KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION OPEN AND LONG DISTNCE E-LEARNING.

YEAR ONE SEMESTER TWO

COURSE NAME : THE PRODUCTIVE AND RECEPTIVE OF

COMMUNICATION
COURSE CODE : ENL 1201

COURSE LEVEL : YEAR ONE SEMESTER TWO

COURSE CREDIT UNITS : 3 CU (45 CONTACT HOURS)

PREREQUISITES : NONE

COURSE JUSTIFICATION

Achievement of proficiency in the productive skills (speaking and writing) as well as in the
receptive skills (listening and reading) constitute the major goal of any language
teaching/learning activity. Consequently students of English need to be exposed to these
important skills of communication since the experience gained in such endeavour not only
affords them the opportunity to increase their own proficiencies, thus becoming better role
models, but would also avail them the necessary insights in teaching the same skills.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
 Make the student aware of the differences between productive and receptive skills in
communication and what these differences entail in a teaching/learning environment.

 Sharpen the students’ awareness of poor mastery of productive and receptive skills and
the various remedial options available to an English teacher.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, students should;

Show an understanding of the differences between productive and receptive skills of

communication.
 Demonstrate ability to detect defects in learner’s communication Vis-à-vis the four skills
and know how to rectify them.
 Demonstrate an improvement in their communication skills in English.
COURSE CONTENT
COMMUNICATION (9 hours)
 The art of communication
 The communication process
 What makes good communication?

THE RECEPTIVE SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION

Listening (9 hours)

 The social context of listening

 The characteristics of effective listening
 Skills to develop for effective listening
 Sources of listening problems
 Correcting of poor listening habits
 Attitudes to develop for effective listening

Reading (9 hours)

 Effective reading
 Types of reading
 Reading skills for different purposes
 Speed reading
 Poor reading habits and correcting poor reading habits

THE PRODUCTIVE SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION

Speaking (9 hours)

 Features of spoken English: Segmental and non-segmental

 Effective speaking skills
 The comprehension of spoken English
 Conversational skills
 Functional speaking context: public speaking and presentations, seminars and tutorials,
interviews, telephone skills, introductions, vote of thanks.

Writing (9 hours)

 The fundamentals of the writing process

 Types of essay writing
 Academic writing
 Variations in style in relation to content
 Functional writing contexts: letter writing, report writing, formal correspondence,
journalistic writing, minute writing.
TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS

 Lectures
 Reading assignments
 Practical assignments
 Discussions
TEACHING-LEARNING MATERIALS

 Whiteboard and markers

 Flip charts
 LCD Projectors
 CDs, DVDs and Tapes
COURSE ASSESSMENT

 Continuous assessments tests 20%

 Group and individual project (course work) 20%
 End of Semester Examination 60%
 Total 100%

READING MATERIALS

Aslanian, Yeghia (1985). Investigating the reading problems of ESL students: an alternative.
ELT Journal, 39/1. Oxford University Press.

Poughey, (Thrissie (1997). 1 ‘earning to write by writing to learn: a group-work approach

ELT Journal, 51/2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

C’arlie, Anthony (2000). Reading logs: an application of reader-response theory in ELT.

ELT, Journal. 54/1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Davies. Norman F. (1996). Receptive Versus Productive Skills in Foreign Language

Learning.

Derewianka, Beverly. (1991). Exploring How Texts Work. Sydney: PETA

Geoff, Dean (2003). Grammar for improving Writing and Reading in the Secondary School.
London: David Fulton Publishers.

Hafiz, F.M. and 1. Tudor (1989). Extensive reading and the development of Language Skills.
ELT Journal, 43/1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Harris, J. (1993), Introducing Writing. Harmonsworth: Penguin

Receptive and productive skills of communication.
>Definition
Receptive skills refer to the ability to understand and comprehend spoken or written
language. These skills are essential for effective communication and are often
categorized into two categories: listening and reading.
Examples of receptive skills include:
1. Listening comprehension: This involves the ability to understand and interpret
spoken language. Examples of this include listening to a lecture, a podcast, or a
conversation with a friend.
2. Reading comprehension: This involves the ability to understand and interpret
written language. Examples of this include reading a book, an article, or an email.
1.Listening skill
>Definition
Listening skill refers to the ability to receive, interpret, and understand verbal and
non-verbal messages communicated by others. It involves not only hearing the words being
spoken but also paying attention to tone, intonation, body language, and other non-verbal cues
that contribute to meaning. Effective listening skills are essential for effective communication,
as they allow individuals to understand and respond appropriately to what is being
communicated. Listening skill is a key component of interpersonal communication and is
important in various contexts, including social interactions, academic settings, and the
workplace.
Explanation
Listening is one of the most important receptive skills, as it allows us to understand and
interpret spoken language. Whether it is in a classroom setting, during a conversation with
friends, or in a business meeting, effective listening skills are crucial for effective
communication. Listening involves not only hearing the words being spoken but also
paying attention to tone, intonation, and other non-verbal cues that contribute to
meaning.
How to improve listening skill?
To improve listening skills, there are several strategies that can be employed.
● Actively listen
The first and most important strategy is to actively listen. This means focusing one's
attention on the speaker and actively trying to understand what is being said. Active
listening requires one to give full attention to the speaker, to make eye contact, and to avoid
distractions such as looking at a phone or computer screen.
● Practice paraphrasing
Another strategy to improve listening skills is to practice paraphrasing. This involves restating
what the speaker has said in one's own words, to ensure that the message has been understood
correctly. Paraphrasing also shows the speaker that the listener is paying attention and is
engaged in the conversation.
● Taking notes
Taking notes is also a useful strategy to improve listening skills. Note-taking helps to keep
track of important points and key information, and it can also help to reinforce what has been
heard. Note-taking can be done in a variety of ways, from using bullet points to drawing
diagrams or mind maps.
● Active participation in conversations and discussions.
One of the most effective ways to improve listening skills is through active participation in
conversations and discussions. Engaging in conversations with others allows one to practice
listening and responding in real-time. It also provides an opportunity to learn from others and
to gain new perspectives on various topics.
● Feedback
Finally, it is important to seek feedback on one's listening skills. This can be done by
asking for feedback from others, or by recording oneself during a conversation or
presentation and reviewing it afterwards. Feedback can help to identify areas for
improvement and can provide valuable insights into one's listening skills.

2.Reading Skill
Definition
Reading skill refers to the ability to comprehend and interpret written language. It
involves decoding written symbols, understanding vocabulary and grammar, and
making connections between ideas presented in the text. Reading is a fundamental skill that is
essential for academic success and lifelong learning. Effective reading skills require not only
the ability to decode and understand written language but also to analyze, evaluate, and
synthesize information from various sources. Good readers are able to identify main ideas,
make inferences, and draw conclusions based on the
information presented in the text. They are also able to apply critical thinking skills to evaluate
and interpret the meaning of the text.
Explanation.
Reading is a critical receptive skill that involves the ability to decode and comprehend written
language. It is an essential skill in everyday life, as it is required for academic success,
professional development, and personal growth. Effective reading skills require more than just
the ability to recognize and pronounce words; it also involves the ability to understand and
analyze the meaning of the text.
How to improve reading?
To improve reading skills, there are several strategies that one can employ.
● Read regularly
The first strategy is to read regularly. Reading regularly helps to develop fluency,
increase vocabulary, and improve comprehension. It also exposes the reader to a
variety of writing styles and genres, which can help to broaden their understanding and
knowledge.
● Engage in active reading
Another strategy to improve reading skills is to engage in active reading. Active reading
involves reading with a purpose, asking questions, and making connections between ideas
presented in the text. It requires the reader to be actively engaged in the reading process, to
make predictions, and to draw conclusions based on the information presented in the text.
● Skimming and scanning
Using reading strategies such as skimming and scanning can also be helpful in
improving reading skills. Skimming involves quickly reading through a text to get a
general idea of the content, while scanning involves looking for specific information in the
text. Both strategies can help the reader to identify key information and main ideas more
quickly and efficiently.
● Developing vocabulary
Developing vocabulary is another important strategy to improve reading skills. The more
words a reader knows, the easier it is for them to comprehend what they are reading.
Strategies for developing vocabulary include reading widely, looking up unfamiliar words in a
dictionary, and practicing using new words in context.
● Developing vocabulary.
Developing vocabulary skills is also critical for developing reading skills. Strategies for
improving comprehension include summarizing, predicting, and asking questions about what is
being read. These strategies help the reader to identify main ideas, understand the author's
purpose, and connect ideas presented in the text.
Productive skills
Definition
Productive skills refer to the ability to produce language in a spoken or written form.
They involve creating language that conveys meaning and is appropriate for the
intended audience. There are two types of productive skills: speaking and writing.
1.Speaking skill
>Definition
Speaking skill is a productive skill that involves the ability to express oneself in a clear and
effective manner. It involves using appropriate pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary to
convey meaning to others. Effective speaking skills are essential for effective communication
in personal and professional contexts, as they allow individuals to express their ideas, connect
with others, and achieve their goals.
Strategies to improve speaking skill.
To improve speaking skills, there are several strategies that can be employed.
● Practice regularly
The first strategy is to practice regularly. Speaking regularly helps to develop fluency, increase
confidence, and improve pronunciation. It also provides an opportunity to experiment with new
vocabulary and grammar structures.
● Engage in active listening
Another strategy to improve speaking skills is to engage in active listening. Active
listening involves paying attention to how others speak, their intonation, and word
choice. It helps the speaker to improve their own speaking skills by modeling effective
communication and providing feedback on areas that need improvement.
● Taking pauses, appropriate intonation, and speaking clearly
Using speaking strategies such as taking pauses, using appropriate intonation, and
speaking clearly can also be helpful in improving speaking skills. These strategies can help the
speaker to communicate more effectively, convey their ideas more clearly, and engage the
listener more effectively.
● Practice speaking in front of others.
Another strategy to improve speaking skills is to practice speaking in front of others.
This can be done in a variety of contexts, such as public speaking, participating in a
debate, or engaging in a discussion. Practicing in front of others helps to develop
confidence, improve fluency, and provide feedback on areas that need improvement.
● Feedback
Using feedback to improve speaking skills is another important strategy. Feedback can come
from a variety of sources, such as peers, instructors, or language exchange
partners. It helps the speaker to identify areas that need improvement and to develop
strategies to address those areas.
2.Writing Skill
Definition
Writing skill is a productive skill that involves the ability to produce written language in a
clear, concise, and effective manner. It requires the use of appropriate grammar, vocabulary,
punctuation, and organization to convey meaning to the reader. Effective writing skills are
essential for success in personal and professional contexts, as they allow individuals to express
themselves clearly, communicate their ideas, and achieve their goals.
Strategies to improve writing skills
Here are some strategies to improve writing skills:
● Reading: Reading is an effective way to improve writing skills. It exposes writers
to different writing styles, techniques, and structures. By reading extensively,
writers can develop their own writing style, improve their vocabulary, and learn
how to organize their ideas in a clear and concise manner.
● Practice: Like any skill, writing requires practice. Writers should set aside time to
write every day, even if it's just for a few minutes. This helps to develop writing
fluency, improves grammar and punctuation skills, and helps writers to develop
their own writing voice.
● Write in stages: Writing can be overwhelming, especially when tackling a large
project. To make it more manageable, break it down into smaller stages. Start
with an outline, then write a rough draft, revise, and edit. This helps to organize
thoughts, improves the flow of writing, and helps to catch errors.
● Get feedback: Feedback is essential to improving writing skills. Writers should
seek feedback from others, such as writing groups, colleagues, or editors. This
helps to identify areas that need improvement, provides new ideas, and helps
writers to refine their writing skills.
● Use writing tools: Writing tools can be helpful in improving writing skills.
Grammar checkers, writing prompts, and online dictionaries can be useful in
improving grammar, expanding vocabulary, and generating ideas.
● Learn from mistakes: Making mistakes is a natural part of the writing process.
Instead of getting discouraged, writers should learn from their mistakes. By
analyzing errors and making corrections, writers can improve their writing skills
and avoid making the same mistakes in the future.
● Edit and revise: Editing and revising are critical components of the writing
process. Writers should take time to review their work, check for errors, and
refine their writing. This helps to improve the quality of writing, ensures that ideas
are conveyed clearly, and makes the writing more engaging to readers.
THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
The art of communication is your ability to listen and deliver information in a clear and accurate
way. Therefore good reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills are important for achieving
your goals and maintaining effective communication with your friends, family, colleagues and
even strangers.

Developing good verbal and written communication skills are essential in our hectic world,
especially given the rise of digital communication, where meanings are often lost and not
translated accurately. The ability to effectively explain yourself and converse with others is an
important skill, and mastering it can even be referred to as the art of communication.
This unit introduces you to communication and the various dimensions of it. This is another vital
component that determines your success or failure in life. Your ability to communicate clearly
and effectively is a significant bedrock for success in life, work and in the society. According to
Kuhnke (2013: 1) ―no matter how innovative your ideas, how sincere your feelings or how
passionate your beliefs, if you fail to connect with other people and communicate in a way that
persuades, inspires or motivates, your efforts will be in vain. ‖ The world in which you live,
function and relate with others requires effective communication. If you observe your
environment very well, you will notice that several people find it challenging to communicate
effectively. This limits them in virtually every area of their lives and hinders progress in their
endeavours. The ability to communicate clearly and effectively facilitates understanding and
engenders intimacy. Therefore, it is imperative for you to develop and successfully apply
communication skills. Effective communication is learned. ―If you do not work on it, it will not
work for you. ‘ In the words of Kuhnke, ―communication works for those who work at it.‖
Communicating effectively is not a given. You must make conscious and concerted efforts to
understand, develop and apply communication skills in your entire academic journey and
beyond.
Definition
Communication is a common word that connotes different meanings to different people. What
comes to your mind when you are faced with the question: ―what is communication? ‖ Your
answer might be, communication is the exchange of ideas or thoughts or information.
Communication involves the transfer or sharing of ideas, between two or more people. This is
defining communication in very simple terms.
The Captain ‘s announcement as the aircraft is preparing to land, the teacher in the classroom
discussing information storage in the 21st century and the Nurse discussing birth control
methods with nursing mothers are all sharing thoughts, ideas and information. In other words,
they are communicating. As you are reading this text, I am sharing with you my knowledge,
thoughts and information on this subject – communication. The word ‗communication ‘derives
from Latin, which means ‗to share‘or ‗common‘. ―It belongs to the family of words that
includes communion, communism and community. Until you have shared information with
another person, you have not communicated it‖ (Barker, 2006: 1). Arising from this premise, the
Entrepreneur Handbook (2019: np) sees communication as the ―sharing of information between
different individuals. It includes the sharing of ideas, concepts, imaginations, behaviours and
written content. It is simply defined as the transfer of information from one place to another. This
transfer of information can be conducted in different ways. ‖ Therefore, the sharing or exchange
of information between persons or systems forms the root of every communication. The
Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2009: np) defines communications as ―a process by which
information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or
behavior. ‖ It is the sending and receiving of information from one point to another or between
two or more persons. According to Ojomo (2004: 78), communication is the ―sharing of ideas,
feelings, thoughts, information and messages with others. ‖ Looking through the various
definitions, the authors agreed on the meaning of communication. It involves sharing or
exchange. Communication binds humans together. Davito (2012: 1) writes that ―of all the
knowledge and skills you have, those concerning communication are among your most important
and useful. Your communication ability will influence how effectively you live your personal
and professional life; it will influence your effectiveness as a friend and lover. It will often make
the difference between getting a job and not getting it.
A. The Indigenous (African Traditional) Communication Systems
It is noteworthy that African traditional communication systems have their own uniqueness.
They are understood by members of a community. They readily appeal and connect with
people’s language, culture, beliefs, myths, legends and customs to enhance the effectiveness of
communication. They enable the locals to relate with their values, norms, ethos and culture
(Olulade, 1998). They also use symbols, values and indigenous institutions which enhance
messages’ effectiveness. They project African traditional past, derived from the culture, beliefs,
and way of life of Africans. Rooted and respected among the local people, indigenous
communication systems are embedded in the culture of the people, which is the driving force.
They also rely on indigenous technology employing values and symbols that people identify
with.
Actually, African communication systems mean the traditional or indigenous modes of
communication. Indigenous communication is purely founded on traditional culture. Tradition in
this case is the norms and values of each individual group under a particular ethnic group or
tribe. Whereas tradition is a bit stagnant, culture changes with time. For instance, traditional
marriage has changed over time to include the church, mosque, and Attorney Generals’ (court)
marriage (Akpabio, 2003). Culture and tradition are interwoven but unlike tradition, culture is
highly influenced by the environment. Culture is at times defined in terms of time, whereby it
changes with it. African traditional communication systems can, therefore, be described as that
form of communication that has its root in the African environment. It is original in the African
locality and to the natives.
African traditional communication has often been referred to as indigenous communication
by various authors. In his definition, Wilson (1987) states that traditional communication is a
continuous process of information dissemination, entertainment and education used in societies
which have not been seriously dislocated by western culture or other external influence. He also
stresses that the ownership of the traditional communication media lies with society. Culture, on
the other hand, is the belief system, custom, tradition, practices and social behaviour of a
particular nation and its people (UNESCO, 1994). Culture is necessary for a healthy society. It is
usually established from enlightenment, acquired through education, observation as well as
exposure to an environment. A culture can be further defined as the patterns of behaviour and
thinking that people living in a social group learn, create and share. It distinguishes one human
group from another. People’s culture includes their rules of behaviour, language, rituals, arts,
style of dress, religion and economic systems. Therefore, culture can be summed up as the
totality of the way of life of a people through which they associate and relate with their
environment.
B. The Abandonment of African Traditional Communication Systems
As much as African communication systems are an integral part of the socio-cultural heritage
of Africans, civilisation has forced Africans to turn against most of the traditional modes of
communication (Ibagere, 1994). This civilisation has tilted strongly in favour of westernisation
and has replaced most of the modes in the urban areas with the modern mass media. The
socioeconomic structure has made it impossible to relate to the eroded modes (indigenous
communication systems) in the urban areas. In fact, an attempt to blow a horn as a
communication means in Nairobi city will not be interpreted as a nuisance. Arguably, today
traditional modes of communication exist by the ‘grace’ of the slow pace of development or
modernisation.
Since Africa is a vast continent with diverse peoples who have existed for centuries before
their contacts with the colonial ‘masters,’ each of these peoples had its own unique language and
cultural patterns within each cultural setting. Over time, there existed traditionally established
cultural systems for sharing information, opinion formation and cultural values. Rogers holds
that a far flung network of communication existed in ‘less developed’ countries before the
introduction of the modern media (as cited in Opubor, 1975). Even though a good network of
communication channels existed in indigenous Africa before the introduction of modern media,
studies into these local channels of communication are quite recent as African scholars in the
past and (even up till now) have concentrated much of their research efforts mainly on the
western media of communication like radio, television, newspapers, magazines and now social
media. It is, therefore, no wonder that the quantity and variety of research literature on African
traditional communication systems such as sayings, metaphors, analogies, place naming, puns,
among others are very scanty.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is the act of sending information or ideas via speech, visuals, writing or any
other such method. People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon
the message and its context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your
style of communicating also affect communication. So, there are varieties of forms of
communication.
1) Verbal Communication
Verbal communication can also be called as Oral communication. In very simple terms, any
communication that happens orally between people is known as verbal communication. The
objective of such communications is to ensure that people understand whatever you want to
convey. Because of its very nature, verbal communications is more quick and precise than email
communication.
Advantages of Verbal Communication Skill:
It saves time:
You can give direct orders to your subordinates. Get instructions on a matter within a few
minutes. Convey your message at a rapid speed. The verbal form of communication gives you
this facility to quickly send intended message thus saving you time. Also, you won’t need to
grope for sign languages. Just write or say it and you will be understood within fraction of a
second.
It saves you money:
If most of the information are considered to be verbal then you won’t be wasting energy and
money on explaining things differently. All you need is a medium to speak or write and your
work would be done. Also less chances of getting misinterpreted as everyone receiving the
instructions are able to understand the common language between you.
Feedback quickness:
The distinct advantage of verbal communication is in the fact that the receiver can ask and
clarifies his doubt on the spot without any delay. The sender can get a quick feedback as to
whether his intended message is received in its intended form or not and can clarify the receiver,
in the case of any doubt. Additionally the difficulty is removed in communication.
Most convenient method:
Yes verbal communication is the most widely adopted means of communication globally. People
prefer more of verbal communication due to the convenience factor dominating over other types
of communication. While communicating verbally, you are more likely to convey matter simply
in plain readable text and understandable language which is widely preferred.
Persuasion in the act:
Managers can use it to their advantage to make their point more powerful and persuasive. In
combination with non-verbal language, a person can peruse the other on any matter.
Ease of preparation:
Oral communication is the easiest way of communication as it does not have any need of
material to convey the message. Therefore casual conversations are usually easy to conduct.
Maintain secrecy:
It can be very useful in case you want to maintain a secrecy about a matter as there is no way to
proof what you said. Private conversations can be easily conducted through one to one
discussions and privacy is well maintained if proper instructions regarding this matter is
provided to concerned individuals.
Clarity of message:
If the message provided is in written format, the receiver can re-read the contents and clarify any
doubt on the later moment. Therefore sometimes written format can have an extra edge over oral
one in this matter.
Legality of the content:
As the documents can be reproduced, the written format has a legal importance. Many people
prefer to communicate in written or oral format in case of important discussion. These
conversations can be stored or recorded for future use as evidence to some crime or as legal
documents which can be of very much important in many things.
Disadvantages of Verbal Communication:
Chances of distortion of meaning:
Due to the presence of various barriers in effective communication it happens that the intended
meaning of the message changes for the intended person which causes a lot of problems in the
future. There are some instructions provided. If the instructions are not conveyed properly it may
cause its meaning to change and therefore the other person might do the opposite of what you
expect, therefore clarity in giving the instructions should be maintained.
Not convenient for long messages:
It is not at all convenient to convey long messages orally as it may happen that the by the time
message is completed the receiver may forget the previously spoken important points leading to
a chance of ineffective communication. As a result written format can be used which is also a
problem since many people don’t like writing too much or communicate too much through
messages or written format.
Irrelevant information:
While having an important discussion, a lot of irrelevant information can creep in during a
conversation leading to waste of time and gap in relevant information. This leads to unnecessary
time waste and sometimes omitting or forgetting to converse on what is really important.
Therefore it is always necessary to keep your communication process clear of any unwanted
discussion that may lead to wastage of your precious time and energy.
Create misunderstanding:
Usually when two individuals are having deep conversations, they can have some
misunderstandings during the time. Sometimes subtle hints given or some words spoken with
some intention get misinterpreted and a whole new different meaning comes out of it.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written. Nonverbal
communication has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding or interpretation of
any message.

Types of nonverbal communication

1. Body Movement (body language)
The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people use their
bodies to communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body movement includes
posture/position, gestures/waves/nodes, facial expressions, and eye contact.
Posture—the way you position and move your body—can communicate a great deal about you.
For example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation can convey your
degree of interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back or standing to leave can
convey a lack of interest or signal the end to the conversation.
Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify honesty and
openness.
Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages. They
include the mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin. The face is
probably the most observed part of the body when we communicate with others, and this is not
without reason. Our face usually communicates our internal, emotional experience.
Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye contact in our
culture can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A diverted or downcast gaze
communicates a different message. Our eyes can also communicate dominance and submission.
We can “stare someone down” with a prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or
we can avoid or break eye contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor.
2. Paralanguage
Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality. Pitch
refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily determined by
the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we are frightened,
anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound more powerful or
authoritative. In relationship, lowering voice may signal respect/intimacy/affection.
Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a characteristic
volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also
adjust our volume to meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy,
crowded room we raise our volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or
quiet dinner we lower our voice.
Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech. Some
speak fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited, frightened, or
nervous, and we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad.
Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The
quality of one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a
distinctive quality to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s
voice? Your best friend’s voice? Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately
recognize the caller by his or her voice quality.
3. Personal Presentation
Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to
communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness, and status. We
can create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear.
Our grooming/being stylish/fashionable/ clean can also reflect and communicate messages to the
world. The length and style of our hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger
and toenail painting (even for men these days), and many other grooming habits communicate a
great deal about who we are and how we want to be perceived.
Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching
behaviour, or haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that involves the
skin. Primarily, touching behaviour deals with our hands and how we use them to communicate.
4. Proxemics
Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist Edward Hall
in his book The Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between people, Hall discovered
that our personal space could be broken down into four zones or distances:
✦ Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making love,
holding intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling/move into warm
and comfortable place. This is often referred to as our “personal bubble.” Only our most intimate
relationships are permitted into this area. If an uninvited person invades our personal bubble,
whether it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or a person getting too close for
comfort during a conversation, we usually move away slightly to maintain our intimate distance.
✦ Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family, friends,
and most acquaintances.
✦ Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with transacting
business, sitting during committee meetings, and interacting with the hotel clerk, the supermarket
cashier, or the police officer giving us a ticket.
✦ Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group
meetings, and class lectures. If the distance between people is greater than 25 feet,
communication is often limited to shouting and exaggerated nonverbal gestures.
The distance of your personal space changes depending on the setting, the people involved, and
how you are feeling at the moment. Cultural factors also play an important role in determining
proxemic distancing and personal comfort.
5. Sign language
Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the hearing impaired.
It involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have specific meanings. Sign
language is taught in formal learning institutions for communication with the hearing impaired
such as the use of braille. Communicating using sign language for the visually impaired may take
the form of:
• Finger spelling
• Signing Exact English (SEE)
• Kenya Sign Language (KSL)
NB: find out what the three concepts entail.
Importance of nonverbal communication.
(a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the receiver.
Speed in conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely useful in critical
situations like traffic signs and signals.
(b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are
necessary for conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data, and most of
the sciences. A large amount of complex data can be presented in a compact form; one page can
convey information that would need several pages of words. It makes information available
conveniently, at a glance for comparisons.
(c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of agony
arouses stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a written story. TV news
is more interesting than on radio.
(d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of poisons are
marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers manage with the non-verbal
traffic signals. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral
explanations easily. Nonverbal communication can overcome the barrier of language.
(e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to work like
any other physically normal persons.
Functions of non-verbal communication.
a) Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a warm
welcome and a firm handshake.
b) Negation of the verbal message.
c) Message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such as
pointing.
d) Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to meet you.”
e) Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a turn or eye contact to
nominate the next speaker.

VISUAL, AND AUDIO-VISUALCOMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION

Visual communication aids

It includes pictures, posters, graphs, diagrams, charts and billboards etc. Organization make
extensive use of pictures such a blueprints/drawings progress charts, maps, visual aids in training
programmes
, scale models of products and similar devices. The use of such means of communication is
increasing in training and education as well as in organizational communication. Pictures can
provide powerful visual images as suggested by the proverb "A picture is worth a thousand
words". In fact, many companies have designed their advertisement copies in which only
pictures are used; however pictures should be combined with well-chosen words and action to
tell the complete message.
Audio-visual communication aids
Audio-visual communication involves use of telecast films on the cinema, slides on a projector
screen, computer, television and video. It is the latest medium of communication. It is a
combination of sight and sound. Audio-visual communication is suitable for publicity, mass
propaganda and mass education. Large business firms frequently make use of this technique to
educate their workers and to popularise their products. The working of a new product can be
effectively demonstrated through audio visuals. Audio communication is suitable mostly tor
mass publicity and mass educations.
Importance of audio, visual and audio visual communication aids
(i) Ability to record information for future reference
(ii) The computer and internet has enhanced search, processing and storage of information
and generally enhanced speed and efficiency in communication.
(iii) Audio visual communication tends to have longer memorability due to use of multiple
channels which makes it suitable for teaching, learning and advertisement.
(iv) The internet services through mobile phone and computer has improved social
networking through Facebook, What’s up, and Twitter.
(v) Faster feedback due to speed in communication such as mobile phone.
(vi) Audio, visual and audio visual communication is a source of entertainment, through
music, video pictures, and social chat with friends on Facebook, Twitter and Whatsapp.

Weaknesses of visual and audio visual

(i) The mobile phone has enhanced coordination of crime while IT has enhanced cybercrime
such as money laundering.
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating
cost is generally high for most people.
(iii) Communication process may be hindered due to failure in network reception such as in
internet, radio and television.
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating
knowledge such the use of computer.
(v) The use of audio visual communication has reduced the need for face to face interaction.
People now prefer to use the social media and calling which hinder close social interaction.
(vi) There is a possibility of information leak when someone taps your communication. This
is common in mobile telephony. Young people may also get content meant for adults.
(vii) Graphs, charts and posters take time to construct.
(viii) Lack of feedback in the use of mass media such as radio and television.
Barriers to audio, visual, and audio visual communication
(i) The recipient must have communication gadget with compatible features as the sender to
be able to receive the message.
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating
cost is generally high for most people.
(iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over telephone, internet,
radio and television.
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating
knowledge such the use of computer.
(v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors, video and
radio gadget may break down when they are needed for use.
(vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication gadgets such as
computers, projectors, slide projectors and television.
(vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which many people
may not understand.

Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio visual communication

(i) In a business organization, the management should always ensure the audio, visual and
audio visual channels are always working properly.
(ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave receptions are
adequate for proper communication.
(iii) Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up before
beginning to use audio, visual and audio visual communication gadgets.
(iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical location and
technological capacity of the receiver.
(v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic knowledge and
competence of your receiver.
(vi) Mass media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of channels
broadcasting in local languages ensures this.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
This unit introduces you to the basic process of communication. It brings to focus the various
elements involved in the communication process ranging from the sender to the receiver. It
highlights communication as a process that progresses from the cradle to adulthood and to the
grave. Effective communication entails an interplay of the various essential elements that create,
build and decode messages. Each link in the chain determines when miscommunication or
failure in communication occurs.

Several upheavals in the organization, failures in interpersonal relationships and distortions in

individual lives are likened to failures in communication. Therefore, the discussion on the
barriers to effective communication is paramount. This means that a proper understanding of
effective communication will mitigate against the barriers that cause miscommunication.

This unit brings to you the various components of the communication process; it exposes you to
the need for effective communication and the barriers to effective communication. Therefore, at
the end of this unit, you should identify the various elements of the communication process;
recognize what constitute barriers to communication and you should be equipped to
communicate effectively.

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is a process that involves several elements. It is essential for you to have a
proper understanding of these elements to be effective in the communication process.
These elements regulate, control and are vital to every communication process. They include
such factors as the sender, receiver, channel, message, feedback and noise.

Sender: This is the initiator of the process of communication. The sender as the source of the
message in the communication process, determines to a large extent, the success or failure in the
communication process.

Message: This is the information you want to communicate. Without the message, there will be
no need for communication. You do not communicate just for the sake of it. Take, for instance,
clowns/jokers, drunks and comedians. These group of people seem unserious in their lifestyle.
They entertain and joke over virtually everything. In the midst of that, they communicate to
their audience clearly.

Encoding: This is the process of transferring your message into a format that can be shared with
your receiver. It is referred to as encoding. For communication to take place, the message
should be in the form the other party can receive, decode and understand. This requires a
knowledge of your audience – who is your audience? What is their level of understanding,
education?

Channel: This is the medium for sending the information. The format of the message
determines the channel for sending it. Communication channel or medium determines the
richness of the information being communicated. Richness is the amount of information a
channel or medium can carry and effective it will be in facilitating a common understanding
between the sender and the receiver eg Physical presence-interactive channels, electronic-
telephone, Best for none routine media (Memos, letter, bulletin), ambiguous reports, best for
routine-clear simple messages

Decoding: If there is encoding, there is also decoding. This is the art of interpreting the message
to become meaningful and understandable. The decoding process can impact on the message.
There will be a failure in communication if the receiver is unable to decode the message.

Receiver: This receives your message. The differences in experience, perspectives, and
expectations between the sender and receiver will affect how the message is received.

Feedback: This is the result of communication or is the response of the receiver in reaction to
the message from the sender; it can be verbal or nonverbal. It helps you to gauge the
effectiveness of your messages. Feedback is beneficial in communication. You can receive
feedback in various forms. It can come in writing, body language, or facial expression. It is a
proper metre for measuring the success or failure of the communication process. It is important
to pay close attention to these feed backs as they are crucial to ensuring the audience
understands your message.
The Context/setting –Is the situation in which the message is delivered. This may include the
surrounding environment or broader culture (corporate culture, international culture, wedding,
board room, group of family members/friends, drunks, jokers etc.

Noise: This refers to any interference in the process of communication. It is anything that has a
negative influence on the message. Noise hinders or distorts communication. This interference
can occur at any of the points of communication. Noise can occur in the form of ambiguous
messages, poor telephone connection, wrong decoding of the message, etc.
 SENDER Message Channel RECEIVER

Encoding Decoding

Noise

Feedback

Fig 1: Elements in the communication

process

Receptive skills of communication.

As already defined in our introduction above, receptive skills refer to the ability to understand
and comprehend spoken or written language. These skills are essential for effective
communication and are often categorized into two categories: listening and reading.
The social text of listening
Communication is an essential part of human life, and listening is a critical aspect of the
communication process. The act of listening involves the process of receiving, attending to,
interpreting, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages. However, listening can be
influenced by different factors such as social context, listening styles, and listening skills.

Social Context and Listening.

Social context refers to the environment in which communication occurs, including the people
involved, the physical setting, and the social norms and expectations that shape communication
behaviors. In social contexts such as business meetings, classrooms, or family gatherings,
listening is influenced by the specific norms and expectations of that context. For example, in a
classroom, active listening is expected from students, and teachers expect their students to
respond appropriately to their questions. On the other hand, in a casual conversation with friends,
active listening may not be as critical, and interrupting each other may be acceptable. With this
social construct, developing skills that enhance listening can improve relationships with people.
This allows the other individual to notice that there is engagement happening within the
conversation which allows it to become more interesting.

Listening Styles and Skills.

 Listening styles refer to how people prefer to listen to information. There are four listening
styles, including empathetic, content-oriented, critical, and people-oriented. Empathetic listening
involves trying to understand the other person's feelings and emotions. Content-oriented listening
is focused on understanding and remembering the information being communicated. Critical
listening is focused on analyzing and evaluating the message being communicated. People-
oriented listening is focused on building and maintaining relationships with others. Gaining
people-oriented skills can help within important interactions throughout the daily cycle. This
includes personal relationships you have with people to job interactions that you have throughout
work. Listening skills are the abilities necessary for effective listening, including attending,
understanding, responding, and remembering. Gaining people- oriented skills can help within
important interactions throughout the daily cycle. This includes personal relationships you have
with people to job interactions that you have throughout work. The Relationship between
Listening Styles, Listening Skills, and the Communication Process.

Listening styles and skills are essential to the communication process. Effective listening skills
can enhance communication by helping people to understand and respond appropriately to the
messages being communicated. Individuals with strong listening abilities can comprehend what
is being said and react properly, which improves communication. Besides, selecting the
appropriate listening style is equally important in achieving communication effectiveness. Each
social context demands a unique listening style, and understanding the context is key to selecting
the appropriate listening style. For example, in a business meeting, content-oriented listening
may be more appropriate than people- oriented listening.

Characteristics of Effective Listening

The importance of listening
Communication takes place along four modalities: speaking, writing, listening, and
reading. It is common for instructors to teach speaking, writing, and reading skills, and
yet, listening is at once the least understood and most important of these
competencies.

Listening is an important communication competence that includes complex cognitive

processes like understanding and interpreting messages, affective processes like being
motivated to pay attention, and behavioral processes like responding with both verbal
and nonverbal feedback. In other words, to be an effective listener, the listener has to
take into consideration what he or she is thinking about the communication being
received, what he or she is feeling about the communication and also the context of the
conversation, and what he or she will do in the process and as a result of the
communication.

What is listening?
According to Wolvin and Coakey (quoted in Ige, 2005), “listening is the process of receiving,
attending to, and assigning meaning to aural/audio stimuli.” For Otagburuagu (n.d.), “listening
skill involves the reception, processing, interpretation and understanding of aural stimuli.” Key
to the above definitions is the fact that the listening process is incomplete without the processing
and understanding of the sounds heard by the listener. This means that a good listener should
possess the ability to interpret the message released by the speaker and understand the meaning
inherent in it. In this communication process, there are four variables involved. They include the
speaker, the message, the listener and the content interpretation for understanding or meaning.
The first trio can be at three triangular points with the last/fourth being at the centre of them or
being the product of the trio.

The above buttresses the fact that the purpose or goal of listening is to understand the message.
Nwankwo (2008, p.118) argues that “listening is adjudged successful when the listener is able to
comprehend the message of the speaker”. Also, Nwankwo (citing Oderinde) asserts that the
purpose of listening is to have “the ability to understand without difficulty, spoken English
which satisfies the requirements of national and international intelligibility”.

Listening Contexts/Situations
Communication at work, school, home, church, etc, provides a variety of contexts in which
listening takes place. Each of these contexts requires a specific type of listening. They include:
a. Listening to Lectures: To acquire knowledge and information
b. Listening to Seminars/Speeches: To acquire knowledge and information
c. Listening to Debates/Manifestoes: To obtain information, knowledge, to accept or refute
a view point.
d. News Broadcast/News Talk: To obtain information
e. Listening to Sermons: For worship, knowledge of the gospel, and spiritual upliftment.
f. Listening to Music: For relaxation, entertainment and information.
As complex as these listening situations are, so do they attract varying degrees of concentration.
The effectiveness of the listening activity is determined by the purpose and context of listening.

Types of Listening/Listeners
Listening is of different types, each classified according to the context of listening. Some of them
are interwoven, yet they represent their distinct entity. Also, people are different in many ways;
therefore they do not exhibit the same level of efficiency in listening. Because of the individual
peculiarities, we can identify and classify these different types of listening and listeners. The
most common of them include:
Active/Reciprocal Listening/Listener:
An active listener is attentive to the listening situation. He is physically and mentally involved in
the listening process. Active listening involves the process of interpreting and understanding the
message after which the listener responds appropriately to the message. She/he reacts to the
message and thus is involved in reciprocal listening. The response can come in the form of
questions for clarity of points or contribution to the existing knowledge, etc. Active listening
means active participation of the listener and he does this by jotting the speaker’s/teacher’s
points on paper or making a mental picture of the points. A type of active listener is the
sympathetic listener. He is a good listener who develops and sustains interest throughout the
duration of the message. He has an eye for details and gives the required feedback in the form of
questions or contributions.

A typical example of active listening is academic listening. This is a reciprocal form of listening
usually done during the learning process in classroom situations. Academic listening involves
active listening, the building up of a mental picture of what is being taught, with a view of
getting the salient points as well as asking questions for clarity purposes. The contexts in which
active listening takes place include lectures, debates, seminars, meetings, etc.

Passive/Apathetic Listening/Listener
Passive listening presents a situation where the listener listens without concentration. One can
say that the listener hears but does not listen; therefore, he is not mentally alert to the message.
This type of listening is situational in the sense that the listener becomes apathetic when he
encounters a difficult topic. This often happens in the classroom where topics and subjects that
appear difficult to the students are taught. In such situations, the student sees the message as a
burden or as boring, therefore, he listens with little attention. An apathetic/passive listener loses
interest in the message and diverts attention to other things.
Reactionary/Prejudiced Listening/Listener
This type of listening can also be referred to as subjective. The listener is subjective in his
approach because he takes on the message and the speaker/teacher from a preconceived personal
angle. His interest lies not in the meaning of the message but in having a verbal attack on the
speaker. An example of this type of listener is the hypocritical listener who finds faults and looks
for imaginary loopholes in the message. His prejudice makes him distort information to achieve
his aim. Otagburuagu (n.d., p.18) states that such listeners “hear what they want to hear rather
than what a speaker says”. In other words, their reactions are based on the opinion and personal
grudge against the person of the speaker, thus they always seek to hurt him.
Non-Reciprocal Listening/Listener
This presents a situation where the listener listens but he is not expected to contribute or react to
the message. This is different from passive listening because there is listening with
concentration, but like it, there is no reaction to the message heard. The peculiarity of their
different listening contexts also accounts for their difference. A non-reciprocal listening context
includes sermon in churches, news bulletin/news talk on the radio, court proceedings,
eavesdropping, monologues, orations, rectors’/vice chancellors’ speeches during
matriculation/convocation, etc. For these listening contexts, there is concentration but no
expected response to the message. Meanwhile, passive listening context involves listening to
music, especially for relaxation, and there is lack of concentration and non-reaction to the
message.

Critical Listening/Listener
Listening with a questioning attitude is the hallmark of critical listening. Critical listening, just
like active and academic listening, entails listening with mental alertness. A critical listener looks
out for inconsistencies, illogicalities, facts and opinions in the speaker’s message. This type of
listening involves listening to criticize the message received; however, the criticisms are for a
better understanding and clarification of facts. The listener is objective in criticizing the
illogicalities, bias and prejudice discovered in the speech. He does not target the speaker/teacher
as a person, but rather the message, with the aim of clarifying and substantiating the facts
contained therein. The critical listener also tries to understand the speaker’s motive and the
validity of his message. He is also concerned with the authenticity of what the speaker presents.
In other words, critical listening is objective rather than subjective in approach.
The critical listener possesses the following qualities:
(a) He listens with rapt attention
(b) He interprets the message intelligently to arrive at the intended logic and meaning of the
message.
(c) His listening is purposeful and he is always ready to listen.
(d) His interest is sustained from the beginning of the message to the end of it.
(e) He does not distract nor interrupt the speaker with irrelevant questions.
(f) He makes a jotting of important points
(g) He is patient with the speaker and slow at passing unsubstantiated judgment.
(h) He has a questioning attitude and tries to understand the speaker’s motive and the validity
of his presentation.
Appreciative Listening/Listener
This listener seeks to appreciate the speaker’s prowess in the choice and use of words, clarity and
quality of voice, mode of rendition, rhyming of sounds or emotions expressed, manner of
presentation/body language. In other words, an appreciative listener does not listen for
irregularities or flaws but for the beauty in the presentation technique. This can be found in the
act of poem rendition, the lyrics or sound of music, speech of an orator or a political manifesto,
etc.
Transactional Listening/Listener
The aim of transactional listening is to receive instruction from a person after which the demands
of the message are met. The instruction can be from a boss in an office to his subordinate or from
a colleague to another, from parents to children, etc. It can also take place in negotiations of
products to buy or sell.
Mute Listening/ Listener
The mute listener is often a slow learner. He is intellectually handicapped because of his inability
to quickly concentrate and understand a message and immediately give a required feedback. He
should avoid distractions in class and always read ahead of the syllabus or course outline.

The characteristics of effective listening thus range across these cognitive,

affective, and behavioral frames.

Cognitive characteristics of effective listening

 Probing
 Paraphrasing
 Summarizing

Asking questions to follow up or for clarification, paraphrasing the individual

communications, and summarizing the conversation are all activities that show the
listener’s cognitive engagement in the conversation, indicating his or her attempts to
fully understand and correctly interpret the messages being relayed.

Affective characteristics of effective listening

 Focusing of attention

 Acceptance
  Empathy

The effective listener can also signal his or her affective engagement in the
conversation by making it the sole focus of attention, and by receiving communications
with acceptance and empathy. Receiving communications with empathy requires that
the listener try to avoid projecting his or her own opinions, feelings or prejudices onto
the speaker, and that the listener accept the speaker’s communications without
simultaneously trying to craft a response.

Behavioral characteristics of effective listening

 Non-verbal behavior
 Advice

Action is also part of effective listening. The listener should communicate his or her
attention through non-verbal means like eye contact, erect posture, nodding, and other
positive body language. The listener can also demonstrate engagement by broadening
the range of the conversation, such as by inquiring about or suggesting alternatives to
the topic or conclusions at hand.

Good listening is an invaluable skill, benefitting every interaction, whether in personal

relationships, professional settings, or casual encounters. While most people think they
are good listeners, I would challenge that in today’s society. Today, we listen to react.
We hear to formulate a response or attack because our biases are in play.

It takes much work to understand how to listen effectively, but more importantly, it
requires that we are very self-aware and able to control our biases and emotions if the
topic is heated. When we understand this factor, it is a game changer.

More characteristics of effective listening

The following are ten characteristics of a great listener. While not exhaustive, it is a
starting point:

1. Fully Present: Great listeners give their full attention to the speaker, minimizing
distractions and avoiding the temptation to multitask. They are present now, making eye
contact and showing genuine interest in what is being shared. This is an area where I
often lose sight, especially when the tasks at hand are pressuring the timeline. It takes
effort to be present.

2. Non-judgmental: Effective listeners approach conversations with an open mind.

They avoid jumping to conclusions or judging the speaker, focusing instead on
understanding the content and emotions conveyed. Today, the tendency I see in many
areas of society is closed-mindedness driven by confirmational biases at work. We all
need to recognize that we have biases, but It is up to us to confirm those and
understand when they are appropriate or inappropriate to allow function.

3. Empathetic: By definition, empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings
of another. A great listener tries to feel the speaker’s feelings, offering understanding
and support, even if they don’t necessarily agree with the speaker’s perspective.

4. Patient: Good listening requires patience. This means waiting for the speaker to
finish their thought without interrupting, resisting the urge to formulate responses while
the person is still talking, and allowing moments of silence to let the conversation
breathe. Patience is never fun. When in a meaningful conversation, this is important.
However, it is best to terminate the conversation and re-engage later when someone is
just talking over you or babbling on without positive input.

5. Reflective: Reflective listening involves periodically summarizing or paraphrasing the

speaker’s words to ensure understanding. This shows the speaker that they are being
heard and clarifies the conversation. This is essential but must be used in moderation.
Stopping the speaker multiple times to summarize or simplify the exchange can go
south quickly. Wait for a natural break, then be reflective, not nit-picky.

6. Asks Open-Ended Questions: Instead of simply waiting for their turn to speak, great
listeners use open-ended questions to delve deeper into the topic, encouraging the
speaker to elaborate and share more. Too often, when we ask questions, they tend to
solicit a simple yes, no, or single-word declaration which does nothing to advance that
deeper dive into the topic.

7. Avoids Assumptions: Making assumptions can cloud understanding. Effective

listeners seek clarification when in doubt rather than assuming they know what the
speaker means. This is an innovation killer. Assumptions can trash valid information
exchanges, especially when wrong or biased. Before responding, check your
assumptions based on your values, principles, and vision to see if they are correct. If
questioned, then kill it before it comes out of your mouth.

8. Controls Body Language: Non-verbal cues like nodding, maintaining an open

posture, and mirroring the speaker’s emotions can communicate attentiveness and
understanding. Conversely, checking one’s phone, looking away, or showing impatience
can be off-putting.
9. Responsive, Not Reactive: A great listener will respond thoughtfully instead of
immediately reacting to what’s being said, especially if they disagree with something.
This might involve taking a moment to think, asking for more information, or seeking to
understand the speaker’s perspective before sharing their own.

10. Values Confidentiality: Trust is crucial in any conversation. A great listener

respects the speaker’s privacy by not sharing personal or sensitive information unless
explicitly given permission. If there are inappropriate factors in the discussion, extract
yourself from the conversation, especially if anything illegal is proposed. There are lines
where it is no longer a matter of trust but rather enabling something detrimental to
everyone around, then your values must prevail. However, remember there may be a
cost to breaking that trust. Make sure you weigh the cost beforehand.

Incorporating these characteristics into one’s listening habits can foster meaningful
connections, increase understanding, and elevate interaction, regardless of role or
position. Remember that this list is not exhaustive, so be willing to learn from your
mistake and adjust when you find a better or newer way to approach your listening
habits.

Effective Listening Skills

Commination starts with listening. As Mahathma Ghandi said, “without listening there is nothing to
talk”. This shows that without proper listening skills it is difficult to communicate with others
without proper listening skills. Therefore, how one can improve this remarkable skill of listening is
addressed in this section. Listening can be identified as a process of receiving, constructing earnings
from the message and responding appropriately; may be verbally or non-verbally. Listening is a
hard work. Effective listening can be identified as more than just a skill. It is also a matter of
attitude. Hence, it is essential to listen to others rather speaking in order to be an effective listener.

The ability to listen effectively does not only mean using the ears. It is not about merely using ears.
It is a skill that involves a great deal of concentration, understanding the language and eye contact.
Listening skill requires a great deal of practice. It is not a one-short effort. Practicing effective
listening skill is a gradual process. But it is a different process for different people. There are lots of
ways and means identified and stated by different authors and researchers. Kratz and Kratz (2005)
stated the following tips to practice that identical skill of effective listening.

i. Ask questions
ii. Write it down
iii. Focus of the body language of the speaker
iv. Try to keep an open mind when listening
v. Avoid the temptation to interrupt
vi. Seek clarity when appropriate
vii. Try to understand the communicator’s body language
 viii. Understand the feelings of the communicator
ix. Listen to the tone of voice of the speaker
When developing effective listening skills understanding once body language is very critical.
Importantly paying attention to other people’s body language can help to understand others more
effectively. By understanding other’s body language one can get a clear idea about communicator’s
genuineness, confidence and interest in what he / she is saying. Immediate areas to concentrate
upon are eye contact, expression, handshake and postures (Mandel, 1987). Hence, listening
involves a greater degree of concentration on body language of the speaker.

When effectively listening to others, it is important to listen not only to words, but also the tone,
the silence and non-verbal and para-verbal part of the communication.

Thus, it is concluded that effective listening is a soft skill, most probably categorized under human
relation skills which all levels of managers need for effective management. As mentioned by Lesikar
et al. (2009) has stated that people should not listen only to words, but also to the silence of a
person. Silence does not mean the mere silence. There is a very big message in silence in
communication. In a two way communication, silence could mean or imply one or more of the
followings. Therefore, silence becomes an important message and need to practice how to listen to
silence and understand.
i. Either party is uncomfortable
ii. One or both parties are being polite
iii. One party is taking time to think
iv. Politeness of the speaker or the presenter
v. One or both parties do not know what to say or do next

2.1.Barriers for effective listening

There are many barriers for effective listening. Before getting into methods of improving effective
listening skills, it is important to identify barriers for effective listening. Different authors and
researchers have identified different sets of barriers. Following section reflects the prominent and
common barriers as mentioned by Diane (1988).

Daydreaming is the first barrier for effective listening. Many people daydream when they are
supposed to be listening. Instead of focusing on the speaker and attempting to learn something or
even mentally composing a response to what is being said many those who have not practices to
listen effectively may daydreaming. Daydreaming closes down the possibility of retaining
information.

Diane (1988) has identified making mental arguments with the speaker while listening as another
barrier for effective listening. Instead of listening to what someone is saying, a poor listener will
disagree mentally and think about a rebuttal. People will actually play out a complete argument in
their own mind at the same time they should be paying attention to what the other person is really
trying to say. This kind of mental arguing is very damaging to the communication process and will
 often lead to misunderstanding and conflicts between people. The effective listener will wait until
the speaker is totally finished with the statement before making a judgment.

As the most common barrier to effective listening, disturbing the conversation before the other
person finishes has been identified. This includes talking loudly to others in the audience.

Lack of interest is another barrier for why people are not listening to others. How does the saying
go? Deal with it. Lack of interest in the speaker’s topic, language, body language or examples used
does create a difficult situation. Effective listeners try to find useful information in any presentation
or talk. A listener with a negative attitude about the message or the speaker will have a tough time
being effective as a listener. A good way to increase listening effectiveness is to maintain a positive
attitude about the speaker and really work at listening for useful information.

Negative reactions to the speaker's appearance or the delivery method is another barrier for
effective listening. Some listeners are quick to find fault with the speaker’s dress, voice, or gestures.
This tendency of hasty judgments makes it difficult to concentrate on the message what the
speaker is trying to deliver. This happens frequently with radio personalities. Often, a speaker’s
looks are totally different from that implied by the sound of the voice. The old proverb saying “you
can’t judge a book by its cover,” is applied here. Because someone appears odd, different, or
doesn’t match with the mental image you had invented up, doesn’t mean that the message will be
ineffective or unrewarding. Keep an open mind when listening to people.

Finally you may be surprised at what you have learnt from the speaker. Hence, to get the best out
of the speaker's talk one must listen effectively and need to avoid making swift judgments.

Factors that Affect Listening Efficiency

Many factors account for inefficiency in listening, especially in academic listening. Some of
them are attributed to the speaker and the listener while others relate to the message or the
environment of the speech situation. Whichever way it is, they all contribute to the poor listening
ability of students.

The Listener Related Factors

(a) The Listener’s State of being
There are conditions relating to the well-being of the listeners that could mar their listening
efficiency. They include emotional and psychological imbalance, unstable health conditions,
tiredness/fatigue, etc. However, when these factors are positive, they facilitate listening
efficiency.
(b) The Personality Traits of the Listener
Poor listening efficiency can be traced to the poor Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of the listener
which regulates his speed of understanding of the language and style of discourse. Also a listener
who is pessimistic or narrow-minded often misses out in the thought process of the speaker.
(c) Lack of Interest in the Subject of Discourse
A listener sometimes has no interest in the subject being discussed or taught. This could be as a
result of the difficult subject/topic, prejudice towards the speaker or the subject, or the boring
technique of the teaching. A student needs to develop interest in the subject/topic being taught by
studying the course outline so as to anticipate the lecturer.
(d) Language of Instruction
Problems of comprehension arise when the language of instruction is other than the listener’s
mother tongue (MT) or when his level of proficiency in the language is low. There is the
problem of understanding the phonological features of the words as most times they conflict with
that of the MT. This problem is peculiar with most African Countries where the English
language is used as a second language (L2), or the official language or both. Therefore, to
overcome this phonological interference, the listener should put more effort to learn the correct
speech sounds of the target language, in this case, English.
In addition to the phonological interference from the mother tongue, there is also the problem of
understanding the prosodic features of the target language. These features include stress and
intonation. For native speakers of the language, stress and intonation signal differences in
meaning and word class of particular words.

The vocabulary and syntax of the second or foreign language also affect listening efficiency.
Here, listeners should employ techniques that will help them improve in this area. Such
techniques include the use of sense cues and the dictionary to understand the forms of words and
decipher their meanings.

Worthy of note here is the fact that both listeners and speakers/teachers are culprits to varying
degrees in this non-expertise in the use of the language of instruction. Therefore, they should
endeavour to study hard to improve their vocabulary, grammar as well as phonology of the target
language.

The Speaker/Teacher Related Factors

(a) The Speaker’s Accent, Mannerism or Pattern of Presentation

There are mannerisms peculiar to teachers/speakers which constitute noise (an unwanted and/or
unintended “signal or interference” in the communication process which makes it difficult for the
listener to understand the message being communicated by the speaker). These include such
things as the teacher’s rate of speaking, his fluency in the language of communication, the
method of presentation and mastery of the subject, his audibility, foreign or self-imposed accent
(idiolect), speech defect, (stammering), etc. Another factor could be the speaker’s use of a
microphone which does not produce the speech clearly. These factors distract the listener and
mar his listening efficiency.
(b) Verbosity in Language Use or Unfamiliar Words
Using high sounding or too many words in expressing one’s thoughts does not indicate
intelligence; rather it acts as a source of confusion to the listener. There must be intelligibility in
language use to aid communication. The choice of words could make or mar communication;
therefore, proper use of language should be the hallmark of an effective speaker. However, for
better comprehension, students should always note the new words, ask questions or look them up
in the dictionary.
(c) The Speaker’s Non-verbal Communication Acts
Despite the use of words, there is also the incorporation of body language to further elucidate
communication. Such include the gesticulations of the speaker, his facial expression, etc. These
are also referred to as paralinguistic features. However, too much use of them may constitute
noise in the communication process and render its goal unrealizable.

The Environment Related Factors

(a) The Background Noise
A noisy lecture hall affects listening. In such a situation, despite the pitch of the voice of the
speaker or the use of microphone, the noise impairs the listening ability of the listener and, by
extention, comprehension of the message.
(b) Poorly ventilated Lecture Halls/Rooms
Poor ventilation in lecture halls keeps the students uncomfortable and, thus distracts them during
learning. A lecture room should be well-ventilated and should accommodate the required number
of students/listeners.
(c) The Seating Arrangement
Sometimes there may be less number of seats than the number of listeners/students. Some of
these seats may be in bad shape such that the listeners/students have to battle with discomfort
throughout the lecture period. This will lead to loss of concentration. The environment is a key
factor to consider when it comes to increasing listening effectiveness since it can facilitate or mar
the goal of listening.

4.5.4 The Message Related Factors

(a) The Quality of the Message
The quality of a message as perceived by a listener can contribute to loss of concentration.
Intellectuals decipher between messages that are of good quality and those that have lower
quality. In such situations, the level of exposure of the listener, as well as his intelligence, comes
to play in the understanding and classification of such message. The content of a message may
be graded differently in terms of quality by different listeners. However, a message should be
well-researched so as to be of good quality that will hold the attention of the listeners.
(b) Message Appeal/Subject Matter
Individuals listen attentively to messages or subject matter they feel drawn to. Generally,
messages with emotional appeal capture the attention of listeners. Messages on religion, politics,
sports, as well as sex related matters, have different appeals to different listeners. In essence,
listeners always get attuned to the subject matters they feel drawn to.
(c) Organization of the Message
Poorly organized and boring messages affect the listener negatively. Consequently, the choice of
subject matter, logicality in presentation, appropriateness of the topic, lexis, and terminologies
should be taken cognizance of in the message delivery or teaching.

How to improve your listening skills

Having understood that effective listening requires a greater degree of practice different authors
have suggested different ways and means to practice this twin skill of listening. The core idea of all
the strategies of improving listening skills is that it requires commitment and effort (Mandel, 1987).

As the first key point in improving listening skill, it is suggested to stop talking since people cannot
talk and listen at the same time. It does not work properly. Thus, to be an effective listener it needs
to switch off talking and switch on listening. Bradbury (2000) stated that this should be practices as
a conscious effort.

Second key point is to identify with the speaker. This means putting yourself in the speaker's place.
Try to really understand the speaker’s view point. What is the motivation behind the message?
How do his or her views match up with yours? What is the speaker’s agenda? Answering to those
questions automatically improve the listening effectiveness through serious concentration.

Asking questions when necessary is another key point of improving effective listening. When you
ask questions, two good things happen: first, it fuels your own interest level. If you are in the
presence of a good speaker, meaningful questions should bring you some significant added
information. Second, your questions may encourage the speaker to expand on the topic of the
speech. In communication, questioning also a significant skill which needs a higher degree of
practice. When questioning the golden rule says better have an open mindset and keep a tradeoff
among open ended and close ended questions.

The next key to improve effective listening is the practice of concentration. Focusing on the speaker
and the message being delivered should be concentrated. Being able to concentrate is definitely a
skill which we all need in today’s information rich world. Showing the speaker that you want to
listen genuinely is very important key to be developed. Look and act interested in the speaker’s
comments and listen to understand the message. Reserve your arguments until it’s your turn to
speak. With this approach, most speakers actually communicate directly with the listener as they
present their message. This will make the listening experience much more meaningful the listener.
Uncontrolled emotions and temper can cause misunderstanding when you are trying to listen. If
you allow your feelings to interfere with your rationality, your listening skills will drop and your
comprehension will be deteriorated. Also, it is unlikely that you will retain the attention of the
speaker. Thus, as a key it could be recommended that to control emotions and temper when
listening to someone else.

Another key practice is the elimination of distractions. Avoid fidgeting with pens, notebooks, or
other stuffs. It is difficult to concentrate on a presentation when there are distractions from others
 in the audience. Typically, etiquette dictates that people should not enter or leave the audience
after the speaker has started speaking. But this practice may vary according to the location and the
situation.

Avoid jumping to conclusions and making hasty judgments is another key in improving effective
listening skills. If you are using your mind and attention span to formulate conclusions before the
speaker is finished, you may not hear the complete message. You may end up making incorrect
conclusions and leave with the wrong message. This is a trap that catches many listeners. If you do
so you may miss the best part of the whole talk. Hence, never evaluate someone's message without
hearing it completely (Diane, 1988).

When listening to someone else try to carefully and effectively look for the areas of arguments.
Listening for areas of agreement will make the speaker’s message more meaningful for you and will
also make the speaker more comfortable. But while looking for the areas of argument try to catch
the main point in the talk. That concentration will helpful to improve effective listening. Speaker
may provide many details in the talk. Listener must try to concentrate on the main points being
made. This will help the listener to develop a clear understanding of what the real message is.
Taking notes could help the listener to concentrate on main points. It is not necessary and even
practical to record every word, but just get the main ideas.

More means to Cultivate Good Listening Habits.

a. Discover the purpose for and use of your listening. With the purpose in mind, develop
interest in the topic/subject being discussed.
b. Always be disciplined to listen attentively to what the lecturer is teaching and discover
the way and manner of presentation peculiar to each lecturer/teacher.
c. Do not allow your bias for/against the teacher to becloud your sense of judgment and
understanding of the message. Judge only the content of the lesson/speech and not the
speaker’s/teacher’s mannerisms or personality.
d. Be in a good mental, physical, psychological and healthy state at every lecture.
e. Never evaluate the content of the lectures hastily. Listen to the whole message so you can
make an objective assessment.
f. Never dismiss a message as being too simple or too difficult, unimportant or irrelevant.
g. Listen with concentration. Have a good mental picture of the topic for better assimilation.
You can use cue words and sense signals to decipher the direction of meaning.
h. Task your brain on the meaning of those unfamiliar words by taking note of how they are
used in the context.
i. Take note of the use of sentence connectors and linking words to follow the speaker’s
thought process.
j. Listening is incomplete without taking notes, thus always write down important points so
as to aid your revision.
k. Listen in-between the lines of the sentences so as to separate facts from opinion. That is,
listen critically.
l. Read ahead of the lecturer to get acquainted with the topic and thus follow the
lecturer/teacher’s lead.
m. Always adopt the qualities of a critical listener, etc.

READING SKILLS

Concept of Reading
Reading is a complex, purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible activity that takes
considerable time and resources to develop. Reading is flexible,meaning that the reader employs
a range of strategies to read efficiently (Bojovic,2010, p.1). In addition, Patel and Jain (2008),
reading is certainly an important activity for expanding knowledge of a language. Then, reading
is a process that starts with decoding the printed and ends with constructing meaning through an
active interaction between the writer and the reader. In brief, reading is a complex process of
reconstructing the author’s ideas in order to gain meaning from the print.

Reading is an activity with a purpose. According to (Sheeba and Ahmad,2018), the purpose for
reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading comprehension. A person who needs
to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing
information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognize the name of every appetizer
listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the
ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. In
brief, reading activity is activity which aims to achieve main information.

Reading is a very complex process. It requires concentration. Reading is visual thing. The
printed words must produce meaningful thought units, not only must the readers see and identify
the symbols in front of him, but he must also interpret what he is reading in the light of his own
background, associate it with past experience, and projects beyond this terms of ideas a
judgments, application and conclusion (Habibullah, 2012, p.223). Pointedly, reading is a
complex activity
because it need in-depth comprehension.
Reading is an interactive process in which readers construct a meaningful representation of a text
using effective reading strategies. Effective reading strategies are considered as significant skills
that have received the special focus on students’ reading comprehension proficiency (Sabouri,
2016, p.229). In short,reading is an imaginary activity to do a long with significant strategies in
doing it.

How to read
effectively
In The why, when, and what of reading PDF (382 kB) we mentioned that reading for academic
purposes is different to other types of reading. You don’t have to linger over the words like you
might with a work of fiction, but you don’t have to rush through either. You may also read
differently depending on your purpose – if you are reading for general background information
you may read more quickly and generally than you would read when looking for information
about a specific topic for an essay.

Effective reading strategies will ensure you read efficiently. It’s a 3-step process:

POST-
PRE-READING READING
READING

Pre-reading

The pre-reading stage is about getting familiar with the text and setting out any goals. There are
three methods you can use while pre-reading: survey, skim, and scan. Ask yourself “why am I
reading this?” and let that guide whether you survey, skim, or scan the text, or do all three.

nnote the find the most

• general overview • ooutline of the • relevant sections
skim
survey

scan
• look at title, argument look look for keywords
• at chapter • or phrases use
author, date titles and section
• contents, indexes 'Find' on
• introduction and headings • electronic texts
conclusion

Survey

A survey gives you a general overview of the work. Take a sweeping look at the introduction,
conclusion, and any contents or indices. Note the title, the author, and the publication details
(record these right away in the necessary citation style, just so you have it). You might ask
yourself:

→ What is the text about?

→ Who wrote it, and why?
 → How recent is it?
→ Is it useful for my purpose?
Skim

Skimming the work helps you get an idea of the outline of the argument. Do this by looking at
chapter titles or section headings. This helps you figure out where the information you need
most might be located.

After a survey and/or skim read, you might decide that the book or article isn’t relevant to your
purpose after all. That’s fine. Cross it off your list and move on to the next item. You’ve saved a
lot more time than you would have if you had read the whole thing before realising it wasn’t
useful.

Scan

Scanning the text helps you determine which of the sections are most relevant to your topic or
purpose. Do this by looking for specific keywords or phrases in chapter titles, section headings,
or paragraphs themselves. With electronic texts you can search for particular words by using
ctrl + f (or command + f when using a Mac). What’s relevant depends on why you are reading –
if you are getting background information before a lecture then you may need to read the
whole text, but if you are answering a pre-tutorial question you might need to find just one bit
of information.

Remember, you don’t have to read the whole book or the whole article if you’re looking for
something specific. Pre-reading will help you work out which parts you need to read. However,
be alert – if you can’t find what you’re looking for, or you can’t follow the logic of the text or
the author’s argument, you may need to pause and take the time to read more thoroughly.

Reading

Whoohoo, this is the bit everyone knows how to do, right? Read away!

Not so fast. Have you ever found yourself reading the same sentence over and over, unable to
figure out what it means? Have you ever felt your eyes glaze over as you read yet another
unfamiliar word? To combat these inefficiencies you need to be an effective reader.

Effective readers are selective, active, and critical.

 SELECTIVE
READING

EFFECTIVE ACTIVE
READING READING

CRITICAL
READING

Selective reading means you read only the parts that are particularly relevant to your
purpose. That’s right, you don’t always have to read every single word, especially if
your eyes are glazing over. If you’ve done your pre-reading, then you should be able
to find the information you need pretty quickly. If not, take another scan of the text
and look for
keywords relating to your topic (remember you can use the search function to search electronic
text quickly and easily). Not sure what you’re looking for? Go back to why you are reading what
you’re reading. Is it for a lecture, tutorial, or assignment? Is there a question you need to
answer, or a concept you need to understand? Let this be your guide.

Active reading means doing something with the text, either physically or
intellectually.
The physical options include highlighting, underlining, or writing notes in the
margin, but ONLY – we can’t stress this enough – ONLY if the book belongs to you
or you’ve printed the article out. Do not ever write in or on someone else’s book, especially a
library book! If it’s not yours, don’t worry, you can still be an active reader – you just need to
make notes on another piece of paper or on your device, and/or think over issues in your
mind.

Being active intellectually might include:

→ asking questions in response to things you read

→ practising paraphrasing ideas or passages from the text
→ writing summaries of the key
points → looking up unfamiliar
words or phrases → practising
critical thinking.
Remember, if you make any notes on an electronic textbook you should download or save
those notes to your own computer or USB storage, as you won’t always have access to the
online version.

Critical reading means using your critical thinking skills (PDF) on the text you are
reading. Some of the things you might think about include:

→ the writer’s purpose (are they trying to persuade you of something?)

→ the writer’s stance and any biases
→ the language the writer is using to make their case
→ the evidence being cited
→ how what you’re reading fits with or challenges your own views and ideas.

It’s OK to read the text through more than once. Some people find it particularly useful to read
the first time without highlighting or taking notes, just so they get a sense of the overall text
and main ideas. This can help you identify the most relevant parts so that you read selectively
the second time through. The second reading is when you really get into the swing of things by
making notes, being active, and reading critically.

Post-reading

You’ve finished reading! Yay! Now what?

Well, you might want to read it again. Sometimes the first read-through helps you get a general
sense of the topic, and then the second read-through is where you really get to grips with the
main ideas and work your effective reading magic. What you do next depends, as always, on
why you’re reading, but here are some options for general reading:

→ Test your memory and write down all the main ideas you remember from the text
→ Read over your notes and double-check you understand all the key concepts
→ Draw a mind map of the main ideas and how they relate to each other
→ Note any gaps in your knowledge for further reading, or things to ask your lecturer or tutor
about → Answer any pre-class questions or complete assigned activities relating to the reading

When you’re reading for research for an assignment, do the following:

→ Check you have accurate details and write the citation in the correct style for your
bibliography or reference list. Practise writing the in-text citation as
well.
 → Consider how the reading fits in with your other research. Does it offer a very different
view, or does it support the other things you have read? Perhaps draw a mind map of the
main ideas of what you have read.
→ Think about the authority of the writer and their level of objectivity. Consider the originality
of the work compared with others you have read. Think about the accuracy and currency
of the source and how you might use it in your work. Use the APPEAL criteria to help you.
→ Look over the bibliography or reference list if there is one. What sources did the author
use? Are any on your unit reading list (a sign that you really need to look at them)? Have
you read any of
these already? Which ones will you follow up on? Add these to your personal reading list (see
our Organising your reading PDF).

Extra tips, or things to try when you get stuck

It’s OK not to understand everything you read. We read so that we can learn new things, after
all. Also, not every text you read will be written in a way you immediately respond to. Some
texts will be aimed at students studying at a higher level, or will assume the reader is an expert
on the topic, while you’re a novice. Don’t stress. When you get stuck, try some of the tips
outlined below.

Difficulty following the argument

Eyes glazing over? No idea what the author is trying to say? You need to work out the
controlling idea, which is the main reason why the writer is writing. The controlling idea is
similar to your thesis statement when writing an essay (see our Essay Structure PDF for more
information). There might be one controlling idea, or there might be more. Go back to your
pre-reading strategies and look at the title, any headings, the abstract and/or the introduction
to help you define the controlling idea. Try to write this out in your own words on a separate
piece of paper.

The main ideas of the text support the controlling ideas. The main ideas will often, but not
always, be stated in the topic sentence or first sentence of a paragraph. They may be contained
in section headings. Highlight main ideas in a particular colour or write them in your own words
as dot points on a sheet of paper.

Once you have identified the controlling idea/s and the main ideas you can start to look at how
these relate to each other, and the supporting ideas and information that the writer includes to
strengthen these. Look for connecting words and phrases that link or contrast ideas (see the
‘connecting words and phrases’ section in our sentence structure PDF).
 Difficulty with complex sentences

Some writers just like to write long sentences, it’s true. But with patience, you can work
out what they’re trying to say. For background information on sentence structure, check
out our PDF on sentence structure.

Start by reading slowly and read the sentence more than once. Try reading it aloud as well. The
punctuation can help you figure out the pauses, and breaks the sentence into smaller chunks.

Identify the main clause and then the supporting clauses. See if you can find all the verbs (the
doing words), and then find the subject of each verb, and the object/s. See our Grammar PDF
for more information.
controlling
idea

main idea main idea main idea

supporting supporting supporting supporting supporting supporting supporting supporting

idea idea idea idea idea idea idea idea

Difficulty with new vocabulary

When you come across an unfamiliar word or phrase, the best thing to do first is to try to work
out the meaning from context alone. Then have a look at the word itself and see if it looks like
any other word you know. Does it have a prefix like ‘pre-’ or ‘anti-’ (meaning ‘before’ and
‘against’, respectively)? Does it have a suffix like -able or -ology (meaning ‘capable’ and ‘the
study of’, respectively)? You might not know what ‘ontology’ means at first sight, but you can at
least work out that it’s a study of something, even if you don’t know what that something is.
The rest of the sentence or paragraph might help you figure out that ontology is the
philosophical study of existence OR a system of naming with particular application in
information science. Context will tell you which one applies.

It’s great to look things up in the dictionary, and we encourage you to do so. But try not to turn
to the dictionary first and instead take the time to see if you can work out the meaning
yourself, and then use the dictionary to confirm your understanding. This will help your brain
remember the word and its meaning, and make a new connection. Also, if there are many
words that are new to you in a text, you might spend all your time checking the dictionary
instead of reading. Many textbooks include a glossary at the back and that might be a more
suitable place to look up new words, especially if they have a special meaning particular to that
text. Start your own glossary as well, and write down every new word or phrase and its
meaning in your own words. For scientific concepts you can use Hyper Collocation to see how
other writers use the word or phrase.

The final step to learning new vocabulary is to put it into practice and try it for yourself. Write a
sentence using the word and cement it in your memory, or create some flashcards and quiz
yourself regularly.

See also:

→ Western Sydney U Library YouTube channel

→ Palgrave Study Skills: Reading and Research Strategies

References

Henderson-Brooks, C., & Collison, L. (2016) Reading smarter. Sydney, Australia: Western Sydney

University.

Taylor, A., & Turner, J. (2014). Academic reading: Handbook for students. Learnhigher.

Retrieved November 18, 2016, from

http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/research-skills/reading/academic-

reading-handbook-for-students/

UniStep Guide: Making the transition to university (10th ed.). (2013). Sydney, Australia: Hub for

Academic Literacy and Learning (HALL), Learning and Teaching Unit, Western Sydney

University.

Reading is a fundamental skill that plays a crucial role in personal and academic
success. It enhances comprehension, expands vocabulary, and stimulates critical
thinking. Mastering various reading techniques is essential for efficient studying and
information retention. The four key reading techniques—skimming, scanning, intensive
reading, and extensive reading—can significantly improve your reading skills, helping
you to absorb and analyse information more effectively.

Reading is the cornerstone of all study techniques. Without efficient reading skills,
taking notes, creating mind maps, and retaining information will take much longer than
necessary. It’s, therefore, important for you as a student to focus and improve your
reading skills, as this will benefit you during and beyond your educational journey.

In this article, we’ll discuss why reading is important and explain the 4 reading
techniques that can be used to study more effectively.

How To Apply Reading Skills When Studying.

Effective reading techniques offer numerous benefits to students. These techniques can
enhance your academic performance and overall learning experience. By actively
engaging with the text through methods like annotation, highlighting, and
summarisation, you will be able to improve your comprehension and retain essential
information.

Techniques such as skimming and scanning help manage study time efficiently and
prioritise relevant material. Analytical reading fosters critical thinking skills, enabling
students to evaluate arguments and draw informed conclusions.

Cultivating strong reading skills also translates into effective note-taking and research
proficiency. Furthermore, this allows you to broaden your perspectives as you explore
diverse reading materials. This also encourages lifelong learning and will boost your
confidence in academic and professional settings.

Ultimately, mastering effective reading techniques equips students with valuable skills
that extend far beyond the classroom, leading to academic success and personal
growth.

The 4 Types of Reading Techniques.

There are 4 types of reading techniques that will assist you with your studies and help
improve your information retention, leading to higher grades.

1. Skim Reading
Skim reading, often referred to as skimming, is a rapid reading technique used to gain
an overall impression of the text without delving into every detail. When skimming,
readers glance through the content, paying attention to headings, subheadings,
bolded/italicised text, and any visuals. This technique is particularly useful when:

 Previewing material: it‘s useful to skim through a text before undertaking an in-
depth reading session. This will allow you to understand the main ideas and
structure of the text.
  Determining relevance: as you skim through a section of text, you’ll be able to
determine which information is relevant and potentially important. Therefore,
you’ll understand which areas to focus on and work through thoroughly.
 Refreshing: it can be useful to skim through text and sections before an exam.
This’ll refresh you on the information you have already studied and help you
remember the main points.
Though skimming aids in quickly grasping the gist of a text, it may lead to missing finer
points and nuances. As such, it's not recommended for comprehensive understanding
or when dealing with complex subjects. Rather, it’s seen as the first step when
approaching a topic and studying.

2. Scan Reading
Scan reading or scanning, is another rapid reading technique that focuses on locating
specific information within a text. Unlike skimming, where readers glance over the entire
content, scanning involves a more targeted approach. Readers actively look for
keywords, dates, names, or specific data, effectively ‘scanning’ the text for the required
information. Scanning is useful in various scenarios:

 Finding information: scanning can be used to find a particular piece of

information in an index, table of contents, or glossary.
 Specific data: information sources such as articles or reports can be long and
it’ll, therefore, take a lot of time to locate information if you read through each
article properly. Scanning allows you to quickly find specific data in long pieces of
text.
 Locating answers: during an exam or while completing an assignment,
scanning can help you quickly and easily locate answers hidden within the
provided text.
Scanning helps readers save time and quickly pinpoint relevant information. However, it
may not offer a profound understanding of the context or broader concepts present in
the text.

3.Extensive reading
Extensive Reading According to Bamford et al. (2004), extensive reading is a language teaching tool
where learners are expected to read a considerable amount of text for global Comprehension. The goal
is to derive enjoyment from the texts for educational purposes; comprehensive reading has been
described differently by educators, scholars, and reading specialists. In language instruction, a form or
form of reading is referred to as intensive reading. Thus, extensive reading is used to gain a broad
interpretation of a language.

3. Active and Intensive Reading

Active, or intensive reading, is a comprehensive and engaging reading technique that
encourages readers to actively interact with the text. Instead of passively absorbing
information, active reading involves asking questions, making connections, and taking
notes. This technique is ideal for:

 studying academic material and complex subjects in depth

 enhancing your comprehension and retention of information
 encouraging critical thinking and analysis of the content.
Active reading can be achieved through various strategies, such as annotating the text,
highlighting key points, jotting down questions, or summarising the material in your own
words. By actively participating in the reading process, readers can develop a deeper
understanding and long-lasting knowledge.

4. Analytical Reading
Analytical reading is a reading technique that requires you to analyse the text you are
interacting with. Therefore, this technique goes beyond comprehension and moves
towards evaluating and critiquing the text. Researchers, academics, and those seeking
a thorough understanding of complex concepts often use this approach.

Analytical reading involves:

 Identification: readers should identify the author's arguments, claims, and

supporting evidence.
 Assessment: the text should be assessed to determine the credibility and
reliability of the information presented.
 Recognition: readers should be able to recognise underlying assumptions and
potential biases.
 Comparison: lastly, the text should be compared to other relevant sources to
develop a comprehensive perspective.
Analytical reading is time-consuming but crucial for developing a critical mindset and
forming well-founded opinions. This approach is particularly valuable when dealing with
academic papers, news articles, and persuasive texts. Therefore, this reading technique
is most often used at the university level.

How to Improve Your Reading Skills.

There are a multitude of ways in which you can work towards improving your reading
skills. Some of the most effective ways in which to achieve improvement include the
following.
  Reading regularly: make reading a habit by setting aside dedicated time each
day to read. Choose materials that interest you, whether it's books, articles, or
online resources. The more you read, the more your reading skills will develop.
 Setting goals: set achievable reading goals, such as completing a certain
number of pages or chapters each day or week. Gradually increase the
complexity and length of the texts you read as your skills improve.
 Join a book club: participating in a book club exposes you to different
perspectives and encourages discussions about the material. It can improve your
understanding of texts and boost critical thinking.
 Practising reading techniques: once you have increased your reading speed, it
can be useful to practise these reading techniques. This can even be done with a
book you enjoy, you don't necessarily have to practise with your study material.
Ultimately, the key to improving your reading skills is to make it fun. This will encourage
you to keep practising and make it seem less like a chore.

What Is the Main Purpose of Reading?

The purpose of reading books might differ from one person to another. As much as I
would like to provide you with a clear answer to this question, unfortunately, a lot of
other smarter and better-prepared people before me have tried with no success.

There are several schools of thought when it comes to identifying the one main purpose
of devouring books and other reading material. For some, the importance of
reading and its purpose could be summarized as the process of acquiring information,
gathering general or specialized knowledge, and improving comprehension.

For others, reading is mainly a tool to develop cognitive skills, improve communication
skills, develop better imagination, and enhance levels of empathy. Since reading
comprehension can have a huge impact on a series of aspects of our intellect, from
enhanced vocabulary to gaining a deeper understanding of the world around us, it’s
easy to understand why for so many the most important and relevant purpose for
reading is to be a means to an end for personal growth.

Last but not least, there is no denying the fact that reading is, for many of us, a form of
entertainment, a stress-relief tool, or simply a way to pass the time.

To conclude, reading is a very complex activity, and it comes with enough benefits to
make finding its true purpose virtually impossible. Ultimately, the main purpose for
reading differs from one reader to another and that is perfectly fine.

We all have different perspectives and that is what makes life so beautiful. The purpose
of reading can be whatever you find to be the most important thing you earn every time
you open a book and let yourself be immersed in its pages.
What Are Other Purposes of Reading?

Regardless of the actual purpose for reading you consider as being the most relevant to
you, one thing you need to make sure of is to understand what other purposes of
reading are there. Reading can be done with a lot of intentions, and whether you’re
engaging in active reading or just skimming some written material, there is a different
motivation that can guide you through this activity.

1. Reading for Research

Reading is an important instrument for gathering information on a specific topic,

analyzing and finding gaps in our current knowledge to add new ideas. Reading for
research helps us develop a better understanding of a particular topic, it can aid in our
efforts to connect different ideas from different sources and provides us with an
invaluable tool to synthesize data, comprehend it, and retain it for future use.

2. Reading to Integrate Information

Reading allows us to synthesize and connect ideas from various sources, fostering our
ability to think critically and create a comprehensive understanding of complex topics
that are of interest to us.

This process is crucial not only for actually acquiring information and processing it
through our own filters, but also plays a role in developing our ability for problem-
solving, decision-making, and making well-informed opinions.

3. Reading to Write

Reading is an invaluable tool when it comes to improving writing skills. Putting out ideas
in our own words is sometimes more complicated than it sounds. Through reading, we
get to enrich our vocabulary, which makes finding the right words to use a lot easier.

On top of this, reading forces us to explore diverse writing styles, enables us to discover
new techniques, and teaches us to better structure our writing in a manner that aids the
efficiency of the way we communicate our ideas.

Ultimately, reading will inevitably help you become a better writer.

4. Reading to Learn

Reading is a fundamental tool that aids us in the process of gathering information about
a certain topic or acquiring general knowledge. Nowadays, we can gain information in a
series of other ways, but reading remains the most prevalent and efficient technique.
Whether we learn for academic success or simply to develop our knowledge in certain
topics, reading will help us grow and stay informed in the fields that are of interest to us.

5. Reading to Critique

Especially through active reading, we engage actively with the content we are reading
through. And on top of comprehension and retention, there is one more aspect of
reading that makes it a very internal and personal process.

Reading encourages us to form our own opinions. We can evaluate the ideas we are
presented with by the author, as well as the way these ideas were presented by the
writer.

Through this process of analyzing and critiquing the things we read, we develop our
critical thinking skills, refine or expand our own perspectives, and we get to challenge
ideas or assumptions.

6. Reading to Unwind

There should come as no surprise for any of us that for many, the purpose of reading is
to simply unwind after a long day. Reading is a very efficient stress-relief tool and can
help us relax without the need for any other additional techniques.

Reading pushes us to engage with fictional worlds and characters, allows us to explore
the things that are of interest to us, and gives us a mental break and a way to escape
our daily stressors.

7. Reading for Personal Growth

Whether we want to improve reading comprehension, enhance vocabulary or simply

become better writers, reading is an amazing tool for personal growth.

It can provide us with important information regarding the exact skills we are looking to
improve, or it can facilitate self-reflection and self-improvement through a huge range of
techniques.

Reading allows us to gain a deeper understanding and intriguing insights into other
cultures, exposes us to different philosophies, and helps us become more mindful and
self-aware.

Ultimately, this makes us more empathetic and boosts our emotional intelligence, while
also promoting our self-growth by improving the way we relate to others.

8. Reading for Social Connection

Last but not least, another common reading purpose is as simple as pure social
connection. Reading can provide us with common ground, giving us simply something
to talk about with others.

Meeting like-minded people who enjoy reading the same books we love can allow us to
share opinions, expand on our own ideas, and discuss the experience of reading with
others.

Whether you decide to join a book club or you simply discuss your favorite books with
close friends or family members, reading is definitely an activity that can bring us closer
to others and promotes or even facilitates some pretty satisfying discussions.

SPEAD READING

In an attempt to develop and increase their knowledge, English as foreign language(EFL)

students are required to read learning materials and other reading texts as part of the classroom
tasks. It is not a big surprise that many of them do not know speed-reading techniques, while at
the same time, they have to provide enough time to do dozens of home works. Therefore,
knowing speed-reading techniques is one of the best ways to absorb reading materials quickly
and effectively.
Literature review shows that reading groups of words and a chunk of information are the
tricks you can apply in speed reading. In other words, reading word-by-word is not
recommended at all. It is in line with the University of Maryland & Coles Notes (2010) that the
are seven strategies to increase the reading rate they are; first, make sure you have a good eye
checked, expand eye movement, never reread twice the words in reading materials, stay focus to
the main idea of the text you are reading. A reader who performs speed reading should not read
every word on the page. It emphasizes basic text information then readers will remember and
review the important points later. Indeed, EFL learners can learn how to be speed readers.
However, the speed reading will not run smoothly if there are some inhibiting factors.
According to Konstant (2010), some inhibiting factors affect the speed of reading, including the
difficulty of the text, recognizing the subject, clarity of the purposes, mood and urgency, and
stress level of the readers. Meanwhile, the University of Maryland & Coles Notes (2010)
confirms that the inhibiting factors can reduce the readers’ reading rate. The readers’ eye
movement and span of vision are necessary to become fast readers. Readers should not move
their eyes only slightly to take in much information from a text. Readers are encouraged not to
read each word separately but to read large groups of words simultaneously. It makes it possible
for the readers to increase their peripheral visual abilities.
When readers conduct the speed-reading movement, they will experience two pleasant
scenarios. First, readers can reduce markedly the time they are expected to perform the necessary
reading. Second, readers would be able to read a text the same number of times (Cutler, 2003).
The readers’ eyes will move in a series of quick jumps and still intervals while reading. The
students’ reading speed at the slowest speeds of fixation would be less than 100 words per
minute (wpm).
Furthermore, Beale & Mullan (2008) categorized the reading speed into four main groups,
readers who can read more than 700 wpm are considered excellent readers; readers who can read
300-700 wpm are regarded as the above-average readers; readers who can read between 200-300
wpm are categorized into average readers; readers who can read between 100-200 wpm are
classified into the slow readers.
The word familiarization is also essential to becoming fast readers. When they do not know
words well, readers will waste their time reading a short text. Unlike a slow reader, a fast reader
would have good memory and knowledge of words. Fast readers will combine their regular eye
movements, make larger blocks of words, and perform reading silently. That is why those who
can read faster gain good visualization and memory.

Speed-Reading Technique
In speed reading, readers may read passages that are available both in the printed media and
electronic and learn how they view the words in the text they are reading. By so doing, readers
will experience how their brain processes information. (Macalister, 2010) suggest that the
activities of fluency reading must include a speed-reading course. Meanwhile, Nation
(2009) argues that some factors affect speed reading, including readers’ reading purposes and the
text difficulty level.
According to Sutz (2009), some techniques can improve speed reading. They are; 1)
Prereading: in this stage, readers need to set their reading goals and areas of interest; 2) Widen
the vision span: readers should widen their vision to several words in the text (not a word per
word); 3) Avoid vocalization: reading with vocalization will cause less concentration, focus, and
comprehension the information in a text; 4) Read the main idea: the readers are getting the gist of
what the author’s mean and the main idea; 5) Use the eye swap: to increase the speed reading,
readers need to swap the text with reading line go to the next line using eye swap; 6) Resist
regression: readers no need to reread the previous sentence to ensure that they comprehend or not
the sentences they have been read; 7) Vary the reading rate: in this stage, readers need to know
when to slow down and when to speed up.
To overcome the difficulties in comprehending texts, readers must have the ability to read
250 words per minute (wpm). It is in line with Nation (2009), who states that the goal of second
language learners who are experiencing unknown grammar and vocabulary in a text is around
250 wpm. To be able to perform speed reading, Spargo (1989) purpose the techniques such as; 1)
previewing the main idea - this technique aims to help the reader to be a fast reader; 2) reading
for the meaning - a good reader would read the text and look for meaning; 3) grasping paragraph
sense - a good reader understand how to find out the main ideas of paragraph quickly; 4)
organizing facts - a good reader organize facts and understand how the facts all fit together to
deliver the author’s message.
Abdelrahman & Bsharah (2014) suggest several tips for speed-reading techniques to help
readers improve text comprehension. They are; 1) move the hand slowly straight down the page
as the eyes follow, 2) move the card to be followed by the brain, 3) use the hand to help draw the
eyes across the page, 4) hop-lift fingers and make two bounced on each line to catch sections of
three or four words and then move on 5) take the hand and cut the text in a diagonal motion for
two or the line.

Visual aids help readers’ eyes on the text when readers read a text by performing the
following; 1) Pointing: learners learn to read by moving their fingers along the text. This way is
considered a great reading practice. Moreover, the way learners move their hand, or pen, under
the line of a text in a smooth motion will help them a lot; 2) Downstrokes: moving the hand
slowly on the reading page will assist in drawing the eyes down as reading. The eyes do not have
to follow the hand exactly, but the motion will assist the reader in going faster.
According to Cutler (2003), there are five ways to determine the reading rate in wordsper-
minute (wpm) they are; 1) subtract the starting time from the finishing time; (2) convert whole
minutes into seconds by multiplying by 60; (3) now add to this any extra seconds; (4) divide
total seconds into, for instance, 1,306 (the number of words in this selection). Carry only to the
largest single decimal place. The answer will be something like 2.7, or 3.4, etc. This number is
the words-per-second rate; (5) finally, multiply the words per the second rate by 60 to determine
the words-per-minute rate.
Literature shows that the more readers’ eyes move, the slower the readers are because they
struggle over the printed page. Generally, the slow readers will make more visual stops per line
as there are letters in words on that line. The faster readers may stop only once every two or
three words as they move forward. The fast readers seldom stop more than twice per line. It is
highly recommended that readers reduce their eye movement.

The Benefit of Speed Reading

Speed reading provides many benefits to EFL Learners. For instance, by having
speedreading skills, students like to read more and more because they can inure the materials
they are reading in a short time when performing speed reading. It makes them more like to read
for pleasure. Abdelrahman & Bsharah (2014) confirm that having an appropriate technique of
speed reading made it possible for students to comprehend a text easily and improve their
academic achievement.
A reader will be able to overview texts or other reading materials by performing
speedreading techniques. A reader can do this in several ways to highlight and underline the
important information by skimming the text. According to Beale (2013), in speed-reading
strategies, readers need to figure out how to skim and scan information in a text. It is in line with
Brown (2007), who states that the two most valuable reading strategies for readers are scanning
and skimming. Moreover, Abdelrahman & Bsharah (2014) state that skimming and scanning
strategies can help students enhance their speed in reading.
POOR READING HABITS AND CORRECTING.
Poor reading habits can include skimming without comprehension, reading too fast without
engagement, re-reading sentences repeatedly, lack of focus, only reading for entertainment, and
not actively engaging with the text; to correct these habits, one can implement strategies like
setting reading goals, choosing appropriate materials, actively questioning the text, summarizing
key points, using context clues, practicing focused reading sessions, and incorporating diverse
reading materials to build comprehension and critical thinking skills.
Common Poor Reading Habits:
 Skimming without comprehension: Quickly glancing over text without fully processing
meaning.
 Sub vocalization: Muttering words silently while reading, slowing down pace.
 Finger pointing: Tracing words with a finger, hindering fluency.
 Distracted reading: Reading while multitasking, leading to poor focus.
 Lack of active engagement: Not asking questions, making inferences, or connecting
ideas to prior knowledge.
 Reading only for entertainment: Avoiding challenging texts or focusing solely on light
reading material.
 Poor vocabulary: Lack of understanding of key words and phrases, impacting
comprehension.
Strategies to Correct Reading Habits:
 Set reading goals: Establish specific reading targets, like time spent or pages read per
day, to build consistency.
 Choose appropriate materials: Select texts that are aligned with your interest level and
reading ability.
 Previewing: Scan headings, subheadings, and visuals before reading to get a general
overview.
 Active reading techniques:
o Questioning: Ask yourself questions about the text to stay engaged and focus on
key points.
o Summarizing: Paraphrase main ideas to solidify comprehension.
o Visualizing: Create mental images to enhance understanding and memory.
o Annotating: Highlight important points, write notes in the margins to actively
engage with the text.
 Practice focused reading sessions: Dedicate uninterrupted time to reading to improve
concentration.
 Develop vocabulary skills: Look up unfamiliar words, use context clues to infer
meaning.
 Read diverse genres: Explore different types of texts like fiction, non-fiction, news
articles, and poetry to broaden knowledge.
 Join a book club: Discuss books with others to deepen understanding and critical
thinking.
Important Considerations:
  Individual needs: Identify your specific reading challenges and tailor strategies
accordingly.
 Gradual progress: Don't try to change everything at once, gradually incorporate new
habits.
 Positive reinforcement: Celebrate your reading achievements and stay motivated
PRODUCTIVE SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION.
SPEAKING SKILLS
SEGMENTAL AND SUPRAGMENTAL FEATURES
A. Segmental
Phonemes are the minimal units or one of a small speech sounds or also known as
segments that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language to represent differences
in meaning. Using substitution test, the phoneme status can be proven through the substituting
one segment for another that can produce a different word, for example, the phoneme of /e/
and /ɪ/ in desk and disk. Any pair of words exists that differs in one sound only or distinguished
by just one segment called a minimal pair (Poole, 1999: 57). In English, the segments of
phonemes consist of two aspects namely the consonant phonemes and vowel phonemes. A.1
Consonant
In English, there are 24 consonant phonemes which can be categorised into 6 oral stops
{/p, b, t, d, k, g/}, 3 nasal stops {/m, n, ŋ}, 4 approximants {/l, r, j, w/}, 2 affricates {/tʃ, dʒ/},
and 9 fricatives {/f, v, ð, θ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, m, h/} (Giegerich, 1992: 41).
Comparing the English consonant phonemes with Indonesian consonants phonemes, there
are slight differences. The most differences found in fricatives and affricates. For Indonesian,
they perceived the phonemes /f/ and /v/ as /p/ while /ʃ/, /z/, /ʒ/ as /s/. The latter is both phonemes
are alveo-palatal in Indonesia while in
English the phonemes are palato- alveolar or also labelled as postalveolar (Alip, 2016: 16).
As indicated is believed to have had a relatively simple consonant system. In addition, all
syllables were open in PB, and syllable onsets mostly consisted of a single consonant. The two
possible exceptions t o this are nasal+consonant and consonant+glide.

1. Nasal+Consonant

Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusive, in which air escapes through the nose but
not through the mouth, as it is blocked (occluded) by the lips or tongue.
The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely, nonocclusive consonants
may be nasalized.

Most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds [n] and [m] are among the most
common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few languages such as Burmese,
Welsh, Icelandic and Guaraní. (Compare oral stops, which block off the air completely, and
fricatives, which obstruct the air with a narrow channel. Both stops and fricatives are more
commonly voiceless than voiced, and are known as obstruent’s.)

In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not significantly
restrict the escape of air (as it can freely escape out the nose). However, nasals are also
obstruent’s in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked. This
duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, means that
nasal occlusive behave both like sonorants and like obstruents. For example, nasals tend to
pattern with other sonorants such as [r] and [l], but in many languages, they may develop from or
into stops.

2. Nasal + Voiceless Stop.

The voiceless bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken
languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨m̥⟩, a
combination of the letter for the voiced bilabial nasal and a diacritic indicating voice lessness.
The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is .
m_0
Features of the voiceless bilabial nasal:

• Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow

in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is also nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected
through the nose.
• Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips.
• Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal
cords.
• It is a nasal consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose, either
exclusively (nasal stops) or in addition to through the mouth.
 • Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the central– lateral
dichotomy does not apply.
• The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely
with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.

3. Nasal + Voiceless Fricative.

The voiceless nasal glottal fricative is a type of consonantal sound, a nasal approximant,
used in some oral languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents
this sound is ⟨h̃ ⟩, that is, an h with a tilde.

The h sound is nasalized in several languages, apparently due to a connection between

glottal and nasal sounds called rhinoglottophilia. Examples of languages where the only h-like
sound is nasalized are Krim, Lisu, and Pirahã.

More rarely, a language will contrast oral /h/ and nasal /h̃ /. Two such languages are
neighboring Bantu languages of Angola and
Namibia, Kwangali and Mbukushu. In these languages, vowels following /h̃ / are nasalized,
though nasal vowels do not occur elsewhere. A distinction is also reported from Wolaytta,
though in that case the nasal is rare.

4. Nasal + Voiced Consonant

The voiced velar nasal, also known as agma, from the Greek word for 'fragment', is a type
of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ng in English sing. The
symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ŋ⟩, and the
equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is . The IPA symbol ⟨ŋ⟩ is similar to ⟨ɳ⟩, the symbol for the
N retroflex nasal, which has a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of the right
stem, and to
⟨ɲ⟩, the symbol for the palatal nasal, which has a leftward-pointing hook extending from the
bottom of the left stem. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called 'eng' or
'engma'.

As a phoneme, the velar nasal does not occur in many of the indigenous languages of the
Americas or in many European or Middle Eastern or Caucasian languages, but it is extremely
common in Australian Aboriginal languages and is also common in many languages of Sub-
Saharan Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Polynesia. While almost all languages have /m/
and /n/, /ŋ/ is rarer.

Only half of the 469 languages surveyed in Anderson (2008) had a velar nasal phoneme; as
a further curiosity, a large proportion of them limits its occurrence to the syllable coda. In many
languages that do not have the velar nasal as a phoneme, it occurs as an allophone of /n/ before
velar consonant. An example of it used this way is the English word ingredient, which can be
pronounced as either [ɪnˈɡriːdiənt] or [ɪŋˈɡriːdiənt].

An example of a language that lacks a phonemic or allophonic velar nasal is Russian, in

which /n/ is pronounced as laminal denti-alveolar [n̪ ] even before velar consonants.

A.2 Vowel
The vowel in English, specifically in Received Pronunciation (RP) consists of 12 simple
vowel phonemes and 8 diphthongs (Poole 1999: 60), the same with General American (GA)
(Ladefoged 1993: 31). The quality of the vowel can be distinguished between lax (short) consist
of 6 vowel phonemes and tense (long) consist of 10 phonemes. The lax vowels are {/ɪ, e, æ, ʊ, ʌ,
ɝ/} and the tense vowels are {/i, eɪ, ɑ, ɔ, oʊ, u, ju, aɪ, aʊ, ɔɪ /} (Ladefoged 1993: 87). There is a
vowel known as schwa /ə/, used to designate vowels that have reduced vowel quality or the
vowel is unstressed during the realisation in a connected speech which will be discussed further
in the discussion section. Comparing the number of phonemes and the quality of vowels, it is
difficult for Indonesian to pronounce or speak the English words since in Indonesian; there are
only six vowel phonemes and they do not have tense vowels since it is not phonemic (Alip,
2016: 16).
1. Distributional Constraints on Underlying Vowels
As indicated in S2, Bantu phonology is highly sensitive to morphological considerations.
Meeusen (1967), for example, allows for the following vowels in each of the indicated positions:

PB vowel reconstructions by position

*i¸ *u¸ *i *u *e *o *a
first stem syllable final x x x x x x x stem vowel
elsewhere x x x x x x x
x x x x
As seen, the seven vowels of PB contrast in the first and last syllables of a stem, but not in
prefixes, extensions or stem-internal position, where only four vowels contrast. In a few cases
involving reduplication, the vowel *u ¸ appears in the first two syllables of a verb, e.g. *dud
uhm- ‘rumble, thunder’,
*pu¸p u¸m- ‘boil up, boil over’. The root *táku ¸n- ‘chew’, on the other hand, appears to be
exceptional.

Some languages, particularly 5V ones, have further restricted this distribution by position within
the stem or word. Thus, Punu B.43, which has the underlying system / i, u, E, ç, a/, restricts / E/
and / ç/ to stem-initial syllables only (Kwenzi Mickala 80). In Bobangi C.32 (7V), / u/ may not
occur in prefixes, nor may any of the rounded vowels

/ u, o, ç/ appear later than the second syllable in stems.

2. Vowel Alternations
In addition to underlying constraints on vowel distribution, most Bantu languages severely
restrict the sequencing of vowels, particularly within stems. Thus, while Punu B.43 allows only /
i, u, a/ in post-stem position, / a/ is reduced to schwa in this position, and the expected post-stem
sequences [ ´Ci] and [´Cu] surface instead as [iCi] and [uCu], e.g. the historical suffix
sequences / -am-il-/ (positional-applicative) and / -am-ul - / (positionalreversive tr.) are
realized [imis-] and [-umun-]. In addition, a post-stem / a/ ([ ´]) assimilates to a FV -i, and
both post-stem / a/ and / i/ assimilate to a FV -u (Fontaney 1980). The Punu case demonstrates
two general properties of Bantu vowel systems: (i) There are typically more contrasting
underlying vowels in the stem-initial syllable, and (ii) vowels in this position may be exempt
from reduction and assimilation processes that post-stem vowels undergo.
B. Supra-Segmental
Supra-segmental is the units of linguistic which operate above single sounds (Alip, 2016:
16). The supra-segmental features consist of stress, rhythm, and intonation (Collins and Mees,
2013:128) that will be explained further below.
Similarly, to Kurdish language, “English is the language of stress and syllables, unlike
Mandarin that is tonal” as Gilakjani (2012:121) has described. Each of linking, intonation and
stress may affect macro level of language; each is described below in a brief way.
 Linking is the way that the last syllable of word joins the first syllable of the neighboring
word. Intonation is described as the melody of the language. Word stress is the focused part,
which is the most meaningful part of the sentence.
B.1 Stress
When there is a word in English consists of more than one syllable or known as
polysyllabic, certain syllable will receive a higher degree of prominence or stressed. Stress
syllables are produced with a stronger eruption in initiatory energy and the energy result in
greater loudness (Giegerich, 1992: 179). In addition, stress also phonemic in English that is to
say that different stress will produce different meaning. For example, the word pervert can have
two meanings one is a verb and one is a noun. If pronounced asˈpervert, where the stress is on
the first syllable, it means that the word is noun that has meaning of a person whose behaviour
deviates from what is acceptable especially in sexual behaviour, while if the stress is on the
second syllable, perˈvert, it turns into verb that has meaning of corrupt morally or by
intemperance or sensuality. Thus, it is important to know when to stress certain syllable.

The guidelines on word stress combining the propositions of Collin and Mees (2013: 132)
and Giegerich (1992: 184) are: (1) for words consisting of two or three syllables, the primary
stress is on the first syllable but we have to keep in mind that usually the verbs and adjectives
are in final stress and (2) for words consisting of longer words (four or more syllables), there is
a tendency for the antepenultimate syllable (third from last syllable) to have primary stress.
Stress could be assigned as the base brick of teaching pronunciation. It means the
emphasized syllable of a word during utterance. In the spoken language, stress could be easily
identified; such as volume force, pitch change, syllable length, and body gestures of the
speaker. Stress could show its importance through three different levels:
Lexical level: the stress on the multi-syllabic words could be on one or more syllables.
Sentential level: only the important words are stressed.
Contrastive stress: the words with important positions carry greater stress. As in the sentence
below, the stressed parts or words are capitalized: -THOMson cannot RECEIVE the LETters
from the STUDent.

The content words are usually stressed, due to their importance in communication.
While, grammatical words tend to be unstressed. The words that behave as a chunk is called
sense group (AMEP Research Centre) or tone group (Clennell, 1997:119). Moreover, the
single chunk can be uttered under a single intonation, the change in pitch may affect the tone as
Clennell (1997:123) has explained.
B.2 Rhythm
All speech is said to have rhythm if it is delivered fluently and without interruption
(Giegerich, 1992: 258). English language is considered to be stresstimed language since the
interval between stressed syllables being isochronous or the interval roughly equal in time.
Sentence stress or the stress of word in connected speech is the basis of rhythm (Collin and
Mees 2013: 136). In speech, the stress will usually fall on the syllable of content words or
lexical words that consist of nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs while function
words that consist of articles, auxiliary verbs, verb be, prepositions, pronouns, and
conjunctions left unstressed with few exceptions such as demonstratives and wh words. For
example, in Giegerich (1992: 259), ˈThis is the ˈhouse that ˈJack ˈbuilt comprises seven words
as well as seven syllables where three words are content words while the rest are function
words.
The stress should fall on those three words (house, Jack, and built) but since this is
demonstratives, it should be stressed which makes it has four stressed syllables. Between the
stressed syllables, there is timing unit known as foot. Time unit to pronounce ˈThis is the,
ˈhouse that, ˈJack, and ˈbuilt is roughly equal due to the nature of English as stress-timed
language. Thus, this phrase has four feet; the first consist of three syllables, the second two, and
the last two have one. This guideline is really useful to analyse English that written in traditional
manner (like rhyming couplets and iambic pentameter) poetry later.

B.3 Intonation
Intonation is the pitch movement of speaker’s voice during an utterance. Unlike Mandarin
that considered being tonal language i.e., the different tone will produce different meaning,
English does not use intonation to differentiate meaning but rather to use it as a supra-segmental
feature.
In any utterance, there will be intonation group where certain syllable that has a marked
change in pitch, which highlights that certain syllable or make the syllable prominence by
uttered it longer and louder. That prominence syllable is known as the nucleus intonation and it
is considered to be an essential component of intonation group. The possible tones carried by the
nucleus are fall (⸌), rises (⸌), fall-rise (˅), and rise-fall (^). As a supra-segmental feature,
intonation has four functions namely the focusing, attitudinal, grammatical, and discourse
(Collins and Mess, 2013). Focusing is a speaker who focuses on the most significant information
by mean of the location of the nucleus.
For e x a m p l e , J a m e s adored h i s g o r g e o u s new m o t o r b i k e .
The m o s t significant information here is the new motorbike thus, it uttered longer and louder.
Attitudinal is about a speaker who imposes an attitude on top of the bare semantic content of
what being said. For a fall-rise (˅) tone, it implies doubt, correction, reservation, and appealing
to the listener to consider while for a rise-fall (^) tone, it implies impressed, arrogant, confident,
self-satisfied, mocking, and putting down. Grammatical function is about speaker distinguishing
certain syntactic relationship for example statement vs question like You’re are going to
⸌Malaysia. vs You’re are going to ⸌Malaysia? Discourse is about the organization of
conversation between two or more speakers. The nucleus tone in the discourse can be divided
into two the falling tones that suggest finality and unloading of information and rising tones that
indicate non-finality and information.
Intonation has a crucial role in the speakers’ conversation, which make meanings. There
are three main approaches in intonation. Grammatical approach relates intonation to grammatical
section. Discourse approach emphasizes the intention of the speakers in discourse.
In his work, Clennell (1997:124) explained intonation has five major levels; Rise, Fall,
Rise-Fall, Fall-Rise, and level (neutral). Furthermore, Murphy (2002:133) explained that body
movement may closely affect the intonation and pronunciation, and mentioned that the
movement might affect the rhythm, because focusing on movement could help develop stress
and rhythm awareness.
Changing meaning effectively is the vital role of speaker whether s/he is Native Speaker
(NS) or Non-Native Speaker (NNS). Moreover, speakers with good pronunciation and intonation
might continue discussions (conversations) much easier (Burns, 2003:45). According to Burns,
these speakers could achieve intelligibility, comprehensibility, and interpretability even with low
accuracy of vocabulary and grammar. By contrast, Coniam (2002:36), Gilakjani (2012:121), and
Seferoglu (2005:305) explained segmental level of pronunciation as both vowels and consonants,
with their clusters.
 Features of spoken English.
Conversation is an oral interaction between at least two individuals. The further development of
conversational abilities and manners is a significant piece of socialization. Thus, investigating an
oral discourse is a part of social science which examines the construction and association of
human communication, with a more explicit spotlight on conversational collaboration.

1.The use of fillers

Fillers in speech are words or sounds like "um," "uh," "like," or "you know" that people use to
buy time while thinking of what to say next, often indicating hesitation or uncertainty, essentially
acting as placeholders during conversation while the speaker formulates their thoughts.

Key points about fillers in speech:

 Function:

Fillers give the speaker a brief pause to gather their thoughts and can help smooth out transitions
between ideas in speech.

 Nervousness indicator:

Frequent use of fillers can often be a sign of nervousness or lack of confidence while speaking.

 Perception impact:

While natural in casual conversation, excessive use of fillers can detract from a speaker's
credibility and professionalism.

Examples of common filler words:

um, uh, like, you know, so, kind of, sort of, and ah.

How to reduce filler word usage:

 Practice speaking slowly:

This gives you more time to think and formulate your thoughts before speaking.
  Prepare your speech beforehand:

Thorough preparation can reduce the need for fillers as you are more familiar with your content.

 Be mindful of your speech patterns:

Pay attention to when you use fillers and actively try to replace them with pauses or other verbal
cues.

2. CONTRACTIONS

A contraction is a short form like “I‟m” instead of “I am”. Contractions help to simplify
language and people use them to help simplify their spoken English. Knowing different
examples of contractions and their meanings is crucial because they are used everywhere in
English, especially in conversational or informal language.

Examples:

You’re such a sweetheart!

You should come to the party! It’ll be fun!

She could’ve done it if she really tried.

“If y’all want to learn English, y’all better pay attention! I ain’t joking!”

3. ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis Meaning

What does ellipsis mean or how do we define it? Ellipsis is one of the processes a
sentence passes through to give us a minor sentence. It refers to the process of omitting or
deleting an item or items from a clause or a sentence. Ellipsis has also been described as
the economist of language which enables us to leave out the unnecessary repetition of
words.

Word Omission

Some people refer to ellipsis as word omission. Such omissions (of one or more words
that are obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction
grammatically complete) or deletions are normally implied by the context of situation.

Three Dots
We represent ellipsis using three dots when we omit a text in the beginning, middle, or
end of a sentence or quotation. The three dots are standard and universal. Ellipsis is one
of the punctuation marks.

Having considered the meaning of ellipsis, let us see some examples, types and uses of
ellipsis…

Ellipsis Examples in Sentences.

 The man went out and washed his clothes. (“the man” has been deleted to avoid
tautology)
 Sorry for the inconveniences. (The subject “I am” has been deleted and it is used
for the sake of convenience)
 You can fool all the people some of the time…but you cannot fool all the people
all of the time. (‘You can fool some of the people all of the time’ has been deleted)
 Deliver us from evil…forever and ever, Amen. (‘For thine is the Kingdom, the
power and the glory’ is omitted).
 Twinkle, twinkle little star, how I wonder what you are…like a diamond in the
sky. (‘up above the world so high’ has been omitted)

Types of Ellipsis .
There are quite some types of ellipsis, but let us consider three types; these are Linguistic
Context Ellipsis, Social Context Ellipsis and Situational Ellipsis. Let us see these three
types…

Linguistic Context Ellipsis.

This depends very much on the linguistic context; that is, the deletions are shown by what
went before which you are not interested in repeating. This usually occurs in formal
English and the omitted words in the elliptical sentence are usually the ones that would
appear twice in the full sentence. Let us see some examples:

 The Vice Chancellor has promised not to expel the errant students, so we are sure
he won’t. (‘expel the errant students’ is deleted)
 The Mobile Communication Network has threatened to block all unregistered
mobile lines and from all indications, they will. (‘block all unregistered mobile
lines’ has been deleted)
 We have come this far to recover the personal effects of Mr. Johnson and we must
make sure we do. (‘recover the personal effects of Mr. Johnson’ is deleted)
 He plans to run for the second term in office and as things are, he will. (‘run for
the second term in office’ is deleted)
  Parents should not allow their children to succumb to peer pressure; good parents
will ensure they never allow their children to. (‘succumb to peer pressure’ is
deleted)
 I believe that the president can, and will, win the next election. (Elliptical
sentence)
 I believe that this party can win the next election and will win the next
election. (Full sentence with duplication)
 He was, and remains, the greatest singer of all times. (Elliptical sentence)
 He was the greatest singer of all times, and remains the greatest singer of all
times. (Full sentence with duplication)
Social Context Ellipsis
This is the ellipsis that depends on the social context for instance the speaker’s
convenience. Let us take some examples that are based on familiarity:

 Angry with me? (The speaker deletes “Are you” – Are you angry with me?)
 Coming tonight? (The speaker deletes “Are you” – Are you coming tonight?)
 Got something to eat? (The speaker deletes “Have you” – Have you got something
to eat?)
 Got some cash to spare? (The speaker deletes “Have you” – Have you got some
cash to spare?)
 Have anything doing tonight? (The speaker deletes “Do you” – Do you have
anything doing tonight?)
 Care for some? (The speaker deletes “Do you” – Do you care for some?)
 Mind tagging along? (The speaker deletes “Would you/Do you” – Would you
mind tagging along?)

Situational Ellipsis

Let us consider instances where we make use of Situational Ellipsis.

Subject pronouns.
When we do not need to mention someone or something because it is obvious from the
immediate situation, we use situational ellipsis. Situational ellipsis often means we do not
need to use the subject pronoun I, especially at the beginning of a clause. This is quite
informal:

 (I) Wonder where Daisy is these days?

 Great! [I] Hope you had a trip?
We can also omit a third person pronoun (he, she, it, they) at the beginning of a
clause in informal conversation when it is obvious who or what we are referring to:
  A. I saw John in town. (He) Said he’s relocating to the States next year.
 B. Really?
 A. Yes, sure. (He) Met an American lady and got engaged to her after only a
couple of weeks, apparently.
 There’s something wrong with the car. (It) Started making a funny noise on the
way home.
Subjects and Auxiliary Verbs.
In informal conversation, we can leave out both a subject pronoun such as I or you and
an accompanying auxiliary verb at the beginning of a clause when the meaning is
obvious. This is most common in questions. Consider these examples:

 (Have you) Finished with the novel?

 (I’ve) Lost my slippers again. Have you seen them?
 A. (Do you) Want some biscuits?
 B. Is there any?
 A. Yeah. (I’ve) Just bought some.
Auxiliary Verbs
In questions in informal conversation, with the second person pronoun you, we can leave
out the auxiliary verb only:

 (Have) You finished your assignment yet?

 (Are) You going to the stadium on Saturday?
We can also do the same in informal conversation in questions with third person noun
subjects:

 (Is) Janet coming tonight?

 (Has) Clara bought a new bag yet? She said she was going to.
We do not normally do this with the first person pronoun I:

 Am I making too much noise?

 Not: I making too much noise?
Questions with Question Tags.

In questions in informal conversation, we can leave out a subject pronoun, or a

subject pronoun and an accompanying auxiliary verb, when we use a question tag. See
some examples:

 (He) Gave up smoking, did he? I thought he would.

 (You) Wrote to the principal, did you? Good idea.
  A. He was asked to vacate the house.
 B. Yes. (He) Didn’t like it, did he?
 A. No. He wasn’t at all happy.
 A. Nicky and Catherine surely had a long break from work.
 B. Yeah. (They) Went away for a month, didn’t they?
Articles.
In informal conversation, we can sometimes omit articles (a/an, the) when they are
obvious from the context and when we use them at the beginning of a sentence:

 (The) Cat wants to go out. Can you open the door for it?
 A. What are you looking for?
 B. (A) Pencil. Can you see one anywhere?
 (The) Postman has just been here. There’s a parcel for you.
Fixed Expressions
We often leave out the first word of a fixed expression in informal conversation because
we know the listener will understand the expression:

 I’d love to go with you. (The) Trouble is, I’ve got to work on Saturday this week.
 I can’t read that. I’m (as) blind as a bat without my glasses.
Uses of Ellipsis.
We can use ellipsis in direct speech to show a speaker’s hesitation or that he has left
some things unspoken. For instance: “I don’t know… I’ll try… I can’t promise
anything.” We can also use ellipsis to realise imperative sentences and minor sentences.
See Types of Sentences in English. You can also read on Minor Sentences. Let us
check some examples:

Minor Sentences

 Trump off to London. (President Trump is off to London)

 No plans to sell the building. (There are no plans to sell the building)
 United Bank for Africa… Africa’s Global Bank. (United Bank for Africa towers
high as Africa’s Global Bank)
 Skye Bank…Expanding your world. (At Skye Bank, it is all about expanding your
world)
 Unity Bank…succeeding together. (Succeeding together with you is our goal in
Unity Bank.
 Access Bank…A Passion for excellence. (Access Bank exemplifies A Passion for
excellence)
Imperative Sentences

 Give me some food. (Jane, give me some food)

 Answer two questions. (The examiner requires you to answer two questions)
 Come back soon please. (Honey, come back soon please)
 Step forward please. (Mr. Tom, step forward please)
 Get this over with. (Sir, get this over with)
We also use ellipsis in news writing, formal and informal writings.

Things to Note

 An ellipsis makes up for a missing piece of text, or allows for a pause in writing.
 According to various style guides, an ellipsis is three periods, with a space in
between each [ . . . ]. In general, there is also a space before and after the ellipsis.
Some style manuals prefer three dots with no spaces in between [ … ], and others
still prefer the auto-formatted version of the ellipsis, with less than a full space in
between each dot […]. Although this is less common now.
 Until very recently, the Modern Language Association (MLA) required brackets
before and after ellipses (as seen above); however, the use of such brackets has
declined in recent years. Although brackets are still technically correct, they are
largely deemed unnecessary. See How to Use Ellipsis…
Ellipsis and Substitution
Ellipsis and Substitution are quite similar in some ways as they both afford interlocutors
the opportunity of reducing what they are saying. While ellipsis is simply leaving
something out that is usually obvious, substitution has to do with using words such as do
and so and not instead of a clause. Let us take some examples:

Ellipsis

 A. He could come with us to Lagos.

 B. Yes, he could (come with us to Lagos).

 A. Will you have another bottle of coke?
 B. I’d better not (have another bottle of coke). I’m supposed to be on a diet.
Substitution

 The Manager threatened to sack the Secretary, and he finally did so six months
later. (did so = sacked the Secretary)
 A. Is Maggie coming too?
 B. I hope not. There’s only enough food for three. (not – Maggie isn’t coming)
Summary
A lot of people use ellipsis without necessarily knowing what it really stands for. Many in
an attempt to represent ellipsis use more than three dots. The standard representation of
ellipsis is three dots as we have noted above. Do not forget that. Ellipsis also has to do
with word omission and it is one of the punctuation marks in English.

The term ellipsis means that something is left out, or elided.

More types of types of ellipsis:

 TEXTUAL, He applied and (he) got the job.

 STRUCTURAL, The car (that) he was driving
 SITUATIONAL, where some items are elided because they belong to the immediate
environment. We can elide personal subjects he/she, determiners/a/the, initial
prepositions and initial auxiliary verbs.

Elliptical sentences i.e. sentences in which one or several parts of a sentence are felt as missing.
ES s are considered to be the norm of oral intercourse. The missing parts are easily guessed
because the situation in which the conversation takes place suggests them.

Many elliptical sentences, being widely used in the language, have become set expressions such
as:

Examples:

See you tomorrow

Happy to meet you

Pity you didn't com

Ready? Most proper and others.

However, when elliptical sentences are used in written type of speech they become special
stylistic devices aimed

at making the utterance emphatic.

4. DISCOURSE MARKERS
A discourse marker is a word or phrase we use to organize or comment on or frame our spoken
as well as written speech. Here are some examples of discourse markers: ok, well, now,
basically, apparently, actually, honestly, obviously, otherwise, besides, right, anyway, you know,
you see, I mean, so and many more.

Discourse markers are not only used to mark boundaries between topics and stages in a
conversation or to check the understanding and to keep the listener involved in the conversation,
but also they make the speaker sound more natural in a language. However, learners may find it
difficult to apply discourse markers due to their cultural-specific features. To clarify they may
not be translated easily between languages, and are not used in exactly the same way in different
languages.

Here are some examples for discourse markers which are active in everyday English:

WELL is a widely-used discourse marker in a daily discourse and this expression is mostly used
to display that what we are thinking about that which has been just mentioned or stated above.

Examples:

1. Tell me about your hometown?

My hometown, well, I grew up in a small town in the north part of China…

2. What do you think of my new car?

Well, I‟m certain it‟s much faster than mine.

ACTUALLY is used to refer to a new topic in the talk or to contrast the idea which is being
mentioned or to go into details of the topic.

Examples:

She has been actually really sympathetic.

The theatre itself is actually not that old, but what it's built on is over a century old.

I believe learning a foreign language is getting better in my country. Actually, in the university
where study we have avery stable learning programme.'

I MEAN. During the talk the speaker may rephrase some part of his speech depending on the
perception of the listener. I mean is used to make what we say clearer for the listener. We can
use words and phrases such as well, I mean, in other words, the thing is, what I mean is, etc.
Examples:

Ted seems kind of lazy. I mean, he never offers to help and he just lies in front of the TV.My
father was a heavy drinker, I mean, he used to drink a quart of scotch a day.

4. WIDE USAGE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

English figures of speech such as idioms and different expressions are of great importance in
daily English. They exist in everyday oral as well as written speech of English. Since phrases do
not bode well in a real sense, we have to be aware of their importance and use. That may appear
to be a ton of work, however learning phrases is fun, particularly when you contrast English
sayings with the figures of speech in your own language.

According to M. Mc.Carthy and F. O‟Dell, everyday spoken language is full of fixed

expressions that are not necessarily difficult to understand (their meaning may be quite
„transparent‟) but which have a fixed form which does not change. These have to be learnt as
whole expressions. These expressions are often hard to find in dictionaries.

The authors mention about some common expressions that can modify our speech in daily use.

Examples:

 As I was saying (takes the conversation back to an earlier point)

 As I say (repeats and confirms something that someone has already said)
 Talking of … [Noun/Gerund] (starting a new topic but linking it to the present one)
 If you ask me (if you want to know my opinion, even if no one has asked for it)
 Come to think of it (something in the conversation makes you realise there may be a
problem/query about something)

In everyday discourse demonstrative pronouns like this and that are used a lot and in various
contexts with different meanings. For example:

They talked about this and that. (different problems of little importance)

 This is it. [this is a significant point)

 That‟s it. (I‟ve finished, that‟s all.)
 Well, that‟s that, then. (settled, agreed)

6. VAGUE LANGUAGE

Language that is not clear, precise and therefore allows speakers not to sound too definite.
„Loads of‟,
„that sort of thing‟ , „stuff‟ and „whatsit‟ are all examples of vague language.

Vague language consists of vague nouns (thing, stuff, thingy, what-do-you-call-it), vague
markers (or so, or something, or anything) and vague quantities (number +odd, number + ish,
around, approximately, expressions such as bags of, a touch of, thousands, millions...)2

Examples:

Where are all the knives and forks and that kind of thing?

I need to buy cards and wrapping paper and stuff like that.

7. QUESTIONS

Another characteristic feature of the oral type of speech is the use of questions in the form of a
statement:

Examples:

You are going to kampala?

You have been to school?

You go to the institute?

The question is understood as such only by the intonation which in its turn is implied by the
question mark.

Echo questions have a declarative word order + wh-word. They may also consist in a determiner
+ what.

Examples:

That looks like a dinosaur/left over. Like a what?

You have to go to Philippines? Have to go where?

Two-step questions

One question may preface another question, which is perceived as too personal or too direct.

Examples:
I wondered if I might ask you something.

Sure.

Would you....?

Question tags. In informal speech, question tags may be used in requests. They are typically
found at the end of the clause but they can interrupt the clause in informal speech. At times, fixed
tags like right, okay, yeah, don't you think? are used.

Examples:

You couldn't carry this for me, could you?

Don't tell anybody about this, yeah?

8. RESPONSE TOKENS

The term response token refers to adjectives (fine, good, great, excellent) and adverbs (certainly,
indeed,really) which provide positive feedback and may mark boundaries in the conversation.
They often co-occur with other markers, such as thanks, checks, confirmations and greetings (in
adjacency pairs).

Example:

A: Mm. Obviously it‟s not easy to eat er little and often when you‟re a busy man

driving around the country. (Initiation)

B: Yeah that‟s true. (Response)

A: Mm. Right. (Follow-up)

As it has been mentioned the spoken language is far more emotional than the written.

References:

1. Michael Mc.Carthy and Felicity O‟Dell. English Vocabulary in Use. Upper-intermediate and
advanced.Cambridge University Press. 1999

2. N. M. Kambarov. Lectures on stylistics and text interpretation. Tashkent. 2013

3. https://www.tesionline.it/appunti/insights-into-english-discourse/features-of-everyday-
conversation/859/20

What is intonation?
Intonation and stress are closely linked. In fact it's impossible to dissociate them. They
go hand in hand. Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say, the
way the voice rises and falls when speaking, in other words the music of the language.
Just as words have stressed syllables, sentences have regular patterns of stressed
words. In addition, the voice tends to rise, fall or remain flat depending on the meaning
or feeling we want to convey (surprise, anger, interest, boredom, gratitude, etc.).

Intonation therefore indicates the mood of the speaker. There are two basic patterns of
intonation in English: falling intonation and rising intonation. In the following examples a
downward arrow (➘) indicates a fall in intonation and an upward arrow (➚) indicates a
rise in intonation. Again, these are not rules but patterns generally used by native
speakers of English. Just remember that content words are stressed, and intonation
adds attitude or emotion. This explanation on intonation is intended to serve as a
general guide to help learners.

It should in no way make them unnecessarily anxious! It should be remembered that a

written explanation can never be a substitute for a 'live' conversation with a native
speaker. Attitudinal intonation is something that is best acquired through talking and
listening to English speakers.

Falling Intonation (➘)

(The pitch of the voice falls at the end of the sentence.)

Falling intonation is the most common intonation pattern in English. It is commonly

found in statements, commands, wh-questions (information questions), confirmatory
question tags and exclamations.

 Nice to meet ↘you.

 Statements

 I’ll be back in a ↘minute.

 She doesn’t live here ↘anymore.
 Dad wants to change his ↘car.
 Here is the weather ↘forecast.
 Cloudy weather is expected at the end of the ↘week.
 We should work together more ↘often
 I'm going for a walk in the ↘park.

 Write your name ↘here.

 Commands

 Show me what you’ve ↘written.

 Leave it on the ↘desk.
Take that picture ↘ down.


Throw that ↘out.



Put your books on the ↘table.



Take your hands out of your ↘pockets.



 Wh- questions (requesting information.)

(questions beginning with 'who', 'what', 'why', 'where', 'when', 'which', and
'how')

What country do you come ↘from?

Where do you ↘work?


Which of them do you ↘prefer?



When does the shop ↘open?



How many books have you ↘bought?



Which coat is ↘yours?



Whose bag is ↘this?



 Questions Tags that are statements requesting confirmation rather than
questions

Not all tag questions are really questions. Some of them merely ask for
confirmation or invite agreement, in which case we use a falling tone at
the end.

He thinks he’s so clever, doesn’t ↘he?

She's such a nuisance, isn't ↘she?


I failed the test because I didn't revise, did ↘ I?



It doesn't seem to bother him much, does ↘ it?




 How nice of ↘ you!

 Exclamations

 That's just what I ↘need!

 You don't ↘ say!
 What a beautiful ↘ voice!
 That's a ↘surprise!
Contracting clauses in structure of sentences
She was beautiful but she was lazy.But in the sentence ought be raised.

Rising Intonation (➚)

(The pitch of the voice rises at the end of a sentence.)

Rising intonation invites the speaker to continue talking. It is normally used with yes/no
questions, and question tags that are real questions.

 Yes/no Questions
 (Questions that can be answered by 'yes' or 'no'.)

 Do you like your new ➚teacher?

 Have you finished ➚already?
 May I borrow your ➚dictionary?
 Do you have any ➚magazines?
 Do you sell ➚stamps?
 Questions tags that show uncertainty and require an answer (real questions).
 We've met already, ➚haven't we?
 You like fish, ➚don't you?
 You're a new student ➚aren't you?
 The view is beautiful, ➚isn't it?

We sometimes use a combination of rising and falling intonation in the same sentence.
The combination is called Rise-Fall or Fall-Rise intonation.

Rise-Fall Intonation (➚➘)

(The intonation rises and then falls.)

We use rise-fall intonation for choices, lists, unfinished thoughts and conditional
sentences.

 Choices (alternative questions.)

 Are you having ➚soup or ➘salad?
 Is John leaving on ➚Thursday or ➘Friday?
 Does he speak ➚German or ➘French?
 Is your name ➚Ava or ➘Eva?
 Lists (rising, rising, rising, falling)

Intonation falls on the last item to show that the list is finished.

 We've got ➚apples, pears, bananas and ➘oranges.

 The sweater comes in ➚blue, white pink and ➘black.
 I like ➚football, tennis, basketball and ➘volleyball.
 I bought ➚a tee-shirt, a skirt and a ➘handbag.
 Unfinished thoughts (partial statements)

In the responses to the following questions, the rise-fall intonation

indicates reservation.

The speaker hesitates to fully express his/her thoughts.

 Do you like my new handbag? Well the ➚leather is ➘nice... ( but I don't
like it.)
  What was the meal like? Hmm, the ➚fish was ➘good... (but the rest
wasn't great).
 So you both live in Los Angeles? Well ➚Alex ➘does ... (but I don't).
 Conditional sentences

(The tone rises in the first clause and falls gradually in the second clause.)

 If he ➚calls, ask him to leave a ➘message.

 Unless he ➚insists, I'm not going to ➘go.
 If you have any ➚problems, just ➘contact us.

Fall-Rise Intonation (➘➚)

(The voice falls and rises usually within one word.)

The main function of fall-rise intonation is to show that the speaker is not certain of the
answer they are giving to a question, or is reluctant to reply (as opposed to a falling tone
used when there is no hesitation). It is also used in polite requests or suggestions.

 Hesitation/reluctance:
 So you'd be willing to confirm that? ...Well ... I ➘sup➚pose so ...
 You didn't see him on Monday? I don't quite ➘re➚member ...
 Politeness-Doubt-Uncertainty: (You are not sure what the answer might be.)
 Perhaps we could ➘vis➚it the place?
 Should we ➘cop➚y the list?
 Do you think it's ➘al➚lowed?

Tips for learners:

A good exercise to improve pronunciation would be to listen to short recordings of

everyday dialogues and then 'shadow read' the script, or read it along with the tape
using the same stress and intonation as the speaker. Students can repeat this exercise
until their voice sounds similar to the voice on the recording.

It is also a good idea to note down or record some examples of everyday conversations
(either from real life or from film or television dialogues) and repeat them as often as
possible, copying the stress and intonation of the speakers.

Modern English songs are also a useful way of learning English stress, rhythm and
intonation. To begin with, try singing (or saying loudly) the lyrics ofsongs that you find
easy to understand.

You will be surprised how quickly your pronunciation will improve with the help of audio
materials. It will be a reward for all your hard work

STRESSED AND UN STRESSED SYLLABLE

A syllable is a single unit of speech, either a whole word or one of the parts into
which a word can be separated, usually containing a vowel.

Some words are used as verbs and nouns.To determine whether a aparticular word is
used as a noun or verb, one has to identity how many syllables that particular word
contains.When to stress which syllable(s),will depend on the context in which the word
has been used.For example,in a sentence, ‘She “produced”a baby girl,the word
“produce” is used as a verb.This word has two syllables ie pro-duce.The stress is
placed at the first syllable.When used as a noun,like in a sentence;He trades in
“produce”(noun),the stress is placed at the second syllable.Other related words
include:influence,support,progress,transport,record,telephone,object,offer,photograph,s
ubject,increase,research,reject,project,control etc.There are other words used as nouns
and verbs but retain single unit of sound. Usually such words are monosyllabic eg
type,train,voice,cost,tour,touch,value,visit,cook,copy etc.