are assured that an entry a occures in the table exactly once, i.e., f (x) = a for only one value of x.

If the database is sorted, we can find x by looking up only log2 N entries in the table!

EXAMPLE: Suppose N = 2n is a power of 2.

• We first look up f (x) for x = 2n-1 – 1, etc.

• With each look up, we reduce the number of candidate values of x by a factor of 2, so that n lookups suffice to sift
through all 2n sorted items.

• You can use this algorithm to look up a number in a phone book.

Quantum Database Search – Grover’s Algorithm
Now, suppose, you have someone’s phone number and you want to look up his name.

• If N numbers are listed in a random order, you will need to look up N/2 numbers before the probability is 𝑃 = 12 that you
have found his number (and hence his name).

• What Grover discovered in 1992 is that, if you have a quantum phone book, you can learn her name with high probability
by consulting the phone book only about 𝑁 times.

The problem can be formulated as an oracle or ‘black box’ problem:

• In this case the oracle is the phone book (or look up table).

• We can input a name, and the oracle outputs either 0, if 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎, or 1, if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎.

• The task is to find, as quickly as possible, the value of x with 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 .

Grover’s Algorithm – The Black Box

• We will assume there are 𝑁 = 2𝑛 items in the oracle.

• The 2𝑛 integer states will be encoded by the states ∣0 and ∣1 of n qubits.

• The oracle knows that of 2𝑛 possible strings of length n, one (the ‘marked’ string or ‘solution’ ) is special.

• We submit a querry x to the oracle, and it tells us whether 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ .

Grover’s Algorithm – The Black Box

• The Oracle takes as input an index value in a qubit register ∣x (an n-qubit state)

• To form a reversible gate, it also takes a single “ancillary qubit”, ∣q (a single-qubit state)

• The state given to the Oracle is ∣ = ∣x ∣q

• The Oracle is represented by a unitary operator, Of

• If x indexes a solution to the search problem, Of sets f (x) = 1, and f (x) = 0 if it doesn’t index a solution

• If f (x) = 1, the Oracle flips the state of |x

f  x
• This is written as Of x q  x X q

• X is just a quantum NOT operator.

f  x  x if f  x   0
• Given an input |x , 𝑂𝑓± will output  1 x 
 x if f  x   1
Grover’s Algorithm
n
• The algorithm begins with all qubits (the computer) in the state 0  0 0  0 .

• The Hadamard transform is used to put the computer in the equal superposition state,

N 1
 
1
N

x 0
x 
1
N
 00 00  00 01   x*   01 11  11 11 . 
The quantum search algorithm then consists of repeated application of the oracle and Grover diffusion operator (gate D)
as shown in the figure.
Grover’s Algorithm – Geometric Visualization
 After the Hadamard gate is applied to all qubits, the computer will be in a uniform superposition :
N 1
 
1
N

x 0
x 
1
N
 00 00  00 01   x*   01 11  11 11 . 

1 1
m
N
 cx 
x N

 The oracle 𝑂𝑓± operating on the uniform superposition state will output

1 2n  1 1 2n  2 1
m
N
x cx  N  N  N N
, N  2n
Grover’s Algorithm – Geometric Visualization
 The Grover’s diffusion operator flips the amplitudes around the average amplitude m. The effect of the gate is

N 1 N 1

c
x 0
x x    2m  c  x
x 0
x

 The amplitude of x* is amplified to 3/ 𝑁 after one operation of the oracle and Grover’s diffusion gates!
Grover’s Algorithm – Second application of oracle + diffusion gates

 The second application of the oracle 𝑂𝑓± and Grover’s diffusion Gates operating on the state will output
Grover’s Algorithm – Simple Example
Consider a list of N = 4 items with solution x* = ∣10 :

• Start with  
1
 00  01  10  11 
4

 A single operation of the oracle 𝑂𝑓± and Grover’s

diffusion gates on the state will output
One million qubits are needed for useful quantum computing!

The world's 10 fastest quantum chips by qubits (November 2021)

Name/Designation Manufacturer Architecture Release date Qubits

IBM Eagle IBM Superconducting Late 2023 127
Jiuzhang USTC Photonics 2020 76
Bristlecone Google Superconducting 5 March, 2018 72
IBM Manhattan IBM Superconducting 65
Nonlinear
Sycamore Google superconducting 2019 53
resonator
IBM Q 53 IBM Superconducting 1 October, 2019 53
IBM Q 50 prototype IBM Superconducting 50
N/A Google Superconducting Q4 2017 (planned) 49
Tangle Lake Intel Superconducting 9 January, 2018 49
IBM Dublin IBM Superconducting 27

Source: IBM, Verdict, Wikipedia (sources cited: Nature, Live Science, IBM, Futurism, MIT Technology Review, IEEE Spectrum, SPIE)
 Genetics
– What is genetics
– History of the genetics
– Mendel, the father of genetics
– Different modes of inheritance
– Example of certain genetic diseases

Assoc. Prof. Sibel YILMAZ

 What is genetics
• Ancient Greek word Genesis: origin, formation,
creation…
• Genetics is a discipline that study about genes,
variations and heredity.
• Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to
offsprings.
• For example; eye colors, hair colors, blood groups
etc.
• Genetics is a multidisciplinary science.
• Genetics works together with biology, chemistry,
physics, computer technology ect.
History of Genetics
 History of Genetics
• Genetics is considered as a new science division.
Actually, many philosopher (Pythagoras,
Hippocrates, Aristotle, Epicurus etc) contributed
genetics science in medieval times.
• Because origin of life and inheritance were always
a subject of interest.
• Many theories (abiogenesis, preformation,
epigenesis etc.) were proposed by theorists
before scientific revolution.
• Modern genetics began with
the works of Gregor Mendel on
pea plants.
• Between 1856 and 1863 he
perfomed many hybridization
experiments with pea plant and
published results in 1866
Gregor Mendel
(Experiments in Plant Hybrids) 1822-1884
• However this milestone work of
genetics was not understood by
science society at that time.
• About 30 years later Mendel’s
studies were rediscovered by
scientists.
Original paper of Mendel
 After Mendel

• Friedrich Miescher isolated

nucleic acids from white
blood cells in 1869.
• And identified the chemical
structure of nucleic acids in
1871.
• Walter Flemming (1843-1905)
• Identified cell division process (1882)
• Theodor Boveri (1862-1914)
• He pointed out relation between
chromosomes and inheritance.
• Chromosome: Double-stranded DNA and
associated histone proteins. Condensed form
of DNA by histone proteins.
• William Bateson (1861-1926)
• Term of Genetics (1909)

• Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927)

• Genes are the fundamental unit of
heritable phenotypic traits (1909)

• Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945)

• Genes are on the chromosomes
(1910)
• Later, scientists made studies to understand
which material in our cell serves as genetic
material.
• Frederick Griffith (1928)
• Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944)
• Hershey and Chase (1952)
 Identification of DNA as The Genetic
Material; Experiments of Frederick Griffith
• Frederick Griffith formed a basis to prove the DNA as
genetic material (1928).
• He choosed 2 strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae.
• IIIS strain (virulent) has a polysaccharide capsule and
produce smooth colonies.
• IIR strain (avirulent) do not have capsule and produce
rough colonies.
• Using these bacterial strains he performed an
experiment.
 Griffith’s Conclusions

Something from the dead type IIIS

bacteria, transformed type IIR into type
IIIS bacteria.

Called this process transformation

Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
• There are 4 categories of biomolecules in the cells.
1. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
2. Proteins
3. Carbohydrates
4. Lipids
• Each of these biomolecules were candidate to be
genetic material.
• In 1944 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty used enzymes
to hydrolyse this molecules.
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
• They homogenized and filtered virulent IIIS type
bacteria to obtain a mixture of proteins, lipids, DNA,
RNA and carbohydrates.
• Then they divided his mixture into 5 tubes.
• They added one of the enzymes that hydrolyze the a
biomolecule, on each tube.
• Then the mixtures were mixed avirulent IIR type
bacteria.
• After cultivation, IIR type bacteria were injected to the
mice.
• And they observed only the mouse that injected with
DNaz enzyme containing mixture, was alive.
• They concluded that DNA is genetic material.
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiments
Identification of DNA as The Genetic Material;
Hershey and Chase Experiments

• Hershey and Chase confirmed the DNA as

genetic material by using T2 phage (a virus)
and radioisotopes of phosphorus and
sulphur.
• Phosphorus exist in DNA while sulphur in
proteins.
• They marked DNA and proteins with
radioisotopes of phosphorus and sulphur.
• Phage T2
Life cycle of phage T2
• They used radioisotopes of phosphorus
and sulphur to distinguish DNA from
proteins.
– 32P labels DNA specifically
– 35S labels protein specifically

• Infect non-radioactive E. coli with

radioactively-labeled phages.
• Remove phage coats from cells.
• Is the 32P or 35S inside bacteria?
 Discovery of the DNA structure
• After it was understood that the
genetic material is DNA, scientists
made studies to identify the
structure of DNA.
• Erwin Chargaff (1952)
• Rasalind Elsie Franklind (1952)
• Watson and Crick(1953)
• He had worked on base
concentrations in DNA
(1949-1951).
• He found that Erwin Chargaff
1. Amount of purine and 1905-2002

pyrimidine is equal
(A+G=C+T).
2. Adenine amount is equal
with thymine while
guanine with cytosine
(A=T and G=C).
3. Amount of A+T do not
have to be equal with
G+C.
• They worked X-ray diffraction.
• With this method they could take
X-ray photographs of DNA (1951-
1953).
• These photos helped to
understand DNA double helix Rasalind Elsie Franklin
1920-1958
structure.

Maurice H. Wilkins
1916-2004
• In 1953, Structure of DNA was discovered.
• While using Franklind, Wilkins and Chargaff
datas Watson and Crick suggested the double
helix model of DNA.
• They were awarded with Nobel Prize in 1962.

James D. Watson Francis H. Crick

1928-… 1916-2004
• Watson and Crick
described DNA as
a double helix that
contained two
long, helical
strands wound
together. In their
model, each DNA
strand contained
individual units
called bases, and
the bases along
one DNA strand
matched the bases
along the other
DNA strand.
• Another type of nucleic acid, mRNA, was
discovered (1961)

Francois Jacob Matthew Meselson Sydney Brenner

1920-2013 1930… 1927…
 Modification of DNA

• Together with Kent W.

Wilcox, Smith discovered
restriction enzymes (1970).
• Isolation and
characterization of these
Hamilton O. Smith
enzymes allowed to make 1931….
recombinant DNA
molecules.
 First Transgenic Mouse

• Transgenic organisms
have a gene from an
other organism.
• Naturally don't exist.
• They are produce in
laboratuvar conditions.
 What is Genetics?
• Genetics is a
multidisciplinary science
that study about genes,
variations and heredity in
organisms.
• Related with cell,
organism and their
offspring, population etc.
 Genetic Material
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
acid) is genetic material
of all organisms.
• DNA is a nucleic acid.
• Nucleic acids are
polymeric
macromolecules.
• Units of these
macromolecules are
nucleotides.
 Function of Genetic Material

1. Information; the genetic material must contains the

information that necessary to construct of an entire
organism.
2. Transmission; the genetic material can be passed from
parent to offspring.
3. Replication; the genetic material must be accurately
copied
4. Variation; the genetic material must have diversity as is
found in the innumerable forms of life.
 What is Gene?
• Gene is a molecular unit of living
organisms.
• Usually a DNA fragment. In viruses
sometimes RNA.
• Genes hold the information and encode
proteins that needed for biological
processes, to build and maintain an
organism's life.
 Where is Gene?
Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell
 Structure of Genes
A gene contains
1. Promoter (regulatory region), initiates
transcription of a particular gene and locates
near the transcription start sites.
2. Coding region, have codes for protein
synthesis.
3. Termination site (stop), has some marks to
terminate of a gene transcription.
 Gene expression
• DNA only have information. It can not make
processes that occur in our cell, directly.
• It transcribes RNA and RNA is translated to the
proteins.
Protein synthesis
 All of our cell have same genes
• All of our cells were produced from one single
cell (zygote).
• How they specialize to have different function.
• In the early stages of our embryonic
development, the certain genes in our cells begin
to be silenced.
• Each cell types have different active genes.
• Another word, every cell have their unique
protein content.
• For example, epithelial cells do not need insulin
hormone. Therefore, the genes that responsible
from production of insulin are inactivated.
• Inactivation process of the genes are so complex.
Simply, location of the gene that will be
inactivated, are packaged with histone proteins.
 Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
• These packaged parts of
DNA are called
heterochromatin.
• Genes in the
heterochromatin can not
expressed (inactive
genes).
• The less intense part is
named euchromatin.
• Genes in the
euchromatin are active.
 Mendel, The Father of Genetics
• Some other scientists also had worked about
heredity before mendel.
• What are the differences between Mendel’s
and others experiment?
• Why Mendel’s results are important.
• Because Mendel designed an excellent
methodology that necessary for experimental
biology.
 Mendel’s experimental approach
1. He chose a good model organism.
• Short life cycle.
• It matures in a season.
• Pea plant can easily be grown.
• Hybridization of pea is easy.
• Have many phenotypic differences.
• Many seeds can be obtained from one plant
(needed for reliability of statistical data).
2. He chose seven easily detectable phenotypic
traits passed down to successive generations. Each
of these traits are presented with opposite
characters.
• Flower color (Purple, White)
• Flower position (Axial, Terminal)
• Seed pod color (Green, Yellow)
• Seed pod shape (Inflated, Constricted)
• Seed color (Yellow, Green)
• Seed shape (Round, Wrinkled)
• Plant height (Tall, Dwarf)
3. He use just one or a few numbers of
characters in every hybridization.
• purple flower X white flower (monohybrid)
• tall plant with yellow seed X dwarf plant with
green seed (dihybrid)
4. He recorded of every quantitative results
obteined from hybridization experiments.
• Important for a good statistical analysis to
obtain a ratio.
5. Established many rules of heredity.
Mendel’s Pea
 An example of Mendel Experiment

Purple Flower Plant X White Flower Plant

Genotypes WW ww

W w
Gametes

F1 Genotype Ww
F1 Phenotype All plants have purple flowers
 F1 self crosses
F1 Phenotype Purple Flower Plant X Purple Flower Plant
F1 Genotype Ww Ww
Gametes W w W w

F2 Genotypes WW Ww Ww ww
F2 Genotype Ratios 1 : 2 : 1

F2 Phenotypes Purple Purple Purple White

F2 Phenotype Ratios 3 : 1
 Mendel’s Rules
Mendel propounded four principles of heredity.
1. Paired Factors
• Genetic characters are controlled by some factors
that exist as two copies (paired) in an organism.
2. Dominant and Recessive
• Paired factors, responsible from one character, can
result different phenotypes. In this case one of these
factors is more effective (dominant) while other
(recessive) do not appear in the following
generation.
 Dominant vs Recessive
• All diploid organisms have two sets of chromosomes
(Pea, 2n=14).
• One set is inherited maternally other paternaly.
• Every chromosome set have same genes with different
alleles.
• Different alleles of a certain gene can be expressed
unequally.
• In this case an allele that has more impact in
phenotype is dominant while other is recessive.
3. Independent Segregation
• During gamete formation paired factors of a
gene segregate randomly. And each gamete
have one of these factors in equal ratio.

4. Independent Assortment
• During gamete formation paired factor of
different genes are inherited independently of
another one.
 How can we study of a certain
phenotype’s inheritance in Human?
• Studying with model orgamisms is easy.
• Because they can produce many offspring in a
short time.
• Also you can perform controlled crosses.
• What about human?
• How can we study inheritance of certain traits
in human?
 Pedigree (Family Tree)
• Inheritance model of a certain phenotype can
be determined by pedigree.
• To draw a pedigree for a certain phenotype,
we have to search previous generations.
• When the pedigree is formed the persons
carying this certain phenotype are marked.
• And possible genotypes of other persons can
be guessed.
 Example for Pedigree
• Roman numbers are
generations.
• Arabic numbers are
persons.
• Circle shape is
woman.
• Square is man.
• Lozenge is unknown P
gender.
• Dark circle is ill
woman (proposita).
• Dark square is ill
man (propositus).
P
• Half colored is
carrier.
 Pedigree for autosomal
dominant characters
Aa or AA
Aa aa

Aa or AA
Aa aa aa aa aa Aa

Aa aa aa aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA
 Pedigree for autosomal
recessive character
Aa or AA Aa or AA
Aa Aa

Aa or AA
Aa Aa Aa aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA

aa Aa aa Aa
Aa or AA Aa or AA Aa or AA
Are the Mendelian Rules Always True?
• Today we know that inheritance of some
characters does not obey the Mendelian rules.
– Linkage genes
– Incomplete dominance
– Codominance
– Multiple alleles (that control one phenotype)
– Lethal alleles (dominant or recessive)
– Inheritance with sex chromosomes
– Epistasis
– Genetic complementation
– Pleiotropy
– Polygenic inheritance
– …
 Incomplete Dominance

• Opposite alleles of same genes might not be

dominant or recessive.

• In this case they can cause an intermediate

phenotype (no similarity with both parents).
P phenotypes

P genotypes R1R1 R2R2 R1R2 R1R2

P gametes R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2

F1 phenotypes

F1 genotypes R1R2
All plants have pink flower R1R1 R1R2 R1R2 R2R2
Genotype ratios 1:2:1
Phenotype ratios 1:2:1
 Codominance
• Both alleles of a gene can be expressed and
resulted with two proteins.
• In this case we can observe both phenotypes
at the same time.
• MN blood type is an example for codominance.
• This system was defined by K. Landsteiner and P.
Levin.
• They find out a glycoprotein at the red blood
cell’s surface.
• This protein is encoded by a gene located at the
fourth chromosome.
• In human this protein have two forms (MN).
 Genotype Phenotype
LMLM M
LMLN MN
LNLN N

LMLN LMLN

LM LN LM LN

LMLM LMLN LMLN LNLN

Phenotype Ratio 1 : 2 : 1
 Multiple Alleles
• A diploid organism can have two alleles of a
gene.
• But in the population there can be many
alternative of gene forms.
• Multiple alleles can only be studied in the
populations.
• The best example is ABO blood type
carbohydrate antigens.
• Gene of this protein is located at ninth
chromosome.
• And this gene have three alternative forms
(alleles).
• An individual can have one of six possible
genotypes (IAIA, IAIO, IBIB, IBIO, IAIB, IOIO).
• These genotypes cause four phenotypes (A, B,
AB, O).

A=B>O
• There is no standard ratio for ABO blood type.
• Different crosses give different phenotype
ratio.
Phenotypes Genotypes Possible blood types Phenotype Ratios
AXA I AI O X I AI O AA, AO, AO, OO 3:1
BXB IBIO X IBIO BB, BO, BO, OO 3:1
AXB IAIO X IBIO AO, BO, AB, OO 1:1:1:1
A X AB IAIO X IAIB AA, AO, AB, BO 2:1:1
AXO IAIO X IOIO AO, AO, OO, OO 1:1
B X AB IBIO X IAIB BB, BO, AB, AO 2:1:1
BXO IBIO X IOIO BO, OO 1:1
AB X O IAIB X IOIO AO, BO 1:1
AB X AB I AI B X IAI B AA, AB, AB, BB 1:2:1
 Inheritance with sex chromosomes
• In many animals and some plants, one gender
(male or female) has a different chromosome
pair that responsible for sex.
• In human (2n=46) these are X and Y
chromosomes.
• Both genders have 22 autosomal chromosome
pairs.
• Females have XX sex chromosomes while
males have XY.
• Genes that located at X chromosomes,
cannot be homozygote or heterozygote in
males.
• Because males just have one X
chromosome.
• These genes are hemizygote and there is
no alternative allele also no dominance.
• One type of daltonizm (color blindness),
Hemophilia A and B, Hunter syndrome etc.
are the some examples for X-linkage traits.
 Cy cc

CC cy Cc cy Cc Cy

Cy Cc Cy cy

CC or Cc
Cc

CC or Cc
CC or Cc
C: Normal
c: color blindness
y: Y chromosome
• All these inheritance mechanisms (multiple allele,
incomplete dominance…) is about the interaction
between alleles of same gene.
• However different genes can also affect each
other.
Ephistasis
• Epistasis is the term
that refers to the
action of
one gene upon
another.
• In other word a gene
can repress another
gene.
 Genetic complementation
• Genetic complementation is the
opposit stuation of Epistasis.
• In this case, both genes are
responsible from same character.
But none of them can show its
phenotype without other.
• For example; A and B genes are
responsible from purple flower
color.
• For purple flower, dominant allels
of both genes have to be
together. Otherwise flowers will
be white.
– AaBb (purple), Aabb(White),
aaBB(White)…
 Pleiotropy
• Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences two
or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits.
• In other words one gene influences multiple
phenotypic traits.
 Polygenic inheritance
• A trait that is determined by several genes.
• Eye, hair, skin color are the example of polygenic traits.
• Polygenic traits can show continuous variation within a
population.
• Height is a good example of a polygenic trait, as well,
because within a given population, we could have a wide
range of continuous differences of that trait.
• And height is also a multi-factorial trait. Because height can
be determined by a person's genes, but it can also be
determined by a person's environment.
• So your genes can help determine how tall you will be, but
environmental factors, such as nutrition, can also play a role
in a person's height
 Penetrance
• Penetrance refers to the probability of a gene or
trait being expressed.
• In some cases, despite the presence of a dominant
allele, a phenotype may not be present.
• One example of this is polydactyly in humans
(extra fingers and/or toes).
• A dominant allele causes polydactyly in humans
but not all humans who have the allele display the
extra finger.
• If 80% of the people who inherit this dominant
allel have extra finger, we can say the penetrance
of this allele is 80%.
 Expressivity
• Expressivity on the other hand refers to variation in
phenotypic expression when an allele is penetrant.
• Back to the polydactyly example, an extra finger can be
full size or just a stub.
• Hence, this allele has reduced penetrance as well as
variable expressivity.
• Variable expressivity refers to the range of signs and
symptoms that can occur in different people with the
same genetic condition.
 Cytoplasmic Inheritance
• Genetic studies showed that Mendelian type of inheritance is not
always true.
• There are some other inheritance mechanisms that can not be
explain with Mendel rules.
• Codominance, incomplate dominance, multiple allels… these are
only some example of them.
• However these certain types of inheritance are still interested with
nuclear genes.
• As known genes are DNA fragments and most percentages of our
DNA is located in the nucleus.
• However cytoplasm of a cell also have DNA fragments. These DNA
fragments can be genetic material of an organelle (mitochondria
and chloroplast) or free cytoplasmic DNA that inserted into cell via
viruses.
• Another type of cytoplasmic inheritance is mediated by proteins
that reserved in egg cell.
• These three inheritance mechanisms are
maternal and not include nuclear genome.
• They are also called extra nuclear inheritance.
1. Inheritance with organelle (mitochondria and
chloroplast)
2. Inheritance with viruses.
3. Maternal effect.
• First and second are still mediated with DNA
but extra nuclear DNA, the last one is
mediated by proteins.
 1. Inheritance with organelle
• Mitochondria and chloroplast are two organelle
that have their own DNA.
• During fertilisation of egg cell with sperma, only
sperm nucleus enter inside of egg cell.
• This meaning is that all mitochondria (in animals
and plants) and chloroplast (in plants) are
inherited from mother to the offsprings.
• If egg donor have a mutation that cause a disease
at DNA of mitochondria or chloroplast this
mutation will be inherited to all offsprings.
1. Green color plant (female) X White color plant (male)
All plants green

2. White color plant (female) X Green color plant (male)

All plants white

3. Mixed color plant (female) X Green color plant (male)

White, green or mixed plants

4. Green color plant (female) X Mixed color plant (male)

All plants green
Example Pedigree for mitochondrial
inheritance
 2. Inheritance with viruses
• Some viruses (rarely bacteria) can live in an
eukaryotic cell as symbiotically.
• They can reproduce inside to cell and pass to
the new generations.
• So, if a viruse DNA causes a specific character
this will be inherited by only egg cell.
• For example; a viruse (sigma viruse) causes
CO2 sensitivity in fruit fly.
1. CO2 sensitive female X normal male
all fruit fly are sensitive

2. Normal female X CO2 sensitive male

all fruit fly are normal
 3. Maternal effect
• This last type of cytoplasmic inheritance is not
mediated by gene.
• During egg formation some proteins are produced and
reserved in cytoplasm.
• An example of this type of inheritance is Shell shape of
Limnaea peregra.
• Limnaea is a hermaphrodite snail.
• The gene that determines the Shell shape have two
alleles.
• D allele causes dextral (right side) type and d sinistral
(left side). And d is dominant to d.
• This gene is expressed proteins and these proteins are
reserved in egg cell.
Chemical compounds and Their important roles in History
the use and importance of salt
NaCl
Salt plays a crucial role in maintaining human health. It is the main source of sodium and chloride
ions in the human diet. Sodium is essential for nerve and muscle function and is involved in the
regulation of fluids in the body. Sodium also plays a role in the body’s control of blood pressure
and volume.

Table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), is a naturally occurring mineral essential for animal life.

Salt is one of the most widely used and oldest forms of food seasoning

Salt can preserve food, (fish, meat,

it used as a good antiseptic,

The Egyptians were the first to realize the preservation possibilities of salt. Sodium draws the
bacteria-causing moisture out of foods, drying them and making it possible to store meat without
refrigeration for extended periods of time.
Throughout the history, salt has been subjected to governmental monopoly and special taxes.

The British monarchy supported itself with high salt taxes,

In 1785, 10,000 people were arrested for salt smuggling in England,

Protesting British rule in 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a 200-mile march to the Arabian Ocean to
collect untaxed salt for India's poor. Mahatma Gandhi defied British salt laws as a means of
mobilizing popular support for self-rule in India

Salt motivated the American pioneers. The American Revolution had heroes who were salt
makers and part of the British strategy was to deny the American rebels access to salt.

It is recorded that thousands of Napoleon's troops died during his retreat from Moscow because
their wounds would not heal due to the lack of salt.
The word "salary" was derived from the word "salt." Salt was highly valued and its production was
legally restricted in ancient times, so it was historically used as a method of trade and currency.
Greek slave traders often bartered salt for slaves,
Roman legionnaires were paid in salt—salarium, the Latin origin of the word "salary."

Offering bread and salt to visitors, in many cultures, is traditional etiquette.

Tuzla is actually named for "tuz," the Turkish word for salt. The same is true for Salzburg, Austria, which
has made its four salt mines major tourist attractions.
Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture.
Greek worshippers consecrated salt in their rituals.
Jewish Temple offerings included salt; on the Sabbath, people of the Jewish faith still dip their bread in salt
as a remembrance of those sacrifices.
In Buddhist tradition, salt repels evil spirits, which is why it is customary to throw salt over your shoulder
before entering your house after a funeral: it scares off any evil spirits that may be clinging to your back.
Shinto religion also uses salt to purify an area. Before sumo wrestlers enter the ring for a a handful of salt
is thrown into the center to drive off malevolent spirits.
In 1933, the Dalai Lama was buried sitting up in a bed of salt.
Before sumo wrestlers enter the ring for a handful of salt
is thrown into the center to drive off malevolent spirits.
The Spice Trade & Great Geological Discoviries
Valuable spices used in food preparation across Europe included pepper, ginger, cloves,
nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, saffron, anise, zedoary, cumin, and cloves. Although most of these
were reserved for the tables of the rich, even the poorer classes used pepper whenever they
could get it. Spices, despite their cost, were used in great quantities.

One of the major motivating factors in the European Age of Exploration was the search for
direct access to the highly lucrative Eastern spice trade. In the 15th century, spices came to
Europe via the Middle East land and sea routes, and spices were in huge demand both for
food dishes and for use in medicines. The problem was how to access this market by sea.
Accordingly, explorers like Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) and Vasco da Gama (c. 1469-
1524) were sent to find a maritime route from Europe to Asia.
Copper the first element we used
Copper use dates back to around 9000 BC in the Middle East. Originally, it was
mined as native metal, but it was one of the earliest smelted metals, leading to the
Bronze Age. Copper beads dating about 6000 BC were found in Anatolia.

Copper was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, circa 5000 BC; the first
metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC; and the first metal to be
purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.[5]
In the Roman era, copper was mined principally on Cyprus, the origin of the name of
the metal, from aes сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted
to сuprum (Latin). Coper (Old English) and copper were derived from this, the later
spelling first used around 1530.[6]

Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is
an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer
to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze.
• 1817 yılında Danimarka Kopenhag ulusal Müzesi müdürü Thomsen hangi döneme
ait olduğu bilinmeyen buluntuları sergilerken hammadde ve teknolojinin bir
gösterge olabileceğini öngörmüş ve taş, tunç ve demir olarak geçmişi sınıflandırmış
ve müzede sergiyi buna göre oluşturmuştur.
Prehistory (to 600 B.C.)

The Prehistoric era in human history reflects the period between the appearance of humans on the planet
(roughly 2.5 million years ago) and 600 B.C. (Before Christ) or 1200 B.C., depending on the region. It
indicates the period on Earth in which there was human activity, but little to no records of human history.
This era is also known as the Foundational era, as many foundations of human civilization occurred during
this span of time.

Major Periods of the Prehistoric Era

The Prehistoric era can be divided into three shorter eras based on the advancements that occurred in those
time periods. They include:

•The Stone Age (2.5 million B.C. to 3000 B.C.) - documents the human migration from Africa and first use of
tools by Neanderthals, Denisovans and early humans
•The Bronze Age (3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C.) - humans settle in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and ancient
Egypt; invention of the wheel and metalworking
•The Iron Age (1300 B.C. to 600 B.C.) - formation of planned cities, introduction of ironworks, steel, and
writing systems
 Tarih öncesi Çağlar (Prehistorik)

Eski Taş Çağı

Yontma Taş Devri 2,5 milyon yıl - M.Ö. 12000
Paleolitik Çağ

Orta Taş Çağı

Taş Devri
Avrupa'da Mezolitik Çağ M.Ö. 12000 - M.Ö. 9000
Ön Asya'da Protoneolitik Çağ

Cilalı Taş Devri

M.Ö. 9000 - M.Ö. 5500
Neolitik Kültür Evresi

Erken Kalkolitik
Bakır Devri
Bakır Taş Çağı
Orta Kalkolitik M.Ö. 5000 - M.Ö. 3000
Kalkolitik Çağ
Maden Taş Çağı Geç Kalkolitik
 Tarih Çağları (Historical)
Erken Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 3300–3000
Erken Tunç Çağı Erken Tunç Çağı II M.Ö. 3000–2700
(M.Ö. 3300–2000) Erken Tunç Çağı III M.Ö. 2700–2200
Erken Tunç Çağı IV M.Ö. 2200–2000
Orta Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 2000–1750
Tunç Devri [2] Orta Tunç Çağı
Orta Tunç Çağı II M.Ö. 1750–1650
(M.Ö. 2000–1550)
Orta Tunç Çağı III M.Ö. 1650–1550
Geç Tunç Çağı I M.Ö. 1550–1400
İlk Çağ [1] Geç Tunç Çağı
Geç Tunç Çağı II A M.Ö. 1400–1300
(M.Ö. 1550–1200)
(Antik tarih) Geç Tunç Çağı II B M.Ö. 1300–1200

Demir Devri Geometrik Dönem M.Ö. 1100 - 900

(M.Ö. 1190 - M.Ö. 330) Oryantalizan Dönem M.Ö. 900 - 800
[3]
Arkaik Dönem M.Ö. 800 - 480
Klasik Dönem M.Ö. 480 - 334
Helenistik Dönem M.Ö. 334 - 30
Roma Dönemi M.Ö. 30 - M.S. 303
Roma'dan Bizans'a geçiş Dönemi M.S. 303 - 5. yüzyıl

M.S. 5. yüzyıl - 7. yüzyıl

Erken Bizans Dönemi
İkonaklazma Dönemi M.S. 726 - 842
Orta Çağ [4]
Orta Bizans Dönemi M.S. 842 - 1204
Latin istilası Dönemi M.S. 1204 - 1261
Geç Bizans Dönemi M.S. 1261 - 1492

Yeni Çağ Amerika'nın Keşfi Fransız İhtilali M.S. 1492 -1789

Yakın Çağ [5] 1789 - >
 C
o
f
f
e

One story about the origin of coffee is that of a goatherd, tending goats on a mountainside in
Ethiopia.
The goats, tired and hungry, stopped to chew on some cherries and began to grow very frisky.
The cherry seemed to drive away fatigue. People tried roasting the seeds inside and brewing
them to drink. Speculation rose about its healing properties.
From Ethiopia, the cherry traveled to Yemen.
By the seventeenth century coffee reached Europe, portrayed alternately as a health remedy
(“for Head-ach,” “Cough of the Lungs,” and “very good to prevent Mis-carryings”)
In 1820, caffe-ine was discovered from the seed of a coffee cherry.
Caffeine is the plant’s bitter alkaloid. When extracted from the seed, it crystallizes into powder. It
is the most popular stimulant on earth.
BARUT

How Gunpowder Changed the World

It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The
sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.

Gunpowder made warfare all over the world very different, affecting the way battles were fought and
borders were drawn throughout the Middle Ages.

KNO3 (k) + C (k) + S + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + CO (g) + N2(g)+ K2CO3(k) + K2S(k)
İlk defa Çinliler tarafından bulunmuş, XII. yüzyılda bütün Asya kıtasına, bir süre sonra da Avrupa’ya
yayılmıştır. Bununla beraber ilk defa nasıl kullanıldığı, kimin tarafından geliştirildiği, hatta kıtalar arasında
nasıl yayıldığı hakkındaki bilgiler azdır.

Barutun insan toplulukları üzerindeki etkisi büyük oldu. Barut toplumların ve devletlerin yapısını
değiştirdiği gibi orduların güçleri de onu kullanan devlete göre arttı. Gemilerde kullanılması, top
atışlarının farklı şekiller almasına ve deniz kıyısındaki devletlerin siyasetlerini değiştirmelerine yol açtı.

Silahlarda patlayıcı özelliğinden değil, ittirme kuvvetinden yararlanılmaktadır.

 Pesticides:

Are any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,

destroying, or controlling any pest, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during the production, processing, storage, transport, or
marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or
animal feedstuffs, or substances
In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters,
incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests.

Chemical compound of S, As, Hg and Pb were used for

controlling pests for a long time period in the past.

Today we need pesticides to supply more food to Word.

 Type Action
Algicides Control algae in lakes, canals, swimming pools, water tanks, and other sites
Antimicrobials Kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses)
Attractants Attract pests (for example, to lure an insect or rodent to a trap).
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and
Biopesticides
certain minerals
Biocides Kill microorganisms
Fungicides Kill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts)
Fumigants Produce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in buildings or soil
Herbicides Kill weeds and other plants that grow where they are not wanted
Insecticides Kill insects and other arthropods
Miticides Kill mites that feed on plants and animals
Microbial
Microorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete pests, including insects or other microorganisms
pesticides
Molluscicides Kill snails and slugs
Ovicides Kill eggs of insects and mites
Pheromones Biochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects
Repellents Repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds
Rodenticides Control mice and other rodents
İnsektisit: böcek öldürücü;
Fungusit: mantar öldürücü,
Herbisit: yabancı ot öldürücü,
Akarisit: örümcek öldürücü,
Bakterisit: bakteri öldürücü,
Afisit: yaprak biti öldürücü,
Rodentisit: kemirgen öldürücü,
Molluskisit: salyangoz öldürücü,
Algisit: algleri öldürücü,
Fungustatik: mantar faaliyetlerini durdurucu,
Avenisit: kuşları öldürücü veya kaçırıcı,
Repellent: böcek ve tavşan gibi zarar veren hayvanları kaçırıcı,
Aktraktan: zararlı hayvanları kendine çeken,
Ovisidis: kene ve böcek yumurtası öldürücü,
Feromonos: böceklerin üremelerini engelleyici,
Mikrobiyal pestisitler: mikroorganizmaları öldürücü.
 DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist
Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the
Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in
the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the
DDT, insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and
(dikloro difenil trikloroethan) troops. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of
DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"

In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental
effects, such as those to wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks. Since
then, studies have continued, and a relationship between DDT exposure and
reproductive effects in humans is suspected, based on studies in animals.
DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) is an insecticide, DDT was first synthesized in 1874
by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss
chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit
the spread of the insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Müller
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high
efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"

The publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring stimulated widespread public concern
over the dangers of improper pesticide use and the need for better pesticide controls.
In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental effects, such
as those to wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks. Since then, studies have
continued, and a relationship between DDT exposure and reproductive effects in humans is
suspected, based on studies in animals.

Exposure to DDT in people likely occurs from eating foods, including meat, fish, and dairy
products. DDT exposure can occur by eating, breathing, or touching products contaminated with
DDT. DDT can convert into DDE, and both persist in body and environment. In the body, DDT
converts into several breakdown products called metabolites, including the metabolite
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (DDE). The body’s fatty tissues store DDT and DDE. In pregnant
women, DDT and DDE exposure can occur in the fetus. Both chemicals can be in breast milk,
resulting in exposure to nursing infants.
 Biotechnolgy

– What is biotechnology
– History of the biotechnology
– Examples and applications
– Colors of biotechnology

Assoc. Prof. Sibel YILMAZ

 What is biotechnology
• Biotechnology is the manipulation of living organisms
and organic material to serve human needs.

Living organisms or Manipulation

Solving
Products of living with technological
problems
organisms way

• Focuses on a variety of research

areas including:
– Health/medicine
– Food science
– Environmental science
– Agriscience
– …….
• Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary science,
involving input from

• Engineering
• Computer Science
• Cell and Molecular Biology
• Microbiology
• Genetics
• Physiology
• Biochemistry
• Immunology
• Virology
• Recombinant DNA Technology → Genetic
manipulation of bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants
and animals, often for the development of specific
products
Colors of Biotechnology
 History of Biotechnology
• Biotechnology is not a new science division. It might be
acceptable one of the oldest science.
• Human had to follow biotechnological processes for their
requirements, even before sedentary lifestyle.
• History of the biotechnology can be divided into three eras;
―Ancient Biotechnology
―Classical Biotechnology
―Modern Biotechnology
• Ancient Biotechnology
- early history as related to cultivation of
plants, domestication of animals,
construction of shelter, usage of plants as
drug, fermented foods…

• Classical Biotechnology
―built on ancient biotechnology
―application of ancient
biotecnology in large scale,
Industry initiatives
―Development in medicine
• Modern Biotechnology
―manipulates genetic
information in organism
―genetic engineering
 Ancient Biotechnology
• Not known when biotechnology began exactly
• Ancient biotechnology focused on having food
and other human needs.
• Useful plants were collected from the wild and
planted near caves where people lived.
(Beginning of plant cultivation )
• As food was available, ability to store and
preserve emerged.
• Food preservation most likely came from
unplanned events such as a fire or freeze.
• Knife and spare that were maden from
bones of dead animals.

• First clothes were maden from

fur, leather and leaves
• Shelters construction
with tree and animal’s
products.

• Boat was maden from

tree and used for
hunting or immigration.
 • Cultivation of plants and
domestication of animals.

• Treatments of
diseases with some
plants and animals.

• Fermented food like

cheese, yoğurt, wine
vinegar…
• 15,000 years ago, humans were hunting to
had meat and collecting plants from wild as
food.
• It was not easy and food supplies often
seasonal. Winter food supplies may get quite
low.
• 11,000 – 12,000 years ago in the middle east
they started domestication and cultivation
processes.
• They collected seeds from nature and planted
it near to their cave. With this way they
learned the growing conditions of plants such
as water, light, soil, maturation of seed.
• Without knowing genetic inheritance, they
collected different variety of plants and cross
them to obtain more valuable ones (artificial
selection).
• Rice, barley and wheat were among the first
cultivated plants.
• Domestication of animals began about the
same time in history.
• Humans learned how they feed the animals,
how they obtain more products from them.
• Cattle, goats and sheep were the first
domesticated food animals.
• About 10,000 years ago, people had learned
enough about plants and animals to grow
their own food
• Domestication and cultivation resulted in food
supplies being greater in certain times of the
year.
• This brought a problem. Spoilage !!!

• Spoilage occurs when the

food get contaminated
with microorganisms like
bacteria and mildew.
• People need a methods for preservation and
storage.
• They realised;
‒ Foods stored in a cool cave did not spoil quickly
‒ Foods heated by fire also did not spoil quickly
• Used this processes that prevent or slow
spoilage.
• Every organisms survive only an optimum
environmental conditions.
• Heating of foods kills all microorganisms.
Sterilization!!!
• Freezing, slows down or even prevents the
reproduction of microorganisms.
• Heating, cooling, keeps microorganisms from
growing.
➢ Fermentation!!! An important discovery in the history
of biotechnology.
• Fermentation is the process that many microorganisms
(yeasts, moulds and bacteria) use to convert sugars
into energy.
• Our early ancestors used microorganisms to make
cheese, yoghurt and bread. They also made alcoholic
drinks like beer and wine.
• Fermentation was probably discovered by accident,
and our early ancestors didn’t know how it worked.
• Louis Pasteur first described the scientific basis for
fermentation in the late 1800s. Pasteur’s hypothesis,
called the germ theory, showed the existence of
microorganisms and their effect on fermentation.
Pasteur’s work gave birth to many branches of science.
➢Examples of fermented foods.
• Cheese was discovered more than 7
thousand years ago by nomadic tribes in Asia.
• They were using leak-proof stomachs and
bladder organs of animals to store and
transport milk and other liquids.
• Stomachs of
ruminants animals
naturally have an
enzyme called rennet.
• Rennet, the enzyme
used to make cheese,
 • Yogurt is an ancient food,
Neolithic period, around 5,000–
10,000 years ago, probably as a
result of milk naturally souring
in warm temperatures.
• Neolithic people were using the pots to store milk.
• When fresh milk is left in a container with some
bacteria (today we know the strains of them;
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus), the milk thickens and turn into yoğurt
because of fermentation.
• In this process lactic acid is produced. This acid
prevents the growing of harmful bacteria.
• Bread ; the earliest bread
was made around 8000 BC
in the Middle East.
• The yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) known as
baker’s yeast. • The yeast uses sugar
and produce carbon
dioxide.
• This cause rise of
dought.
• Beer is the fermentation of cereals (like
barley).
• Yeasts are the main microorganisms in beer
production (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Saccharomyces pastorianus).
• Beer was produced as far back as about 7,000
years ago.
• Wine generally is made with fermentation of
grapes by yeasts.
• Different variety of grapes and yeast can be
used in wine production.
• Yeasts use the sugar in the grapes and
converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• Vinegar is used in many
cultures as a condiment and
preservative liquid because of
its main ingredient called acetic
acid.
• Vinegar is produced from the
fermentation of diluted alcohol
products as well can be made
from a variety of liquids,
including malted barley, rice,
and cider… However, as its
name suggests, it was probably
first made from wine. The word
vinegar derives from the Old
French vinaigre, meaning "sour
wine."
• In a summary, fermented
foods that we consume in
our daily diet, are the
products of biotechnological
process.
• However, production and
conservation of food are not
the only application of • Usage of natural
ancient biotechnology.
and bioprocess
compounds for
treatment of
disease is another
important issue.
• In traditional medicines
organisms or parts of
organisms are used.
• For example,
• Bark of the willow tree-
painkiller and fever
reducer. Acetylsalicylic
acid main component. It
is the active ingredient
of aspirin.
• Opium (Papaver somniferum) – active
ingredient is morphine.
• Honey for respiratory infections and wounds.
Because honey is a natural antibiotic, killing
the germs in wounds.
• Chinese were using mouldy soybean to treat
boils.
• Mouldy cheese were used to treat infected
wounds.
• The moulds released natural antibiotics that
killed bacteria and prevented the spread
of infection.
• These are the some examples of ancient
biotechnological products.
• In the early civilization, humans used the force
of biotechnology to produce what they need.
• With the increasing of human population, new
products were needed in large scale.
• This opened a new era in the history of
biotechnology i.e classical biotechnology.
 Classical Biotechnology
• In the classical era people not only produce the
biotechnological products in large scale, also
found ways to control bioprocess like
fermentation.
• Mechanisms of biological processes were
identified by scientists. New products such as
glycerol, acetone, and citric acid were produced.
• Although moldy foods were used for therapeutic
purposes in ancient times, the first antibiotic,
penicillin, was extracted and identified by
Alexander Fleming in 1929.
• In the classical biotechnology era, plant breeding
studies continued in order to obtain more
productive varieties.
• However, new varieties were needed for breeding
studies.
• In 1940’s, it was discovered that some mutagenic
agents like UV an EMS could be used to obtain
new varieties.
• 40's, 50's and 60's known as green revolution
time.
• Although mutation breeding was a solution at
that time to feed the human population,
thousands of hybridization studies were required
to find more productive varieties.
• This was taking a long time.
 Modern Biotechnology
• Industrialization allowed to production of foods
and drugs in large scale.
• However today humanity need more rapid
solution for their requirements.
• With the development of genetic science and
technology, today we can manipulate the genome
of various organisms to produce more valuable
plants and animals to feed the human population
also new treatment methods for disease…
• These are the benefits of modern biotechnology.
➢Application of modern biotechnology

• Genetically Modified Organism

• Genome projects
• Cloning
• Stem cell
• Genome editing
 Genetically Modified Organism
• Genetically Modified Organism or Transgenic
organisms are organisms whose genetic
material has been changed by the addition of
foreign genes.
• In other word Transgenics are genetically
modified organisms with DNA from another
source inserted into their genome
• Transgenic indicates gene transfer using
recombinant DNA technology.
• In the late 20th century, advances in
technology have enabled us to expand the
genetic diversity of crops.
• For years, university, government and
company scientists intensively researched and
refined this process.
• A major result has been genetically modified
seeds that maintain or increase the yield of
crops while requiring less land and fewer
inputs, both of which lessen the impact of
agriculture on the environment and reduce
costs for farmers.
• While selective breeding and mutagenesis
methods usually involve crossing or altering
thousands of genes, genetic engineering
enables breeders to select a trait or
characteristic that exists in nature and insert
the associated gene(s) into the target plant.
• Genetic engineering also allows a breeder to
make changes in a plant’s makeup without any
insertions whatsoever, for example, by
silencing (“turning off”) existing genes.
 Some examples of GMOs
• Transgenic organisms can be used to produce
proteins for people or animals that cannot produce
such proteins on their own.
• For example, insulin is a protein produced by humans
to break down sugars in the bloodstream.
• However, some people are born without the ability
to produce their own insulin thus making it hard for
them to live.
• Since the advent of transgenic organisms, scientists
have been able to modify animals so that they
produce insulin in large quantities.
• This insulin can then be harvested, processed, and
made available to diabetics who need it.
• Transgenic organism production for
bioremediation.
• Bioremediation is a waste management
technique that involves the use of organisms
to remove or neutralize pollutants from a
contaminated site.
• For this purpose some plant species were
produced by genetic engineering to remove
chemicals like pesticides from soil.
• Soil salinity has become a major problem in all
agricultural areas.
• This has made crops less able to grow and in
some cases unable to grow at all.
• Thus we need to salt tolerant plants that are able
to growth salty land.
• This can be achieved by transgenic plant
production.
• Drought is another problem for agriculture.
• Using recombinant DNA technique it is possible
to produce transgenic plants that have drought
tolerant.
• Cold tolerance Unexpected frost can destroy
sensitive seedlings.
• An antifreeze gene from cold water fish has been
introduced into plants such as tobacco and
potato.
• With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to
tolerate cold temperatures that normally would
kill unmodified seedlings.
• Disease resistance There are many viruses, fungi
and bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant
biologists are working to create plants with
genetically-engineered resistance to these
diseases.
• Pesticide resistance Crop losses from insect pests can be
staggering, resulting in devastating financial loss for
farmers and starvation in developing countries.
• Farmers typically use many tons of chemical pesticides
annually.
• Consumers do not wish to eat food that has been treated
with pesticides because of potential health hazards, and
run-off of agricultural wastes from excessive use of
pesticides and fertilizers can poison the water supply and
cause harm to the environment.
• Growing GM foods can help eliminate the application of
chemical pesticides and reduce the cost of bringing a crop
to market.
• Nutrition Malnutrition is common in third world countries. Peoples
rely on a single crop such as rice for the main staple of their diet.
• However, rice does not contain adequate amounts of all necessary
nutrients to prevent malnutrition.
• If rice could be genetically engineered to contain additional
vitamins and minerals, nutrient deficiencies could be alleviated.
• For example, blindness due to vitamin A deficiency is a common
problem in third world countries.
• "golden" rice containing an unusually high content of beta-carotene
(vitamin A) were produced.
• Pharmaceuticals Medicines and vaccines often
are costly to produce and sometimes require
special storage conditions not readily available in
third world countries.
• Researchers are working to develop edible
vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes.
• These vaccines will be much easier to ship, store
and administer than traditional injectable
vaccines.
World map GMO production
Rate of GMO production
1997, Tracy the sheep, the first transgenic
animal to produce a recombinant protein drug
in her milk
• Silk gene from Orb spiders to goats
• The resulting male goats were used to sire silk-producing
female goats Webster and Peter

• Each goat produces several grams of silk protein in her milk

• The silk is extracted, dried to a white powder, and spun into
fibers
• The fibers are stronger and more flexible than steel
ANDi, the first transgenic primate born in January, 2000
224 unfertilized rhesus eggs were infected with a GFP virus
ANDi was the only live monkey carrying the GFP gene
• Other animals having GFP
Transgene -> Gene coding for a growth hormone
• GDF8 (Myostatin) knockout mouse

Naturally Occurring
GDF8 Mutant

normal knockout
 Reasons for gene transfer to plants
• Pesticide resistance
• Parasitic insects and plants resistance
• Pathogenic viruses, fungi, bacteria resistance
• Resistance for environmental conditions (salt, drought
tolerance etc.)
• Late maturation for long shelf life.
• Drug and vaccine production
• Increases nutrients and yields
• Enhances taste and quality
• Allows for new products and growing techniques
• Biofuel production
 Reasons for gene transfer to animal
• Production for human therapeutic proteins.
• Organ and tissue transplantations
• Models for disease
• Cell therapy
• High nutritional value
• Increases resistance, productivity
• Allows for better yields of meat, eggs, and milk
• Improves animal health and diagnostic methods
• Bioreactor
 What are the advantages of GMO
• Crops are more productive and have a larger yield.
• Could potentially offer more nutrition and flavor.
• A possibility that they could eliminate allergy-causing properties in
some foods.
• Inbuilt resistance to pesticides, weeds, insects and disease.
• More capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse
climates.
• More environment friendly as they require less herbicides and
pesticides.
• Foods are more resistant and stay ripe for longer so they can be
shipped long distances or kept on shop shelves for longer periods.
• As more GMO crops can be grown on relatively small parcels of
land, they are an answer to feeding growing world populations.
 What are the disadvantages of GMO
• Harm to other organisms.
• GMO that have insects tolerant gene for some
parasitic insects, also affect other insects like
bees and butterfly.
• The transgene protein may cause an allergic
effects.
• Unintended transfer of modified genes through
cross-pollination, unknown effects on other
organisms in the environment, and loss of flora
and fauna biodiversity
• Economic problems.
 What is cloning?
• It is a process that production of genetically
identical individuals.
• In nature some organisms such as bacteria,
some plants and animals that reproduce by
asexual way can produce their nearly identical
copies.
• However sexual organisms like higher plants
and animals, can produce an offspring that
have different genome.
• Using genetic engineering techniques it is
possible to produce whole organism from
one somatic cell.
• Somatic cells are the differentiated cells.
• When a differentiated cell divide by
mitosis, it gives same cell type.
• However stem cells can produce different
type of cells.
• Animal cells, even stem cells, cannot produce
whole organism.
• However plant all of plant cell are capable of
to produce a new individual.
• Because of the different nature of plant and
animal cells, plants can be easily cloned.
Plant tissue culture a way to
produce cloned plant

1. Cut a small part of plant

(explant)
2. Transfer it to a medium.
3. Induce callus formation.
4. İnduce shoot and root
formation.
5. Transfer to the soil.
 What about animals?
• Can we produce an individual from a
differentiated somatic cell example,
skin cell.
• With right methodology it is possible.
• What Has Been Cloned So Far?
• Sheep, Goat, Mouse, Rabbit, Cattle,
Pig, Horse, Mule, Dog, Cat, Deer,
Primate (Rhesus).
Simple demonstration of cloning
• An egg cell is obtained.
• Then its nucleus is
removed.
• A somatic cell from an
other individual is isolated.
• These two cells are fused.
• This cell implanted to the
egg donor.
• New born individual have
totaly same genome with
somatic cell donor.
Dolly is the most famous cloned sheep
Dolly the sheep was the first
mammal to be cloned from the
DNA of an adult (1996-2003).
 Genome Projects
• One of the most • Saccharomycetes (1996)
important topics in • Nematode (1998)
modern biotechnology is • Fruit Fly (2000)
genome project.
• Arabidopsis (2000)
• Until today many
prokaryotic and • Microsporidium (2001)
eukaryotic organisms’ • Mosquito (2002)
genome have been • Rice (2002)
totally sequenced. • Human (2003)
 Human Genome Project
• The first comprehensive human genetic map was
published only in 1987.
• Within 7 years very high resolution maps were
achieved.
• In 1992 then in 1996 genetics maps having high
resolution were performed.
• First draft of human genome sequences was
released in 2001.
• Then the project was completed in 2003 and
whole sequences was announced.
• Together with human genome projects many
other model organisms’ genomes were
sequenced.
• All of these projects’ results showed that
different organisms have almost same genes.
• Ortholog genes.
 What is stem cell?
• A cell that has the ability to continuously divide and
differentiate into other kinds of cells (such as skin,
blood etc).
• In other word, stem cells are blank cells (unspecialized)
that have the potential to give rise to specialized cell
types.
• Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop
into many different cell types in the body during early
life and growth.
• In addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort of
internal repair system.
• Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types
by two important characteristics.
• First, they are unspecialized cells capable of
renewing themselves through cell division,
sometimes after long periods of inactivity.
• Second, under certain physiologic or
experimental conditions, they can be induced to
become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special
functions.
• In some organs, such as the bone marrow, stem
cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn
out or damaged tissues.
• In other organs, however, such as the pancreas
and the heart, stem cells only divide under
special conditions.
• Totipotent- Each cell can develop into a new
individual Cells from early ( 1-3days) embryo.
• Pluripotent- Cells can form any (over 200)cell
types Some cells of blastocyst (5-14days)
• Multipotent- Cells differentiate, but can form a
number of other tissues. Fetal tissue, Cord blood,
Adult stem cells.
• Oligopotent- Cells differentiate into a few cell
types Lymphoid or myeloid stem cells
• Unipotent- Cell differentiate into only one cell
type Hepatocytes
• There is a negative
correlation
between embryo
development and
stem cell capacity.
 How can a stem cell give rise to a
certain cell?
• When unspecialized stem cells give rise to specialized cells, the
process is called differentiation.
• While differentiating, the cell usually goes through several stages,
becoming more specialized at each step.
• The differentiation process is not clearly understand yet.
• However it is known that some signals which from inside and
outside of cells trigger to differentiation.
• The internal signals are controlled by the genes of the stem cell
while the external signals include chemicals secreted by other
cells, physical contact with neighboring cells, and certain
molecules in the microenvironment.
• The interaction of signals during differentiation causes the cell's
DNA to acquire epigenetic marks that restrict DNA expression in
the cell and can be passed on through cell division.
Can a differentiated somatic cell be a
stem cell?
• is it possible to reprogram a somatic cell as a
stem cell?
• It was proved that an adult stem cell can be
reprogrammed into other cell types using a
well-controlled process of genetic
modification.
• This strategy may offer a way to reprogram
available cells into other cell types that have
been lost or damaged due to disease.
 Induced pluripotent stem cells
• In 2006, researchers made another
breakthrough by identifying conditions that
would allow some specialized adult cells to be
"reprogrammed" genetically to assume a stem
cell-like state.
• This new type of stem cell is called induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
Induced pluripotent stem cells
• Although additional research is needed, iPSCs
are already useful tools for drug development
and modeling of diseases, and scientists hope
to use them in transplantation medicine.
• Neurodegenerative disease
• Brain and spinal cord injury
• Heart disease
• Esthetic treatments (baldness, stem cell face lift)
• Blindness and vision impairment
• Deafness
• Cancer
• Diabetes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hbgeQzmU9U
 Genome Editing
• Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a
group of technologies that give scientists the
ability to change an organism's DNA.
• These technologies allow genetic material to
be added, removed, or altered at particular
locations in the genome.
• Several approaches to genome editing have
been developed.
‒ Zincfinger Nuclease
‒ TALENs
‒ CRISPR-Cas9
• Genome editing technologies enable scientists
to make changes to DNA, leading to changes
in physical traits, like eye color, and disease
risk.
• Scientists use different technologies to do this.
These technologies act like scissors, cutting
the DNA at a specific spot. Then scientists can
remove, add, or replace the DNA where it was
cut.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPDb8tqgfjY
 Dark side of biotechnology
• Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses,
bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause
illness or death in people, animals or plants.
• Bioterrorism had already started 14 centuries BC,
when the Hittites sent infected rams to their
enemies.
• In the fourth century BC, the
Greek historian Herodotus
relates that Scythian archers
used to infect their arrows
by dipping them in a
mixture of decomposing
cadavers of adders and
human blood.
Year Event
14th century BC The Hittites send rams infected with tularaemia
to their enemies
4th century BC According to Herodotus, Scythian archers infect
their arrows by dipping them into decomposing
cadavers
1155 Barba rossa poisons water wells with human
bodies, Tortona (Italy)
1346 Mongols hurl bodies of plague victims over the
walls of the besieged city of Caffa (Crimea)
1422 Lithuanian army hurls manure made of infected
victims into the town of Carolstein (Bohemia)
1495 Spanish mix wine with blood of leprosy patients
to sell to their French foes, Naples (Italy)
Year Event
1650 Polish army fires saliva from rabid dogs
towards their enemies
1710 Russian army catapult plague cadavers
over the Swedish troops in Reval (Estonia)
1763 British officers distribute blankets from
smallpox hospital to Native Americans
1797 The Napoleonic armies flood the plains
around Mantua (Italy), to enhance the
spread of malaria among the enemy
1863 Confederates sell clothing from yellow
fever and smallpox patients to Union
troops during the American Civil War