TABLE OF CONTENTS :

S.no Particulars

1. Introduction

2. Molding Types

3. Advanced Techniques

4. Mold Materials

5. Advanced Mold Making Technologies

6. Automations in Sand Casting

7. Conclusion
INTRODUCTION :
The sand casting technique is considered one of the most ancient fabricating methods. The objective
of this casting technique is to pour liquefied metal into a cavity and then allow it to solidify. Products
achieved through sand casting do not possess good surface finishing [24]. This is majorly caused by the
pattern used or quality of the molding sand. Hence, they will require machining to get rid of inclusions.
Typical present-day sand casting cycle involves various phases, like liquefying, alloying, molding,
pouring, hardening, and finishing [25, 26]. In sand casting, the sand is thrust about the pattern, which
develops the shape of the mold. The mold should have a tolerable sturdiness to withstand the
molten metal. It should be adequately penetrable to allow for the easy escape of gases while solidifying,
after which the sand cast is taken out and used again [27]. Reusing the sand is a cost-effective advantage
in sand casting techniques and, at the same time, environmentally friendly. However, in the past, when
sand casting was responsible for over 80% of cast material production, foundrymen spent a substantial
amount in the buying and disposal of used casting sand, which was overlooked.

MOLDING TYPES
Green Sand Molding :
Green sand is a mixture primarily of sand, clay and water. Other
additives may be used to impart specificproperties to the sand. The
process of green sand molding is easily automated so it is capable
of highproduction volumes, particularly for small and medium sized
castings. The sand is readily recycled withonly small additions of
new clay and water. Green sand has low compressive strength,
offering littleresistance to contraction, so hot tearing risk is
minimized.

Chemically Bonded Sand Molding :

Chemically bonded sand uses synthetic binders of several different types to hold the mold aggregate
together. This technique is suitable for large castings since these binder systems offer maximum resistance
to distortion and mold erosion. Figure 2 shows a large mold section for an intake system.Mold surfaces
can be coated and dried if necessary to improve surface finish.

Binder chemistry has advanced continuously since the 1940’s when core oil was the predominate binding
agent. Carbon dioxide gas-hardened silica systems were developed in the 1950’s followed by the dominate
phenolic/urethane/amine cold box binders in the 1960’s and phenolic urethane nobake systems in the early
1970’s. Furan resin systems were popular for ferrous casting in the 70’s and 80’s but were less popular in
aluminum foundries. The furan systems are currently used for the additive manufacturing of cores and
molds for aluminum casting.
Shell Process:
The shell process uses dry sands bonded with a thermosetting
phenolic resin. This process produces castings with excellent
surface finish and dimensional control. Cores and molds can be
produced that are hollow. Since the tooling is heated to activate the
thermosetting resin, metal tooling is used. While the largest use of
this process is to produce cores, molds or mold sections can be
produced as well.

Inorganic Binder Systems :

Recent years have seen the development of inorganic binders for molds and cores. These binders are
environmentally friendly and non-toxic and do not contain phenols, formaldehyde, isocyanates, naphtha,
urethanes or furans. In addition to the environmental benefits, no organic gasses are released into the casting
during solidification, eliminating most exogenous gas defects. This is particularly useful to produce cores
used in permanent mold, where there is no natural mold venting and the gases generated by organic systems
condense and plug vents. An example of a gas defect generated from core gas from an organic core.

Inorganic binder systems are less reactive and have the lowest strength of current binder systems,
therefore requiring additional controls during mold or core making. The binders are also hydrophilic, so
molds and cores need to be stored in a dry place until they are poured. Sometimes additives are used to
delay the breakdown of the binder under conditions of high air humidity and high temperatures. Another
challenge is coating the cores with water based coating systems. Since water based coatings should be
dried, careful control of the drying system is required to prevent core breakdown. The high temperature
and relative humidity will make the core increasingly weak during drying, potentially causing core
deformation or breakage. Despite the technical challenges, several foundries have made inorganic core
production routine. BMW’s Landshut foundry is billed as the world’s first emission free foundry, using
inorganic cores to produce engine components. An example of the cores produced is shown in figure.
Since these binders are water soluble, they are central to the ablation casting process.
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES
No-bond sand molding process:
Sand molding processes are classified according to the way in which the sand is held (bonded).
Most sand casting employs green sand molds, which are made of sand, clay, and additives.
Binders are also used to strengthen the cores, which are the most fragile part of mold assembly.
However, some molding processes do not use binders [18]. Instead, the sand or mold aggregates
are held together during pouring by the pattern itself (as in lost-foam casting) or by the use of an
applied force (as in vacuum molding and magnetic molding described here). No-bonded molding
processes involve free-flowing mold particles and do not require binders, mulling equipment, or
mold additives.

1) V-Process:

The vacuum-sealed molding process allows molders to make complex molds using dry,
unbounded, and freely flowing sand. Molds are sealed by using plastic films along the top and
bottom sand surfaces of the cope and the drag molds and then vacuum applied to the sand
medium of cope and drag [19]. The plastic film along with top of the drag mold and the bottom
of cope mold is softened by heating and formed on an appropriate pattern to produce the hollow
cavity for the finished mold. The control factors of the V-process are may affect the quality of the
castings and the molding sand, vibration frequency, vibrating time, degree of vacuum imposed,
and pouring temperature.

The advantage of the V-process is that the use of vacuum to maintain the mold eliminates the
requirement for a sand binder. Consequently, no sand mixing system is required, and the
machinery for shakeout and sand reclamation are therefore less costly to installing and operate.
Additional benefits for V-process molding include reduced requirements for sand control and
lower fume and dust generation [20]. V-process mold will also retain heat longer, slowing
solidification, due to presence of no moisture in the mold sand.

2) Magnetic Molding:

Based on a concept similar to the lost-foam process using an expandable polystyrene (EPS)
pattern, magnetic molding was developed. In initial development of the magnetic molding
process took place at the same time as the lost-foam process, but it has never achieved the same
level of industrial
development as the lost-foam method [21]. The magnetic molding process involves a coated EPS
pattern that is surrounded by a mold material of magnetic iron or steel shot (instead of sand as in
lost foam).
After the EPS pattern is positioned in the flask and encased with magnetic shot particles
(between 0.1 and 1.0 mm, or 0.004 and 0.04 in., in diameter), the
mold is compacted further by periodic vibrating and/or tilting. The mold is then made rigid by the
application of a magnetic field prior to pouring the molten metal. Evolving gases are drawn off
through the base of the flask. The magnetic field is turned off after solidification and cooling,
resulting in immediate shakeout. The free-flowing magnetic shot molding material is returned to
its point of origin after cooling, dedusting, and metal splash removal.

Advantages of the magnetic molding, like other no-bond methods, include the absence of a
chemical binder, reductions in dust and noise levels, full mechanization or automation of the
process, and the elimination of normally used molding activities (such as ramming and jolting).
The increased heat conductivity of the iron or steel molding material also results in a finer grain
structure in the cast metal. Another advantage is that a piece mold can be produced without a
joint line. Magnetic molding using irons, carbon and low-alloy steels, high-chromium steels, and
copper-base alloys are under research.

MOULD MATERIALS

Silica sand :
Silica (SiO2) sand is the sand found on a beach and is also the most commonly used sand. It is
either made by crushing sandstone or taken from natural occurring locations, such as beaches
and river beds. The fusion point of pure silica is 1,760 °C (3,200 °F), however the
sands used have a lower melting point due to impurities. For high melting point
casting, such as steels, a minimum of 98% pure silica sand must be used; however
for lower melting point metals, such as cast iron and non-ferrous metals, a lower
purity sand can be used (between 94 and 98% pure).
Silica sand is the most commonly used sand because of its great abundance, and,
thus, low cost (therein being its greatest advantage). Its disadvantages are
high thermal expansion, which can cause casting defects with high melting point
metals, and low thermal conductivity, which can lead to unsound casting. It also
cannot be used with certain basic metals because it will chemically interact with
the metal, forming surface defects. Finally, it releases silica particulates during the
pour, risking silicosis in foundry workers.

Olivine sand :

Olivine is a mixture of orthosilicates of iron and magnesium from the mineral

dunite. Its main advantage is that it is free from silica, therefore it can be used
with basic metals, such as manganese steels. Other advantages include a low
thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, and high fusion point. Finally, it is
safer to use than silica, therefore it is popular in Europe.

Chromite sand :
Chromite sand is a solid solution of spinels. Its advantages are a low percentage of
silica, a very high fusion point (1,850 °C (3,360 °F)), and a very high thermal
conductivity. Its disadvantage is its costliness, therefore it is only used with
expensive alloy steel casting and to make cores.

Zircon sand :

Zircon sand is a compound of approximately two-thirds zirconium oxide (ZrO2)

and one-third silica. It has the highest fusion point of all the base sands at 2,600 °C
(4,710 °F), a very low thermal expansion, and a high thermal conductivity. Because
of these good properties it is commonly used when casting alloy steels and other
expensive alloys. It is also used as a mold wash (a coating applied to the molding
cavity) to improve surface finish. However, it is expensive and not readily
available.

Chamotte sand :

Chamotte is made by calcining fire clay (Al2O3-SiO2) above 1,100 °C (2,010 °F).
Its fusion point is 1,750 °C (3,180 °F) and has low thermal expansion. It is the
second cheapest sand, however it is still twice as expensive as silica. Its
disadvantages are very coarse grains, which result in a poor surface finish, and it is
limited to dry sand molding. Mold washes are used to overcome the surface finish
problems. This sand is usually used when casting large steel workpieces.

ADVANCED MOLD MAKING TECHNOLOGIES :

Binder Jetting Technique for Directly Printing Molds :

Binder jetting is a technique used in 3D sand printing that eliminates the need for
pattern-making altogether. This approach involves selectively bonding sand
particles together using a resin binder to directly create molds. Industrial binder
jetting systems can print sand-casting molds and cores using materials like
quartz/silica sand or specialized foundry-grade resin-bonded sand.

The elimination of pattern-making not only simplifies the manufacturing process

but also reduces material waste and cost associated with pattern production. Binder
jetting offers significant time savings compared to traditional methods as it
eliminates the need for pattern fabrication and assembly.

Benefits of Integrating 3D Printing in Sand Casting

Enhanced design flexibility allows engineers to fabricate intricate patterns
and bring complex designs to life with ease and precision.
 • Rapid prototyping capabilities facilitate efficient testing and validation
before large-scale manufacturing begins, expediting time-to-market for
innovative products.
• The use of 3D printed patterns significantly reduces or eliminates the need
for expensive tooling and pattern equipment, resulting in substantial cost
savings.
• Accelerated production timelines enable companies to meet market demands
more efficiently, ensuring faster availability of products to consumers.

• Reduced material waste contributes to optimized sustainability by

minimizing environmental impact.

Limitations and Ongoing Developments :

• Size constraints are a significant limitation as most 3D printers have limited build
volumes, restricting the size of castings that can be produced.

• Material selection is another limitation as not all materials used in traditional sand casting
are compatible with 3D printing technologies, affecting the range of applications and
industries that can benefit from this technology.

• Achieving desired surface finish and dimensional accuracy can be challenging with 3D
printed sand molds due to visible layer lines and deviations during the printing and
casting process.
 • Extensive post-processing is often required to achieve the desired final product, adding
time, cost, and complexity compared to traditional methods.

• Ongoing research and development efforts are focused on addressing these limitations
and expanding the capabilities of 3D printing in sand casting.

AUTOMATIONS IN SAND CASTING :

Auto Pouring :
The Auto Pouring process is basically operated by PLC ( Programmable Logic Controller)
installed to the control system. The movement and detection of the instruments are arranged
with sequences at the panel control where the parameters are also set up such as temperature,
position and timer. Molten metal is poured into the sand mold trough a channel or sprue which is
controlled by a stopper rod .This rod moves up and down or open and close to allow and stop the
molten metal get into the mold. The molten metal itself moves out by gas pressure in the
chamber. Laser is utilized to detect the empty or full space in the mold, empty space allows the rod
moves up after Laser detection, visa versa. Full space means mold filled fully detects by Laser and
allow the rod to close the channel means next sequence runs for the next mold. This synchronic
movement consequently involves the movement of molds. When a mold is finished, the next mold
is pushed by the ram or piston to be filled this mechanism.
Automated sand depositing system for sand casting process :
Sand casting is one of the most prominent processes for shaping metals into the requisite shapes
and sizes in regular periods. Green Sand, Sodium Silicate, and Resin Sand are the most generally
utilized sand grades. One of these base sands is blended with other substances in good propositions
in the mixer unit and is filled into the hopper unit with the assistance of conveying mechanism
where they are filled into the molds. Physical laborers are employed to monitor the work and the
processes that are currently in use. To decrease the constant monitoring and the health hazards
faced by the workers during exposure to sand, that can be automated with the help of pneumatic
gating systems and level detection sensors in hoppers to fill the container units. The IR sensor helps
determine the level of sand that should be filled in every container while the pneumatic gates guide
the sand from conveyor lines to the hopper. Hence, this paper intends to design and fabricate an
automated sand depositing system for the sand casting process thereby reducing the burden of the
laborers and improving process efficiency.

Benefits gained through casting automation include:

• Quality

• Reduced down-time

• Increased capacity

• Improved die life

• Lower maintenance costs

• Safety
While traditional pouring arms are rigidly associated with a process, robotics offer much greater
flexibility. Robotic die spray and pouring systems allow for simple adjustments to current
processes, enable easy changeover, and offer future flexibility for adding new models.
Other advantages robotic systems provide include consistent and safe material handling of hot,
sharp, and heavy parts, as well as automatic deburring of parting lines to remove sharp edges
prior to operator intervention.
CONCLUSION :
Sand casting is one of the oldest and most economMical processes for creating metal parts and
structures. Controlling the structure and properties of green sands and cores is of great necessity
to produce the metal parts and structures with high quality. Strength net diagram and
MohrCoulomb Criterion (Mohr circle) cab be used to determine the properties of green sands.
Although there are some disadvantages of sand casting, for example, the surface quality of the
metallic parts and structures produced by sand casting is relatively low, sand casting still has a
promising application especially for the large, heavy and complexed casting. As novel
sandcasting processes, ablation casting and 3D printing molding are also very promising.
Although a more detailed investigation on the factors affecting the ablation casting and 3D
printing molding is required in order to produce the metal parts and structures with highest
quality, the application of the ablation casting and 3D printing molding will become more
popular and important. All in all, it can be concluded that sand casting is one of the most
important methodologies to produce the metallic parts and structures, however, a better
understanding and thereby a well control of sand casting is still required.

REFERENCE :

• Degarmo, E. Paul, J T: Kohser, Ronald A (2003), Materials and Processes in

Manufacturing (9th ed)
• Todd, Robert H : Allen, Dell K: Alting, Leo (1994), Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide.
• Rao, T. V. (2003), Metal Casting : Principles and Practice, New Age
International.