INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Cell : the Basic unit of Life.

All living beings are made up of the basic unit of life- cells. It is the smallest unit of living matter
and each cell is able to carry out the processes of life. Some structures transport materials, some
make food and others release energy for the cell to use. All the cells are involved in metabolic
processes through cellular respiration, reproduction (meiosis), and growth (mitosis). They are also
capable of transforming into different types of cells, a specialization called as cell differentiation.
The cells have a few things in common such as having cell membrane, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), cytoplasm, and ribosome but they are different with regard to structure, shape, and
functions.
All living organisms are made up of these small units which they named them as cells when these
cells were taken from the tissues. They were able to survive for some period of time nothing
smaller than the cell was able to live independently and so it was concluded that the cell was the
smallest unit of Life.
The cells were first described by Robert Hooke in 1665. He examined thin slices of cork and found
pores. But his examination did not indicate any nucleus, and other organelles. Later in 1674,
Antony van Leeuwenhoek found moving organisms by observing them under lenses and
microscopes. The nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in the year 1831. The observation of
Hooke and others led to the development of cell theory.
The cell theory states
• All living things and organisms are made up of cells and their products. Multicellular
organisms (example: humans) are composed of many cells while unicellular organisms
(example: bacteria) are composed of only one cell.
• Cells are the basic building units of life. They are the smallest structures capable of
surviving on their own.
• New cells arise from the pre-existing cells by division. For example, new cells arise from
cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an organism is produced) arises
from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell.
“ Cell : A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of 6that is responsible for all of life’s processes”.
Cells are of 2 types
1. Prokaryotic cell
2. Eukaryotic cell

Structure and function of the cells:

1. Prokaryotic cell:
The type of cells that do not have a well-defined nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles are
known as prokaryotic cells. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes and they are
generally single-celled microorganisms. These organisms can be free-living or can be found in the
gut of animals. The size of a prokaryotic cell can range between 0.2 to 10 microns.
Examples of prokaryotic cells include bacterial cells, which have different shapes and structures
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and possess extrachromosomal DNA known as a plasmid. Archaeal cells which are similar to
bacterial cells, are found in extreme environments such as hot springs and also in soil and marsh.
These single-celled organisms also possess plasmids.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells are not complex structures. They do not have a true nucleus and the genetic
material is not contained within a membrane but it is seen as coiled in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Below is a list of structures that can be observed in a prokaryotic cell.

• Capsule: This is an outer protective coat observed in some prokaryotic cells which assist
in the retention of moisture and adherence to nutrients and surfaces.
• Cell wall: This is the outer covering of the prokaryotic cells which gives the cell its size
and shape. It also protects the cell from harm.
• Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm and plays a role in the
regulation of the flow of substances going in and out of the cell.
• Cytoplasm: It is a gel-like substance that is mainly composed of water and contains
various cellular components, enzymes, organic molecules, and salts.
• Pilli: These are hair-like structures that are observed on the surface of the cell and help the
cell in attaching itself to a surface. One single structure is called a pilus and the short form
of it is known as fimbriae. These structures are also known as appendages.
• Flagella: These are long whip-like protruding structures that help in the locomotion of the
cell.
• Plasmids: Plasmids are the genetic material of a prokaryotic cell. They are circular or
double-stranded DNA structures.
• Ribosomes: The prokaryotic ribosome molecules are associated with the plasma
membrane. These are 70S ribosomes which are composed of 30S smaller and 50s larger
subunits. The molecules are made from messenger RNA.
• Nucleoid Region: It is the area of the cytoplasm that contains the prokaryotic DNA
molecule/ genetic material.

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Major Components of the Prokaryotic Cell
• Glycocalyx: In some prokaryotic cells it is a part of the cell envelope or capsule and is
composed of macromolecules.
• Mesosomes: These are extensions of the cell or plasma membrane in the form of lamella
or tubules. Their functions are:
• Assisting in cellular respiration and secretion.
• Cell wall formation.
• Increasing the surface area of enzymatic content and plasma membrane.
• Genetic material replication and distribution in daughter cells.
• Inclusion bodies: They are free bodies observed in the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell and
act as storage units for reserve materials.
• Chromatophores: These membrane extensions are specifically found in cyanobacteria
and have photosynthetic pigments inside.
All bacteria’s are prokaryotes and the above-mentioned structures can be seen in all bacterial cells.
Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• The genetic material is localized in a region known as nucleoid and it has no surrounding
membrane.
• These cells contain large numbers of the ribosome for protein synthesis
• In some prokaryotes, the cell membrane folds to form structures known as mesosomes
which assist in cell respiration.
• Some prokaryotes have structures such as flagella and pili. Flagella helps in locomotion
and pili assists in the exchange of genetic material between two cells.

Important Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell

• The absence of clearly-defined membrane-limited organelles such as Golgi complex
and mitochondria.
• Histone proteins that are essential for the formation of chromosomes in the eukaryotic
cells are absent.
• The mitotic apparatus and the nucleolus are absent.
• The cell membrane below the cell wall is produced into the cytoplasm and acts as the
mitochondrial membrane to carry respiratory enzymes.

Functions of prokaryotic cells

A prokaryotic cell performs all the essential functions that a normal cell performs. They can
perform reproduction, respiration, digestion, and other biological processes. As the prokaryotic
cells, organisms are single-celled organisms, so the single cell performs all these functions. The
cell organelles present in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells are responsible for functioning all
these functions. The outer membrane of the cell takes food from the outside environment, and then
cell organelles perform various chemical reactions on it to perform digestion. After completing the
digestion process, the waste material is released into the outside environment. Similarly, all other
biological functions are performed by the cell organelles.

Reproduction in Prokaryotes
Reproduction in a prokaryotic cell takes place in two ways
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Asexual reproduction method :
• Budding: In this type of reproduction, the bud-like structures develop on the body of the
parent cell. It takes nutrition from the parent body, and after getting matured, it detaches
from the parent body and lives as a separate organism.
• Binary Fission: In this type of reproduction, the parent cell divides into two identical cells,
separated into two different organisms after maturation.
• Fragmentation: In this type of reproduction, the parent cell splits into various fragments,
and each fragment develops into a new organism.
Reproduction by recombination method:
• Recombination: The genes of one cell are transferred to the genome of another cell. The
process takes place in three ways
• Conjugation: The process of gene transfer takes place between two cells through a protein
tube-like structure called a pilus.
• Transformation: It is a type of sexual reproduction where the cell takes genetic material
from the surroundings and incorporates it into its genetic material.
• Transduction: In this process, the genetic material is transferred to another cell with the
help of viruses.

2. Eukaryotic cell:
“Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles.”
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane and form large and complex
organisms. Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are classified under
the kingdom Eukaryota.
They can maintain different environments in a single cell that allows them to carry out various
metabolic reactions. This helps them grow many times larger than the prokaryotic cells.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:
• Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
• The cell has mitochondria.
• Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
• A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
• The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
• The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
• The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.
Functions of a Eukaryotic Cell:
The functions of a eukaryotic cell are responsible for the healthy shape and functioning of all living
things.

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 1. Production of food and energy: Eukaryotic cells are heterotrophs, meaning they use
external energy sources to produce cellular material such as food and water. The most
common energy source is the sun’s light, which helps plants make food from sugars.
2. Growth: Growth is the increase in the size of an organism. It is driven by cell division,
which produces identical copies of cells. Growth is also driven by hormones made in
endocrine cells and travel around the body through blood vessels and to target tissues where
they bind to receptors on other cells and produce different responses.
3. Development: Development is creating a new individual from a single cell. It involves the
growth and the production of various types of specialised cells.
4. Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is when two genetically different sets of genes combine
in an organism to create a new individual with all the genetic information from both groups.
Sexual reproduction is essential for evolution because it introduces variation into
populations, allowing new combinations of genes to evolve during survival in different
environments.
5. Regulation of cell growth and death: Cell growth and cell death are controlled by hormones
made by the body. When a hormone binds to its receptor on a target cell, it triggers its
specific response.

Structure and function of plant cell:

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic
organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the
distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell. Even though plant and
animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell organelles, plant cells are quite distinct when
compared to animal cells as they perform different functions. Some of these differences can be
clearly understood when the cells are examined under an electron microscope.

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Plant Cell Structure
Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known
as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include:
Cell Wall
It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is
located outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin,
cutin, or suberin.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The
plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form
and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely,
primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down
by enzymes.
Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin
layer of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances
within the cell.
For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential
minerals are transported across.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital
function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division,
metabolism and growth.
Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes.
Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allow proteins and
nucleic acids to pass through.
Plastids:
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch
and to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules,
which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions
are stated below:
Leucoplasts
They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for the storage of protein,
lipid and starch.

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Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a
disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each
chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.

Chromoplasts
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for
storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red, orange and yellow
coloured pigments which provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers.

Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that
surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to
sustain turgor pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture
of salts, enzymes and other substances.

Golgi Apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesised
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.

Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the
sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.

Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They
provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred
to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”

Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They
perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles
and foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles

Plant Cell Types

Cells of a matured and higher plant become specialised to perform certain vital functions that are
essential for their survival. Few plant cells are involved in the transportation of nutrients and water,
while others for storing food.
The specialised plant cells include parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, collenchyma cells,
xylem cells and phloem cells.

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Following are some of the different types of plant cells:
Collenchyma Cells
They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants when
there is restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary walls.
Sclerenchyma Cells
These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the presence of a
hardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and mainly involved in providing
support to the plants.
Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells play a significant role in all plants. They are the living cells of plants, which are
involved in the production of leaves. They are also involved in the exchange of gases, production
of food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These cells are typically more flexible
than others because they are thinner.
Xylem Cells
Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants.
Phloem Cells
Phloem cells are other transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared by the leaves
to different parts of the plants.

Functions of a Plant Cell

Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant cells, and therefore these are known as
the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the process that occurs in the chloroplasts of the
plant cell. It is the process by which plants prepare their food utilizing sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide. Energy is produced in the form of ATP in the process.

Structure and function of Animal cell :

An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane-bound
nucleus along with other cellular organelles.”
Animal cells range in size from a few microscopic microns to a few millimetres. The largest known
animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over 5.1 inches across and weighs about 1.4
kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human body, which is just 100 microns
across.
The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped. There are
also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and rectangular. Most of the cells
are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope.
As stated before, animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Furthermore,
these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also comprise other membrane-
bound organelles and cellular structures which carry out specific functions necessary for a cell to
function properly.

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Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining characteristic is its irregular
shape. This is due to the absence of a cell wall. But animal cells share other cellular organelles
with plant cells as both have evolved from eukaryotic cells.

A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role
is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other
microscopic entities into the cell. For this reason, cell membranes are known as semi-permeable
or selectively permeable membranes.
Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and
chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.
Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear
envelope.
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Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The
centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.
Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzymes which
help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.
Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane.
The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the
nucleoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in
manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.
Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the powerhouse of
a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy.
Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites of
protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs originating
from the nucleus.
Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing
water, food, wastes, etc.
Nucleopore
They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movement of
nucleic acids and proteins across the nuclear membrane.

Animal Cell Types

There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to serve specific functions. The most
common types of animal cells are:
Skin Cells
Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells
Muscle Cells
Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells
Blood Cells
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelet
Nerve Cells
Schwann cell, glial cells etc
Fat Cells
Adipocytes

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Functions of Animal Cell
Animal cells perform multiple functions essential for the survival and adaptation of organisms.
Important functions of animal cells are:
Mitochondria present in the animal cell produce energy through cellular respiration, that is, ATP
the energy currency of the cell.
The plasma membrane of the animal cell regulates the entry and exit of substances and maintains
cellular homeostasis.
The nucleus contains DNA, which regulates cellular activities through transcription and
translation.
The ER helps in protein synthesis, and the Golgi apparatus packs the molecules for transport.
Centrioles in the cell organizes microtubules during cell division, which ensures chromosome
separation.
Animal cells work together to maintain a stable internal environment, which is necessary for
overall organism health.

STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Stem cells are unspecialized cells having the ability of self-renewal through cell division for long
period. These stem cells have the potential to develop into specialized cells such as blood cells,
muscle cells, neurons, myocytes, bone cells, hepatocytes etc.
Importance of stem cells
Stem cells can replicate indefinitely so they are serving as internal repair system for body to replace
dead or damaged cells.
When a stem cell divides, one of the daughter cells has to remain unspecialized (like a parent stem
cell) and the another daughter cell has become specialized cell type such as brain cell, blood cell
under certain physiological condition.

This is a promising area to know how an organism develops from a single cell with different types
of potential properties. Since stem cells are having unique regenerative abilities, they offer new
potentials for treatment of various diseases those results from dysfunction of a single type of cell.

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Unique properties of stem cells

Stem cells are having three unique properties. They are:

1. Self-renewal: Stem cells are immortal, unlimited in number and are capable of
replicating/proliferating for a long period. They have potential to divide and maintain long term
self-renewal.
2. Stem cells are unspecialized: Stem cells do not have any tissue-specific or organ-specific
structure that allows them to perform specified functions. During cell division, one of the daughter
cells remains to be unspecialized.
3. Stem cells give rise to specialized cells through the process of differentiation: Several
internal signals (include genes coding for cell structure and function) and external signals (include
physical contact with neighboring cells, certain chemicals secreted by other cells) trigger each step
of differentiation process. For example, stem cells can be differentiated into cartilage cells
(chondrocytes) upon the presence of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). At each step, cells
become more specialized.

Sources of stem cells

Embryonic stem cells: In embryogenesis, eggs are fertilized by sperm in vitro which is known as
in vitro fertilization. As a result, zygote is developed which undergoes series of cell division, and
produces blastocyst. In early blastocyst stage (5-7 days), a group of approximately 30 cells called
inner cell mass (ICM) is surrounded by an outer layer. The outer layer is called as trophoblast

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which provides nutrient to the embryo and develops into a large part of the placenta. ICM can give
rise to all types of cells or tissues except trophoblast.

Adult stem cells: Adult stem cells are tissue-specific, undifferentiated cells found in differentiated
tissues or organs including brain, bone marrow, peripheral blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscle,
skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian epithelium, and testes. Their main role is to play in tissue
repair and tissue maintenance.
Adult type stem cells can be derived from various pregnancy-related tissues such as umbilical
cords, placentas, and amniotic fluids.
In adults, stem cells are present within various tissues and organ systems such as bone marrow,
liver, epidermis, retina, skeletal muscle, intestine, brain, dental pulp.
Cadavers can also be a source of adult stem cells. For example, neural stem cells have been
removed from specific areas in post-mortem human brains as late as 20 hours following death.

Applications of stem cells:

Stem cells technology has a broad range of applications
1. Therapeutic cloning
2. Regenerative medicine
3. Gene therapy

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1.Therapeutic cloning:
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) involves extracting the nucleus of a cell and putting the
nucleus into an egg which has been enucleated. Then, the egg is allowed to divide and grow. In
therapeutic cloning, the growing egg is used as a source of stem cells, which are undifferentiated
cells that can grow into a wide variety of different types of cells. In reproductive cloning, the egg
is implanted into surrogate mother to grow a baby, Dolly, a first female domestic sheep was the
first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of SCNT.

Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells which may be used to treat various disorders or
replacement of organs. In this, somatic cell is obtained from a patient and the nucleus is transferred
into enucleated egg cell which will develop into an embryo. At blastocyst stage of the embryo, the
inner cell mass is placed and cultured to differentiate into particular cell type which will be
replaced into he patients as a transplant.

2.Regenerative medicine
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Regenerative medicine is the process of creating functional tissues to repair or replace tissue or
organ function lost due to damage, or congenital defects. This field holds the promise of
regenerating damaged tissues and organs in the body by stimulating previously irreparable organs
to heal themselves. Regenerative medicine also empowers scientists to grow tissues and organs in
the laboratory and safely implant them when the body cannot heal itself.

Benefits of Stem Cell Research in curing diseases: Stem cell research can potentially help treating
a range of medical problems. It could lead us closer to cure:

Parkinson's disease: A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system due to the lack of a
brain chemical called dopamine. To cure this disease, the patients are injected with stem cells to
multiply nerve cells that release dopamine.

Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited disorders that involve muscle weakness and loss of
muscle tissue, which get worse over time due to weakened heart and lung muscles. Patients are
given injections of healthy stem cells and they are able to walk faster.

Diabetes (Type 1): Autologous (originating from your own body) stem cell therapy becomes a
promising tool to treat diabetes I. It reduces hyperglycemia and its associated complications.
Recent evidence suggests that it also reduces hypoglycemic (low blood sugar) events that can
result in death if not treated promptly. A study showed patients receiving injections with adult
stem cells were able to go as long as four years without having to rely on insulin shots.

Polio: Poliomyelitis is a viral disease that can affect nerves and can lead to partial or full paralysis.
Signals from brain are no longer sent to muscles in the leg. Stem cells are injected to encourage
new spinal neurons to grow and help new muscle to grow.

Bone tissue engineering: Bone tissue engineering is an emerging interdisciplinary field for the
development of viable substitutes that restore and maintain the function of human bone tissues.
Spinal fusion, augmentation of fracture healing, and reconstruction of bone defects resulting from
trauma, tumor, infections, biochemical disorders, or abnormal skeletal development are clinical
situations in which surgical intervention is required. The types of graft materials available to treat
such problems essentially include autologous bone (from the patient), allogeneic bone (from a
donor), and a wide range of natural or synthetic biomaterials such as metals, ceramics, polymers,
and composites. In one approach, mesenchymal stem cells are seeded on scaffolds (that provide
structure and shape) along with signaling molecules. The goal is for the cells to attach to the
scaffold, and thus resulting proliferation and differentiation of cells into normal, healthy bone.
When bone grows, the scaffold degrades. At one stage there will be only bone and no more scaffold
materials. The signaling molecules [for example, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)] can also
be adhered to the scaffold or incorporated directly into the scaffold material. BMPs promote
mesenchymal stem cells towards osteoblasts (bone cells). Finally the scaffolds are implanted into
the defect to induce and direct the growth of new bone.

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Gene Therapy:

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a disease. The
hereditary diseases in which a defective gene (nucleotide mutation, for example, sickle cell
anemia) is replaced with a functional one. A "corrected" gene is inserted into the genome to replace
an "abnormal," disease-causing gene. Gene therapy clinical trials are focused on cancer, infectious
diseases, heart disease, and inadequate blood flow to the limbs, arthritis, and Alzheimer's disease

Gene therapy involves two major strategies for delivering therapeutic transgenes into human
recipients:

1. The first is to "directly" infuse the gene into a person by viral mediated transfer. Viruses that
have been altered to prevent them from causing disease are often used as the vehicle for delivering
the gene into certain human cell types. This is similar to transduction process how ordinary viruses
infect cells. Some viruses commonly used as gene-delivery vehicles can only infect cells that are
actively dividing. This limits their usefulness in treating diseases of the heart or brain, because
these organs are largely composed of non-dividing cells.

2.The second strategy involves the use of living cells to deliver therapeutic transgenes into the
body. In this method, the delivery cells often a type of stem cell, a lymphocyte, or a fibroblast, are
removed from the body, and the therapeutic transgene is introduced into them via the vehicles. The
genetically modified cells are tested and then allowed to grow and multiply and, finally, are infused
back into the patient.

BIOMOLECULES:
A biomolecule is a chemical compound found in living organisms. These include chemicals that
are composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. Biomolecules
are the building blocks of life and perform important functions in living organisms. There are four
major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic acids and Lipids.

Lipids:
Lipids are a group of diverse macromolecules consisting of fatty acids and their derivatives that
are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
Lipids consist of fats, oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes that are grouped
together because of their hydrophobic interactions.
The lipids are essential constituents of the diet because of their high energy value.
These are also essential for the fat-soluble vitamins and the essential fatty acids found with the fat
of the natural foodstuffs.
Fats combined with proteins (lipoproteins) are essential constituents of the cell membranes and
mitochondria of the cell.
Lipids occur naturally in living beings like plants, animals, and microorganisms that form various
components like cell membranes, hormones, and energy storage molecules.

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Lipids exist in either liquid or non-crystalline solids at room temperatures and are colorless,
odorless, and tasteless.
These are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.

Properties of Lipids
• Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.
• Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• They are energy-rich organic molecules
• Insoluble in water
• Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
• No ionic charges
• Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty acids.
• Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids.

Hydrolysis of triglycerols
Triglycerols like any other esters react with water to form their carboxylic acid and alcohol– a
process known as hydrolysis.

Saponification:
Triacylglycerols may be hydrolyzed by several procedures, the most common of which utilizes
alkali or enzymes called lipa-ses. Alkaline hydrolysis is termed saponifica-tion because one of the
products of the hydrolysis is a soap, generally sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.

Hydrogenation
The carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids can be hydrogenated by reacting with
hydrogen to produce saturated fatty acids.

Halogenation
Unsaturated fatty acids, whether they are free or combined as esters in fats and oils, react with
halogens by addition at the double bond(s). The reaction results in the decolorization of the halogen
solu-tion.

Rancidity:
The term rancid is applied to any fat or oil that develops a disagreeable odor. Hydrolysis and
oxidation reactions are responsible for causing rancidity. Oxidative rancidity occurs in
triacylglycerols containing unsaturated fatty acids.

Functions of Lipids
• Biological lipids are a chemically diverse group of compounds, and the biological functions
of the lipids are as diverse as their chemistry.
• In the body, fats serve as an efficient source of energy and are also stored in the adipose
tissues. These also serve as an insulating material in the subcutaneous tissues and around
certain organs.
17
 • Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes.
• Similarly, fats combined with proteins (lipoproteins) are important constituents of the cell
membranes and mitochondria of the cell.
• Lipids also act as the structural component of the cell and provide the hydrophobic barrier
that allows the separation of the aqueous contents of the cell and subcellular structures.
• Other lipids, although present in relatively small quantities, play crucial roles as enzyme
cofactors, electron carriers, light-absorbing pigments, and hydrophobic anchors for
proteins.
• Cholesterol acts as a precursor to fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamin D and hormones.
• Lipids are also activators of enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase, β-hydroxybutyric
dehydrogenase, and stearyl CoA desaturase.Functions of Lipids
• Biological lipids are a chemically diverse group of compounds, and the biological functions
of the lipids are as diverse as their chemistry.
• In the body, fats serve as an efficient source of energy and are also stored in the adipose
tissues. These also serve as an insulating material in the subcutaneous tissues and around
certain organs.
• Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes.
• Similarly, fats combined with proteins (lipoproteins) are important constituents of the cell
membranes and mitochondria of the cell.
• Lipids also act as the structural component of the cell and provide the hydrophobic barrier
that allows the separation of the aqueous contents of the cell and subcellular structures.
• Other lipids, although present in relatively small quantities, play crucial roles as enzyme
cofactors, electron carriers, light-absorbing pigments, and hydrophobic anchors for
proteins.
• Cholesterol acts as a precursor to fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamin D and hormones.
• Lipids are also activators of enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase, β-hydroxybutyric
dehydrogenase, and stearyl CoA desaturase.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are macromolecules that are found in every living cell, either alone or in conjunction
with other substances. End-to-end polymerisation of a vast number of units called nucleotides
linked by phosphodiester linkages forms these lengthy strands. The word “nucleic acid” is used to
describe specific big molecules found in cells.

Properties of Nucleic Acid:

• Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acid.

• These make up all living things’ genetic material.
• In a live cell, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two forms of
nucleic acids.
• In 1969, Friedrich Miescher discovered both DNA and RNA.

18
 • A nucleotide is made up of three chemically different components. A heterocyclic base, or
nitrogenous base, is one, a monosaccharide pentose sugar is another, and phosphoric acid,
or phosphate group, is the third.
• The nitrogenous bases are made up of one or two heterocyclic rings that include nitrogen
atoms. Adenine (A), guanine (G), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and thymine (5-methyl uracil)
are the five bases (T).
• Adenine and guanine are substituted purines with two heterocyclic rings, whereas uracil,
cytosine, and thymine are substituted pyrimidines with three heterocyclic rings (1
heterocyclic ring).
• DNA has the nitrogenous bases A, T, G, and C, whereas RNA has the nitrogenous bases
A, U, G, and C.
• Polynucleotides either include beta-ribose sugar (in RNA) or beta 2′ deoxyribose sugar (in
DNA) (in DNA).
• Nucleosides: Sugar + Base
• Nucleotides are made up of three parts: base, sugar, and phosphate.
• The backbone of DNA strands is made up of phosphodiester linkages, which are sugar and
phosphate residues.
• Due to the presence of phosphate groups, they are acidic and negatively charged.

Solubility
DNA is polar in nature and thus soluble in water. Its highly charged phosphate-sugar backbone
gives it its polarity. However, in the presence of salt and alcohol, it is insoluble.
Absorption
At 260 nanometers, the DNA bases can absorb ultraviolet light. A spectrophotometer can measure
this absorption. The amount of ultraviolet light absorbed increases with the order of the bases. For
example, at 260 nm, a single-stranded DNA absorbs 1.37 units, whereas a double-stranded DNA
absorbs 1.00 unit at 260 nm.
Denaturation and Renaturation
On heating, both strands denature, and on cooling, they can renature. The melting temperature,
which varies depending on the precise DNA sequence, is the temperature at which these strands
are permanently separable.
In contrast to the region of higher concentration A-T, which is only bonded with two hydrogen
bonds, the region of higher concentration of C-G has a higher melting temperature because these
bases are bonded with three hydrogen bonds, which require more energy to break.

Functions of Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are genetic material for all living cells, meaning they
pass on hereditary characteristics from one generation to the next. Nucleic acid can also determine
an organism’s phenotypic. Some nucleic acids, such as ribozymes, may have enzymatic activity.
Nucleic acids play a role in protein production, either directly or indirectly.

19
Functions of DNA and RNA

DNA
In most living creatures, DNA serves as the genetic material. It transmits genetic information from
generation to generation and from cell to cell.
As a result, its primary functions are:
• Keeping genetic records
• Protein synthesis control
• Identifying genetic code
• Metabolic activity, evolution, heredity, and differentiation are all directly influenced by
this protein.
• It is a stable molecule that can store more complex information for longer.

RNA
RNA of various forms is engaged in a variety of biological processes. RNA’s key roles include:
• Make it easier for DNA to be translated into proteins.
• In protein production, it acts as an adaptor molecule.
• Between the DNA and the ribosomes, it acts as a messenger.
• All living cells are the carriers of genetic information.

Encourages ribosomes to select the appropriate amino acid to form new proteins in the body.
Loss of DNA content is linked to many diseases.
DNA is an essential component required for transferring genes from parents to offspring.
All the information of a cell is stored in DNA.
DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is also used for
the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies regarding biological
evolution and genetics.

Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) that
also contain several hydroxyl groups. It may also include their derivatives which produce such
compounds on hydrolysis. They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and are also
referred to as “saccharides”. The carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are
called “sugars”.

Properties of Carbohydrates

Physical Properties of Carbohydrates

Stereoisomerism – Compound shaving the same structural formula but they differ in spatial
configuration. Example: Glucose has two isomers with respect to the penultimate carbon atom.
They are D-glucose and L-glucose.
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Optical Activity – It is the rotation of plane-polarized light forming (+) glucose and (-) glucose.
Diastereo isomers – It the configurational changes with regard to C2, C3, or C4 in glucose.
Example: Mannose, galactose.
– It is the spatial configuration with respect to the first carbon atom in aldoses and the
Annomerism second carbon atom in ketoses.

Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates

Osazone formation: Osazone are carbohydrate derivatives when sugars are reacted with an excess
of phenylhydrazine. Eg. Glucosazone
Benedict’s test: Reducing sugars when heated in the presence of an alkali gets converted to
powerful reducing species known as enediols. When Benedict’s reagent solution and reducing
sugars are heated together, the solution changes its color to orange-red/ brick red.
Oxidation: Monosaccharides are reducing sugars if their carbonyl groups oxidize to give
carboxylic acids. In Benedict’s test, D-glucose is oxidized to D-gluconic acid thus, glucose is
considered a reducing sugar.
Reduction to alcohols: The C=O groups in open-chain forms of carbohydrates can be reduced to
alcohols by sodium borohydride, NaBH4, or catalytic hydrogenation (H2, Ni, EtOH/H2O). The
products are known as “alditols”.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are widely distributed molecules in plant and animal tissues. In plants and
arthropods, carbohydrates from the skeletal structures, they also serve as food reserves in plants
and animals. They are important energy sources required for various metabolic activities, the
energy is derived by oxidation.

Some of their major functions include

• Living organisms use carbohydrates as accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions. They
are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4kcal/gram) for all living beings.
• Carbohydrates along with being the chief energy source, in many animals, are instant
sources of energy. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ Kreb’s cycle to yield ATP.
• Serve as energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates. It is stored as glycogen in
animals and starch in plants.
• Stored carbohydrates act as an energy source instead of proteins.
• They form structural and protective components, like in the cell wall of plants and
microorganisms. Structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria (peptidoglycan or
murein), plants (cellulose), and animals (chitin).
• Carbohydrates are intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• Carbohydrates aid in the regulation of nerve tissue and is the energy source for the brain.
• Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens, receptor
molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
• Formation of the structural framework of RNA and DNA (ribonucleic acid and
deoxyribonucleic acid).
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 • They are linked to many proteins and lipids. Such linked carbohydrates are important in
cell-cell communication and in interactions between cells and other elements in the cellular
environment.
• In animals, they are an important constituent of connective tissues.
• Carbohydrates that are rich in fiber content help to prevent constipation.
• Also, they help in the modulation of the immune system.

Proteins:
Proteins are macromolecules made up of monomers called amino acids. Amino acids are the
building block of all proteins.

An amino acid is a simple organic compound consisting of a basic group (-NH2), an acidic group
(-COOH), and an organic R group that is unique to each amino acid.
The term amino acid is short for alpha-amino carboxylic acid. Each molecule has a central carbon
atom, called the α-carbon to which both the groups are attached.
The remaining two bonds for the central carbon are satisfied by the hydrogen atom and an organic
R group.
The organic R group can be as simple as a hydrogen atom (H) or a methyl group (— CH3) or a
more sophisticated group.Proteins are highly complex macromolecules consisting of one or more
long chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

A protein is a macronutrient that is present in all living beings and is directly involved in various
metabolic pathways.
Proteins are species-specific and are unique to each organism. Similarly, these are also organ-
specific in that the proteins of the brain are different from those in the muscles.
Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids, and the property of a protein molecule is a
function of the amino acids present.
Plants are capable of synthesizing all amino acids necessary to make proteins, whereas animals
cannot.
Amino acids in proteins are linked together by peptide bonds that are formed between the NH2
group of one amino acid to the COOH group of another amino acid.
Proteins are also termed polypeptides, as they are long chains of amino acids connected by peptide
bonds.

Properties of Proteins

Solubility in Water
The relationship of proteins with water is complex.
The secondary structure of proteins depends largely on the interaction of peptide bonds with water
through hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are also formed between protein (alpha and beta structures) and water. The
protein-rich static ball is more soluble than the helical structures.

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At the tertiary structure, water causes the orientation of the chains and hydrophilic radicals to the
outside of the molecule, while the hydrophobic chains and radicals tend to react with each other
within the molecule (hydrophobic effect).
Denaturation and Renaturation
Proteins can be denatured by agents such as heat and urea that cause the unfolding of polypeptide
chains without causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
The denaturing agents destroy secondary and tertiary structures, without affecting the primary
structure.
If a denatured protein returns to its native state after the denaturing agent is removed, the process
is called renaturation.
Some of the denaturing agents include
Physical agents: Heat, radiation, pH
Chemical agents: Urea solution which forms new hydrogen bonds in the protein, organic solvents,
detergents.

Coagulation
When proteins are denatured by heat, they form insoluble aggregates known as coagulum. All the
proteins are not heat coagulable, only a few like the albumins, globulins are heat coagulable.

Isoelectric point
The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which the number of positive charges equals the number of
negative charges, and the overall charge on the amino acid is zero.
At this point, when subjected to an electric field the proteins do not move either towards anode or
cathode, hence this property is used to isolate proteins.

Molecular Weights of Proteins

The average molecular weight of an amino acid is taken to be 110.
The total number of amino acids in a protein multiplied by 110 gives the approximate molecular
weight of that protein.
Different proteins have different amino acid compositions and hence their molecular weights
differ.
The molecular weights of proteins range from 5000 to 109 Daltons.

Posttranslational modifications
It occurs after the protein has been synthesized on the ribosome.
Phosphorylation, glycosylation, ADP ribosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, and acetylation
affect the charge and the interactions between amino acid residues, altering the three-dimensional
configuration and, thus, the function of the protein.

Functions of Proteins:
Proteins are essential biomolecules that are critical to life and to perform various activities. Some
of the important biological roles of proteins are:

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 • Many proteins act as catalysts that enhance the rate of chemical reactions in various
metabolic pathways.
• The fibrous proteins are a component of various tissues holding the skeletal elements
together like collagen, which is a structural unit of connective tissues.
• The nucleoproteins serve as carriers of genetic characters and hence govern the inheritance
of traits.
• Proteins also perform transport functions that regulate the transport of many compounds in
and out of the cells and accumulate inside at much higher concentrations than expected
from diffusion alone.
• Various protein hormones regulate the growth of plants and animals, besides controlling
many other physiological functions.
• Blood plasma has multiple soluble proteins that can be used for the treatment of shock
produced by severe injuries and operations.
• Interferons are regulatory glycoproteins produced by many eukaryotic cells in response to
virus infection, endotoxins, antigenic stimuli, and many parasitic organisms.
• Peptides from humans called defensins are antibiotic in nature.

Importance of special biomolecules:

Enzymes:

“Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.”

The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform different
processes. Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by a set of
enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.

The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a molecule and
is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct molecules, which are
known as products.

The regulation of enzymes has been a key element in clinical diagnosis because of their role in
maintaining life processes. The macromolecular components of all enzymes consist of protein,
except in the class of RNA catalysts called ribozymes. The word ribozyme is derived from the
ribonucleic acid enzyme. Many ribozymes are molecules of ribonucleic acid, which catalyze
reactions in one of their own bonds or among other RNAs.

Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions taking place in
metabolic pathways is carried out by intracellular enzymes. The enzymes in the plasma membrane
govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to cellular signals and enzymes in the circulatory
system regulate the clotting of blood. Most of the critical life processes are established on the
functions of enzymes.

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Properties of enzymes

1. Like inorganic catalysts, the enzymes are active in very small amounts and
remain unchanged on completion of the reaction.

2. Enzymes are very specific in their action. i.e. a particular enzyme usually acts
on a particular substrates to catalyze particular type of reaction. But some times,
the same reaction may be catalyzed by more than one enzyme. Such enzymes are
called isoenzymes.

3. Enzymes are very sensitive to heat. The temperature at which an enzyme shows
its highest activity is called optimum temperature. The activity of enzyme declines
both the above and below the optimum temperature. Protein part of the enzyme is
the catalytic part. Temperature above 50’C normally denatures the protein and so
the enzyme loses its activity.

4. The catalytic property of the enzyme is dependent on pH. The specific pH at

which the enzyme activity is high is called optimum pH. Different types of enzymes
have different optimum pH values. Most intracellular enzymes function will be
around neutral pH. Tripsins are active in alkaline medium, diastase in neutral
medium while pepsin in acidic medium.
5. Enzymes are sensitive to inhibitors. The chemical substance that combines
with the enzymes and inhibits its catalytic activity is called an inhibitor. Eg.
Cyanides. A-><-B.

6. In most of the cases, the reactions catalyzed by the enzymes are reversible
depending upon the requirements of the cell.

Enzymes Classification:

25
According to the International Union of Biochemists (I U B), enzymes are divided into six
functional classes and are classified based on the type of reaction in which they are used to
catalyze. The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases, ligases
and isomerases.

Types Biochemical Property

The enzyme Oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation reaction where the electrons
Oxidoreductases
tend to travel from one form of a molecule to the other.

The Transferases enzymes help in the transportation of the functional group

Transferases
among acceptors and donor molecules.

Hydrolases are hydrolytic enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis reaction by

Hydrolases
adding water to cleave the bond and hydrolyze it.

Adds water, carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds or eliminate these
Lyases
to create double bonds.

The Isomerases enzymes catalyze the structural shifts present in a molecule, thus
Isomerases
causing the change in the shape of the molecule.

Ligases The Ligases enzymes are known to charge the catalysis of a ligation process.

Oxidoreductases
These catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions, e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase, catalysing the
oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
Transferases
These catalyze transferring of the chemical group from one to another compound. An example is
a transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one molecule to another.
Hydrolases
They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. For example, the enzyme pepsin hydrolyzes peptide bonds
in proteins.

26
Lyases
These catalyze the breakage of bonds without catalysis, e.g. aldolase (an enzyme in glycolysis)
catalyzes the splitting of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Isomerases
They catalyze the formation of an isomer of a compound. Example: phosphoglucomutase catalyzes
the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate (phosphate group is transferred
from one to another position in the same compound) in glycogenolysis (glycogen is converted to
glucose for energy to be released quickly).
Ligases
Ligases catalyze the association of two molecules. For example, DNA ligase catalyzes the joining
of two fragments of DNA by forming a phosphodiester bond.
Cofactors
Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A cofactor is essential for
the functioning of an enzyme. The protein part of enzymes in cofactors is apoenzyme. An enzyme
and its cofactor together constitute the holoenzyme.
There are three kinds of cofactors present in enzymes:
• Prosthetic groups: These are cofactors tightly bound to an enzyme at all times. FAD
(flavin adenine dinucleotide) is a prosthetic group present in many enzymes.
• Coenzyme: A coenzyme binds to an enzyme only during catalysis. At all other times, it is
detached from the enzyme. NAD is a common coenzyme.
• Metal ions: For the catalysis of certain enzymes, a metal ion is required at the active site
to form coordinate bonds. Zinc is a metal ion cofactor used by a number of enzymes.

Functions of Enzymes
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:

• Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
• They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by
the body.
• They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in the
synthesis of energy.
• Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
• Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
• They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular activities.

27
Examples of Enzymes
Following are some of the examples of enzymes:

Beverages
Alcoholic beverages generated by fermentation vary a lot based on many factors. Based on the
type of the plant’s product, which is to be used and the type of enzyme applied, the fermented
product varies.
For example, grapes, honey, hops, wheat, cassava roots, and potatoes depending upon the materials
available. Beer, wines and other drinks are produced from plant fermentation.

Food Products
Bread can be considered as the finest example of fermentation in our everyday life.
A small proportion of yeast and sugar is mixed with the batter for making bread. Then one can
observe that the bread gets puffed up as a result of fermentation of the sugar by the enzyme action
in yeast, which leads to the formation of carbon dioxide gas. This process gives the texture to the
bread, which would be missing in the absence of the fermentation process.

Drug Action
Enzyme action can be inhibited or promoted by the use of drugs which tend to work around the
active sites of enzymes.

Vitamins:

Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper
metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism in sufficient
quantities for survival, and therefore must be obtained through the diet.
The human body needs vitamins in small amounts. Because the body produces very little or none
of these vitamins, the human body needs to obtain different types of vitamins in food. Vitamin
requirements are different for each organism. In contrast to humans, dogs can produce all the
vitamin C they need from their bodies. Unlike most other vitamins, vitamin D is not readily
available in foods for humans. The human body synthesizes vitamin D on its own when exposed
to sunlight, which is the most natural source. Keeping one’s health depends on the number of
vitamins a person needs. Vitamins serve different functions in the body. This article can provide
you with a deep understanding of the types of vitamins and minerals.Vitamins are either soluble
in fat or water in the body.
The table will help you understand the types of vitamins and their functions.
Types of
Functions Deficiency Good Sources
Vitamins

Cod Liver Oil, Broccoli,

Vitamin It is vital for maintaining good Night blindness Sweet Potatoes, Butter,
A health for the eye. and Keratomalacia Kale, Spinach, Pumpkins,
Collard Greens, Cheeses,

28
 Eggs, Carrots, Apricots,
Cantaloupe Melon, Milk.

Yeast, Pork, Cereal Grains,

Brown Rice, Oranges,
Beriberi and
It produces various enzymes that Whole Grain Rye,
Vitamin Wernicke-
are essential for breaking down Asparagus, Kale,
B1 Korsakoff
blood sugar in the body. Cauliflower, Sunflower
syndrome.
Seeds, Potatoes, Liver,
Eggs.

Asparagus, Bananas,
It supports the growth and
Persimmons, Okra, Milk,
Vitamin development of body cells and Inflammation of
Yogurt, Cottage Cheese,
B2 also helps in metabolizing the the lips.
Meat, Eggs, Fish, Green
food we take.
Beans.

Chicken, Beef,
The body needs niacin as an Pellagra, which Salmon, Tuna, Milk, Eggs,
Vitamin essential component for the can cause Tomatoes, Leafy
B3 growth and efficient working of diarrhea, and Vegetables, Broccoli,
cells. intestinal upset. Carrots, Nuts, Tofu,
Lentils.

Meats, Whole Grains,

Vitamin It produces the necessary energy
Paresthesia Broccoli, Avocados, and
B5 and hormones in the body.
Yogurt.

Anemia and
Vitamin It contributes to the formation of Chickpeas, Beef liver,
Peripheral
B6 healthy red blood cells. Bananas, Squash, and Nuts.
Neuropathy.

The metabolization of proteins,

fats, and carbohydrates in the
Dermatitis or
Vitamin body works effectively. It also Egg Yolk, Liver, Broccoli,
Inflammation of
B7 maintains the level of keratin in Spinach, and Cheese.
the intestines.
the body that supports the good
health of skin, hair, and nails.

During pregnancy,
Leafy Vegetables, Peas,
Vitamin It is essential for the formation of this can affect the
Legumes, Liver, Sunflower
B9 DNA and RNA in the body. nervous system of
seeds.
the fetus.

Fish, Shellfish, Meat, Eggs,

Vitamin It helps in maintaining good Neurological
Poultry, Milk and other
B12 health for the nervous system. Problems
dairy products.

29
 Citrus fruit and vegetables
It helps in the healing of the
like lemon, oranges,
wound, production of collagen,
pomelo are rich in Vitamin
Vitamin and formation of bone. It also
Scurvy C. Sources of Vitamin C are
C supports the body's immunity
advised to take in raw form
and helps the body absorb iron in
as cooking destroys the
a better way.
nutritional value.

Exposure to the sun

produces vitamin D in the
Vitamin Healthy mineralization of bone Rickets and human body. Fatty fish,
D is dependent. Osteomalacia eggs, beef liver, and
mushrooms are some of the
sources of Vitamin D.

It helps prevent oxidative stress Hemolytic anemia Wheat Germ, Kiwi,

Vitamin that can increase the risk of in newborns. This Almonds, Eggs, Nuts,
E widespread inflammation and condition destroys Leafy Greens, Vegetable
various diseases in the body. blood cells. Oils.

Unusual
Vitamin susceptibility to Natto, Leafy Greens,
It is necessary for blood clotting.
K bleeding, or Pumpkins, Figs.
bleeding diathesis.

Hormones
Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules that stream through the
bloodstream. Hormones carry chemical messages from the glands where they are produced to cells
in different parts of the human body. These chemical messages help to turn on or turn off cellular
processes that control stress, appetite, growth, sleep cycles, blood sugar, sex drive, and sexual
function.
The importance of hormones in the proper functioning of the human body is immense. They
control the functions of organs and influence their growth, reproduction and sexual characteristics.
Moreover, hormones also affect the way a human body stores and uses energy and regulates the
volume of fluids as well as the level of sugar and salt in the blood. Thus, a small amount of
hormone can trigger a significant response in the human body.
Our body contains two different kinds of glands.

Endocrine Glands: These glands, such as the pituitary and adrenal glands, do not have ducts and
deliver their secretions through the blood straight to the site of action.
Exocrine Glands: These glands have ducts by which their secretions are transported. Example:
sweat and liver,

30
 The Function of Hormones
Hormones act as a messenger which is released into the blood. Blood transmits them to various
organs and tissues of the human body. After reaching a target site, hormones bind to the receptors.
Once this process is complete, hormones then transmit the message which causes an organ or tissue
to perform a specific action.
The following are some important functions of hormones:
• Regulating mood and cognitive functions
• Growth and development
• Food metabolism
• Maintaining body temperature
• Controlling thirst and hunger
• Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction

Hormone Regulation
Hormones may be regulated by glands and organs, by a negative feedback mechanism, or by other
hormones. Hormones that regulate the release of other hormones are defined as tropic hormones,
which are secreted by the anterior pituitary in the brain.

Hormones During Pregnancy

Many hormone levels are affected in the body during pregnancy. Several hormones play major
roles during pregnancy such as Estrogen, Progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin hormone
(hCG), and Human placental lactogen (hPL).

Chemical Nature of Hormones

Hormones may be chemically classified as either proteins or steroids. All of the hormones in the
human body, except the sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, are proteins or protein
derivatives.

The Properties of Hormones:

The significant properties of hormones are –
• They have a low molecular weight; thus, they can easily pass through capillaries.
• Hormones always act in low concentration.
• They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
• The importance of hormones is that they are non-antigenic. They are organic catalysts.
Hormones act as coenzymes of other enzymes in the human body.
• Hormones, in their first action, cause a limited number of reactions and do not influence
any metabolic activities of a cell directly.
• A significant characteristic of hormones is that, after their function is over, they are readily
destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
• Hormonal activities are not hereditary.

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Characteristics of Hormones
Hormones possess the following characteristics:
• Endocrine cells release hormones into the body.
• Circulating in bodily fluids, hormones are chemical messengers.
• They act on one portion of the body after being secreted in another.
• Unlike enzymes, hormones do not catalyse any reactions.
• They are not stored beforehand and are only secreted in minute amounts when necessary.
• The nervous system uses the feedback effect to control hormone secretion.
• The majority of the time, hormones have long-lasting impacts such as altered behaviour,
growth, etc.

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