Mangroves

Coastal Ecosystems Series (Volume 2)

Sriyanie Miththapala

Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN

iv
 Mangroves
Coastal Ecosystems Series (Volume 2)
Sriyanie Miththapala

Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN

i
This document was produced by the nancial support of the German Federal Ministry for the Envi-
ronment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) through a grant made to IUCN. The views
expressed in this publication do not necessarily reect those of IUCN or BMU.

The designation of geographical entities in this report, and the presentation of the material, do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of
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boundaries.

Published by: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Groups Asia, IUCN

Copyright: © 2008 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

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the source is fully acknowledged.

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prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Miththapala, S. (2008) Mangroves. Coastal Ecosystems Series Volume 2

pp 1-28 + iii, Colombo, Sri Lanka: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia,
IUCN.

ISBN: 978-955-8177-72-3

Cover Photo: Mangrove replanting, Eththale, Sri Lanka © Sanjeewa Lelwala

Design: Sriyanie Miththapala

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IUCN, Colombo.

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ii
Contents

What are mangroves? 1

Where are mangroves found in the world? 6

What is the importance of mangroves? 6

What are the threats to mangroves? 12

At a glance: services provided by and threats to mangroves. 16

What is being done to conserve mangroves? 20

Acknowledgements 25

References 26

Photocredits 28

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iv
What are mangroves?

A mangrove is a woody plant or plant community which lives between the sea and the
land, in areas which are ooded by tides for part of the time. Mangroves make up one
of the world’s most unique ecosystems because they thrive where no other trees can
survive – in the transition zone between the ocean and land. They are also among the
world’s most productive ecosystems.

• The term mangrove is used to mean both plants and the habitat in which these
plants are found.
• The word ‘mangrove’ is thought to be a combination of the Portuguese word
‘mangue’ and the English word ‘grove.’
• In French the word is ‘manglier’, in Spanish, ‘manglar’ and in Suriname, ‘mangro.’
• All these words are thought to be derived from the Malaysian word ‘manggi-manggi’
meaning ‘above the soil.’ (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001)

Because mangroves are found in this transition zone – where the tide rises and falls daily,
where salinity changes with this rise and fall of the tide and where the content of oxygen
in the soil is low – both the ora and fauna of this ecosystem have developed very distinct
adaptations.

Adaptations for coping with daily changes in tides

When the tides shift daily, a) the

substrate on which plants grow
is not stable and b) the salinity
changes. Mangroves plants have
developed stilt roots for support.
These roots do not penetrate
deep into the soil but extend
sideways providing support to
the stem. A particular mangrove
species in Ecuador grows up
to about 60m but is supported
in unstable soil by such roots
(Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001).

1
 Sessile1 fauna adapt to this move-
ment of tides by anchoring them-
selves against the tide (e.g., mussels
and barnacles) and mobile fauna, by
hiding from or avoiding the tide (bur-
rowing in the mud or climbing up and
down tree trunks as many species
of crab do). Mudskippers are well
adapted to varying tide levels and
can cope with complete exposure to
the air to complete submersion. This
sh is able to survive out of water
because its gills are housed within
an enlarged cavity which contains
both water and air. The tissue within
the cavity can absorb oxygen from
the air as long as it remains moist,
so it functions like a kind of lung.

Mangrove plants cope with changes

in salinity (high salt content, lack
of fresh water) by evolving both
xeromorphic2 and halophytic3
characteristics. They have leathery,
wax-like leaves that reduce water
loss from the plants and/or stomata4
that are positioned in such a way as
to reduce evaporation (Kathiresan
& Bingham, 2001).

1
Sessile species are species that do not move from
one place to another.
2
Xeromorphic characters are adaptations that en-
able plants to conserve water.
3
Halophytes are plants that show adaptations for
living under high salt conditions, such as plants that
live near the sea shore.
4
Stomata are breathing pores found on leaf surfaces.

2
They avoid heavy salt loads
in their tissues by excluding salt
(through a process of ultraltration
by plant roots) in some species.
Others take up salts but excrete
them through specialised salt
glands. Still others dilute salt by
holding extra water in eshy leaves
(Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001).

Faunal species also have many

adaptations for dealing with
high salt concentrations in the
environment. In the crab species
Ucides cordatus and Carcinus
maenas, less sodium is absorbed
when the crab is immersed in sea
water and more abosorbed when
the salinity drops (Harris et al.,
1993 in Kathiresan & Bingham,
2001). Mangrove lizards have
a nasal gland that secretes salt
into the nasal cavity from which it
is sneezed out; crocodiles use a
number of salt glands located on
the tongue and sea turtles have
salt glands that are modied into
tear glands in their eyes; many
other examples are found among
reptiles such as sea snakes
(Hutchings & Saenger, 1987).
Other animals (such as sh) can
adjust the salt concentration of their
body depending on the salinity of
the water around them.

3
 Adaptations for coping with low oxygen content

Very often, mangrove soils are oxygen decient or without

oxygen (i.e., they are anaerobic). Therefore, both the
ora and fauna of mangroves have special adaptations
to counter this deciency. The most prominent of these
characteristics in ora is the presence of breathing roots
or pneumatophores which are above-ground (aerial) roots
that are lled with spongy tissue and have numerous small
holes in the bark, which allow oxygen to be transferred to
the root system below the ground.

There are four types of breathing roots: a) stilt or stilt

type with breathing pores as seen in Rhizophora, b)
pencil or peg type as seen in Avicennia and Sonneratia,
c) knee type (growing upwards and then immediately
downwards) as seen in Bruguiera and d) ribbon or plank
type (curving in a snake-like fashion so that wavy, plank-
like structures extend outwards from the trunk base) as
seen in Xylocarpus granatum.

These roots also have special tissues containing air

spaces between them called aerenchyma tissue. This
allows for more gas exchange (http://cropsoil.psu.edu/
sylvia/glossary.htm).

It was originally thought that the way mangroves

reproduced was an adaptation to low oxygen content
and/or drowning. Plant embryos need adequate oxygen
to grow; because there is not enough oxygen in the soil
and it is waterlogged, fertilised seeds do not drop from
the tree but develop directly into seedlings while still on
the parent tree. This is called vivipary. Once they have
germinated, these seedlings grow to form a propagule
that can disperse. Once these propagules fall into the
water, they oat until they reach a place where they can
root and grow successfully (Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001).
However, currently, this hypothesis is being challenged
(Shi et al. 2005).
4
Types of mangroves

There are different kinds of mangroves. The following

is extracted from Ludo and Snedaker (1974) but only
describes some types.

Riverine mangroves, as their name implies, occur along

rivers and streams and are ooded daily by the tides.
Riverine mangroves are found in Kuraburi and Kapoe,
Ranong, Thailand.

Fringe mangroves are found along protected

coastlines, islands and the exposed waters of bays
and lagoons. They are ooded periodically by tides.
Fringe mangroves are found in Honda Bay, Palawan,
Philippines.

Basin forests are located inland in depressions that

channel runoff from inland to the coast. They are ooded
irregularly. Basin mangroves are found in Maduganga,
Galle, Sri Lanka.

Mangrove Zonation

Each type of mangrove has not only a different composition

of species but also a difference in the proportions of trees
and shrubs etc.

Within a mangrove, different species are not distributed

evenly. There is a distinct zonation of species within a
mangrove. This zonation is dictated by the height of the
tide, height of land and salinity at a given level, as well
as biological factors such as the ability to outcompete
another species. Rhizophora and Xylocarpus have high
tolerance to both salt and ooding, so they are found close
to the shoreline where conditions are harsh. Bruguiera
and Sonneratia - which are less salt tolerant - are found
more inland.
5
Where are mangroves found in the world?

Mangroves are found between the latitudes of 32ºN and 38ºS of the globe and also in
the mouths of estuaries and in intertidal areas. Approximately 1/4th of the world’s tropical
coastline comprise mangrove ecosystems which are estimated to extend along an area of
between 167,000 and 181,000km2, in 112 countries (Spalding et al., 1997; Kathiresan &
Bingham, 2001). Forty percent of mangroves occur in South and Southeast Asia regions
(Spalding, 1997) and the single largest area of mangroves in the world lies in Bangladesh,
in the Sunderbans, extending over 600,000ha (Bandaranayake, 1998).

Groombridge and Jenkins (2002)

What is the importance of mangroves?

Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world and provide humans
with many services.

Provisioning services:

The ora of the mangroves provides many goods to humans.

6
 • All over the world, the timber of mangrove ora is used to build and make houses, furniture,
rafters, fences and boats. About 300,000m3 of mangrove wood is extracted annually from the
Sunderbans.
• Mangrove wood is also used as fuelwood and still provides 90% of the fuel used in Viet Nam.
• The leaves of species such as the Mangrove Palm (Nypa) and Screw Pine (Pandanus) are
used for thatching and weaving. Because it is light, the wood of Cerbera manghas is used in
Sri Lanka to carve masks and puppets.
• The breathing roots of various Sonneratia spp – with their aerenchyma tissue – are used to
make corks and sh oats.
• Because of their salt glands, mangrove plants are a source of sodium and the ash of some
species such as Avicennia is used as soap.
• The bark of many species produces gums and tannins, which are still used in the Indian
subcontinent for curing leather and sh nets.
• In the Bangladesh and India, honey from mangroves is an important local industry, producing
20 tonnes of honey every year from 200,000ha of mangroves.
• Mangrove leaves, fruits, shoots and roots serve as vegetables and edible fruits in many parts
of the region and other non-timber forest products such as sugars and drinks are extracted
from different species such as Sonneratia.
• About 70 different mangrove plants are listed as having traditional medicinal uses for treatment of
various ailments and diseases. (All sources above: Bandaranayake, 1998.) A study in Indonesia
estimated that mangroves provide a potential net benet of 1,500 per km2 for medicinal plants
(Ruitenbeek, 1992). For example, Bruguiera, Rhizophora, Lumnitzera are used for various
ailments such as diarrhoea, blood pressure and angina (Upadhyay et al., 2002).
• In parts of Indonesia, traditional use of mangrove products contributes up to a half of the
income for the poorest households, and in southern Thailand, is thought to generate products
worth almost a quarter of per capita GDP among coastal villages (Ruitenbeek, 1992;
Sathirathai, 1998).

Mangrove fauna are as important. While mangroves are permanent or temporary habitats
for many aquatic animals, they are also hatcheries and nurseries for many marine sh.
Juveniles remain in the mangrove habitat until they are less vulnerable to predators and
then move into the open seas. In addition, the oor of mangroves holds crustaceans and
molluscs, many of which are commercially important.

• It is estimated that up to 80% of global sh catches are directly or indirectly dependant on
mangroves (Sullivan, 2005).
• Annual commercial sh harvests from mangroves have been valued at 6,200 USD per km2
in the United States to 60,000 USD per km2 in Indonesia (Bann, 1997).
• The annual market value of seafood from mangroves is estimated at 7,500-167,500 USD
per km2 (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

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8
Regulating services:

Mangroves protect the shoreline.

Mangrove plants, which are adapted uniquely to regular movement of tides (i.e., to
withstand the force of the tides) are, therefore, also able to withstand stronger forces
of waves and wind energy that occur with extreme weather events. Depending on their
ecological condition, they absorb at least 70-90% of the energy of the waves, acting as
physical buffers between the elements and the shore (UNEP-WCMC, 2006). It has been
estimated that a 1.5km belt of mangrove plants may be able to reduce entirely the force
from a wave that is one metre high (Mazda et al., 1997). Mangroves provide physical
protection from storm surges, cyclones and other such extreme weather events (UNEP-
WCMC, 2006). Traditionally, shermen have used mangrove areas for anchoring boats
during monsoons.

The role that mangroves played in protecting communities during the December 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami has been argued hotly and has led to a great deal of controversy. This is
because the protective function of a mangrove to a community can only be measured given that
all other factors – wind speed and direction, wave energy, height and direction, the geography
of the shoreline etc. – remain equal. A study carried out in the tsunami affected districts of Sri
Lanka shows clearly that mangroves did play an important role in storm protection, but that
this protection depended on the quality of the mangrove habitat. Degraded habitats or habitats
with mangrove associate species instead of true mangrove species did not provide adequate
protection (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005).

Mangroves serve to reduce the effects of ooding.

Mangrove roots and organic matter in mangroves function to trap sediment, and also act
like a sponge to absorb ood water.

Mangroves trap pollutants.

Mangrove roots also function as lters to sift out pollutants that reach the sea from inland
waters. Therefore, they help improve the quality of water reaching ecosystems in the sea,
in particular, sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs.

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Supporting services:

Mangroves are important in carbon sequestration..

Carbon sequestration is the process through which plant life removes carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the atmosphere and stores it as biomass. Plants and oceans are, therefore,
called carbon sinks. It is estimated that mangroves sequester large amounts of carbon,
approximately 25.5 million tonnes of carbon every year (Ong, 1993) and also that
mangroves provide more than 10% of essential dissolved organic carbon that is supplied
to the global oceans from land (Dittmar et al., 2006).

Mangroves promote land accretion.5

Because of their extensive and tangled supporting root systems, mangroves trap sediments
and prevent them from washing into the sea. They function much like a living groyne to
build up sediment, stabilising the ground and xing mud banks (Broom et al., 1981).
Therefore, they prevent erosion. They also protect coral reefs from sedimentation.

Mangroves support the sustainance of coastal biodiversity.

Mangroves are diverse ecosystems that support unique wetland communities of plants
and animals.

The Maduganga mangrove in south western Sri Lanka has 303 species of plants and 248
vertebrate species (70 sh, 12 amphibians, 31 reptiles, 124 birds, 24 mammals) as well as
nesting and roosting sites of water birds, crocodiles and bats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2002).

Mangroves are primary producers.

Like all green plants, mangroves manufacture their own food (organic material) from
inorganic materials such as sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. This basic service that is
provided by this ecosystem contributes to supporting life on earth.

Mangroves enrich nutrients in coastal waters.

Decaying organic matter from mangroves is broken down into free nutrients that are
washed away to the sea. This serves to enirch coastal food webs, and with it, coastal
shery production.

5
Accretion is the slow addition to land by the deposition of sediment carried in water.

10
Cultural services:

Mangroves provide aesthetic services

In recent decades, visitors to mangroves have increased, as they learn to appreciate the
value and uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems.

Mangroves sustain traditional shing practices.

Brush pile sheries (traditional shing methods in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) and other
traditional sheries in South Asia are being sustained because of mangroves.

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What are the threats to mangroves?

Although the Indian Ocean has the largest mangrove tracts in the world and the
Indo-Malayan region is the global centre for mangrove diversity, this is also the area in
which the rate of loss of mangroves have been the highest in the last ten years. Less than
half the original extent of mangroves remain in the world today and half of the remaining
habitats are degraded. Globally, the rate of mangrove deforestation is between 2-8%
per year. As a result, mangroves are among the world’s rarest and most threatened
ecosystems. (Globally, coral reefs cover nearly twice the area of mangroves, and tropical
and subtropical forests more than 125 times as much.) (EJF, 2005).

Extent of mangroves remaining,

compared to coral reefs and tropical rainforests

M angroves

C oral R eefs

T ropical
Rainforests

Source: Valiela et al., (2001)

There are many threats to mangroves, as detailed below.

Overexploitation of mangrove products:

It is estimated that 26% of mangrove habitats are degraded because of over-exploitation

for fuelwood and timber production (Valiela et al., 2001).

Tannins, extracted from several mangrove species (such as Rhizophora), are used in the
leather industry in many countries in Asia. It is reported that over-harvesting of wood for
tannins, as well as for charcoal production, is destroying mangrove habitats in Viet Nam
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0782e/v0782e06.htm).

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Habitat destruction:

a) Shrimp farming and aquaculture:

According to a recent study, shrimp culture is the greatest threat to mangroves, contributing
to 38% of mangrove habitat loss, with other aquaculture accounting for another 14%
(EJF, 2005). Once mangroves are cleared, the coast is made vulnerable to erosion and
coral reefs and seagrass beds become vulnerable to sedimentation. In order to grow
as much shrimp as possible, shrimp farmers add articial feeds with chemical additives
(including chlorine) and insecticides (such as malathion and parathion - which persist in
the environment) as well as antibiotics to prevent disease. This chemical soup is often
dumped into surrounding land or waterways, harming aquatic life, as well as people, who
depend on these waterways. In addition, land that is adapted to the ebb and ow of the tide
is now ooded permanently, and this damages the soil. Often, in about ve years, shrimp
farms are abandoned as they are no longer viable (http://oceans.greenpeace.org).

• Worldwide, shrimp farming has grown at an annual average of over 18% since 1970 (EJF,
2005).
• Shrimps are a valuable, internationally traded seafood product, valued at an estimated 50-60
billion USD (EJF, 2005).

b) Coastal development and land reclamation:

Coastal development, conversion to agriculture and land reclamation remain major causes
of mangrove destruction. Historically, mangroves and wetlands have been considered
wastelands which needed draining, lling and development (Conde & Alarcón, 1993).

In India, in the last three decades, 40% of mangrove habitats on the western coast have been
converted to agriculture and for urban development (Upadhyay et al., 2002).

Habitat degradation: diversion of inland freshwater

Mangroves are affected seriously by inland freshwater diversion schemes: it is estimated that
11% of mangrove habitats are degraded globally by inland water extraction (EJF, 2005).

The Indus river, which ows through Pakistan, supports some 129,000ha of mangrove forests.
Over the last 60 years, a series of dams, barrages and irrigations schemes have been built in
upstream parts of the Indus river. As a result, only 15% of Indus river mangroves are considered
healthy and the rate of degradation of mangrove forests in the Indus Delta has been estimated
at 6% between 1980 and 1995 (Stedman-Edwards, 2000).

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Pollution

Inland farming, housing and development result in chemical and sewage pollution, which
can over-fertilise coastal waters, causing the growth of ‘tides’ of algae which rapidly
reduce productivity by blocking sunlight from reaching below water surfaces. These algal
tides can also turn toxic.

A toxic algal tide was observed in the South China coast, destroying sh farms and causing
food poisoning (Farnsworth & Elison, 1997). These algal outbreaks have also caused mass
deaths of sea mammals – for example, 100 critically endangered Mediterranean monk
seals (Monachus monachus) died on the Mauritian coast in 1997 as a result of algal tides
(Spalding, 1998).

Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

IAS do not remain conned to the area into which they were introduced; they become
established in natural ecosystems and threaten native species. IAS pose a threat to the
provisioning services of mangrove species.

Common cordgrass (Spartina anglica) introduced intentionally in 1960 and 1980 to protect tidal
banks in coastal China is now causing the death of mangroves - which have died through
competition with Common cordgrass (Xia et al, 2006).

Climate Change

Changes in precipitation as a result of climate change will retard growth, productivity

and seedling survival in mangroves. Decreased precipitation and increased salinity could
favour more salt-tolerant species and change species composition, affecting mangrove
provisioning services. Increased natural disasters will increase physical damage
to mangroves. Sea level rise will result in the loss of land occupied by mangroves.
Changing wave climates increase coastal erosion and damage mangrove habitats. Salt
water intrusion will also alter the salinity regime in mangroves, changing the species
composition. Climate change, in short, will have serious impacts on mangroves, affecting
their provisioning, supporting and regulatory services.

In 1997, Typhoon Linda destroyed both large natural mangrove trees and plantations of
Rhizophora trees in southern Viet Nam (AIMS, 1999).

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15
At a glance: services provided by, and threats to mangroves
(References as in text.)

Mangrove Services Description Threats

Provisioning (Goods )

Food (nsh, shellsh, Mangroves are permanent or Over-exploitation (shrimp and

vegetables and other temporary habitats for many other aquaculture, unsustainable
plant parts) aquatic animals and are also shing practices, over-
hatching and nursery grounds harvesting); coastal development
for many marine sh. It is and land reclamation; and inland
estimated that up to 80% of freshwater extraction.
global sh catches are directly
or indirectly dependant on
mangroves.

Timber and fuelwood All over the world, the timber of Over-exploitation (shrimp and
mangrove ora is used to build other aquaculture, unsustainable
houses, make furniture, rafters, shing practices, over-
fences, bridges, poles and harvesting); coastal development
boats. and land reclamation; and inland
freshwater extraction.
Mangrove wood is also used as
fuelwood and still provides 90%
of the fuel used in Viet Nam.

Medicines About 70 different mangrove Over-exploitation (shrimp and

ora are listed as having other aquaculture, unsustainable
traditional medicinal uses for shing practices, over-
treatment of various ailments harvesting); coastal development
and diseases. In parts of and land reclamation; and inland
Indonesia, traditional use of freshwater extraction.
mangrove products contributes
up to a half of income among
the poorest households, and in
southern Thailand is thought to
generate products worth almost
a quarter of per capita GDP
among coastal villages.

16
Mangrove Services Description Threats

Provisioning contd.

Other Non Timber The leaves of species such as Over-exploitation (shrimp and
Forest Products Nypa and Pandanus are used for other aquaculture, unsustainable
(NTFP) thatching and weaving and light shing practices, over-
woods such as Cerbera manghas harvesting); coastal development
used to carve masks and puppets. and land reclamation; and
inland freshwater extraction. It
The breathing roots of various is reported that over-harvesting
Sonneratia spp are used to of the wood for tannins as well
make corks and sh oats. as for charcoal production is
destroying mangrove habitats in
Mangrove plants are sources Viet Nam.
of sodium and the ash of some
species such as Avicennia is
used as soap.

The barks of many species

produce gums and tannins,
which are still used in the Indian
subcontinent for curing leather
and sh nets.

In the Bangladesh and India,

honey from mangroves is an
important local industry.

Mangrove leaves, fruits, shoots

and roots serve as vegetables
and edible fruits in many parts of
the region and other non-timber
forest products such as sugars
and drinks are extracted from
different species.

Supporting services
Biodiversity Because mangroves grow Mangrove deforestation for
between the land and the sea, shrimp and other aquaculture;
mangrove species are uniquely over-exploitation (unsustainable
adapted to live in extreme and shing practices, over-
variable conditions. Mangroves, harvesting); coastal development
therefore, carry an unique and land reclamation; inland
assemblage of ora and fauna freshwater extraction; pollution;
found in no other ecosystem. and spread of IAS. Mangroves
in the southwestern Sri Lanka
are being affected by the spread
of Annona glabra and Wormia
suffruticosa.

17
 Mangrove Services Description Threats

Supporting services
contd.
Protecting the Mangroves act as physical Mangrove deforestation
shoreline buffers between the elements for shrimp and other
and the shore, and can absorb aquaculture; over-exploitation
at least 70-90% of the energy of (unsustainable shing
the waves, depending on their practices, over-harvesting);
ecological condition. coastal development and land
reclamation.

Promoting accretion Mangroves function much Mangrove deforestation

like a living groyne to build up for shrimp and other
sediment, stabilising the ground aquaculture; over-exploitation
and xing mud banks. Therefore, (unsustainable shing
they prevent erosion. They practices, over-harvesting);
also protect coral reefs from coastal development and land
sedimentation. reclamation.

Primary production Estimated net primary Mangrove deforestation for

productivity values of up to 7.5g shrimp and other aquaculture;
C/m/day for mangrove forests in coastal development; land
Florida, USA. In comparison, a reclamation and extraction of
heavily fertilised and managed river sand.
sugarcane eld has a maximum
net productivity of 10g C/m/day.

Enriching nutrients It is estimated that every time Mangrove deforestation for

the tide goes out, it takes with shrimp and other aquaculture;
it as much as 12,500 tonnes of coastal development and land
food for marine life each year. reclamation; inland freshwater
extraction; and pollution.

Regulating services
Sequestering carbon Mangroves are important Mangrove deforestation
carbon sinks, and sequester for shrimp and other
approximately 25.5 million aquaculture; over-exploitation
tonnes of carbon every year. (unsustainable shing
They also provide more than practices, over-harvesting);
10% of essential dissolved coastal development and land
organic carbon that is supplied reclamation.
to the global ocean from land.

Trapping pollutants Mangrove roots that help trap Mangrove deforestation for
sediments also function as lters shrimp and other aquaculture;
to sift out pollutants reaching the coastal development and land
sea from inland waters. reclamation; inland freshwater
extraction; and pollution.

18
Mangrove Services Description Threats

Regulating services
contd.
Reducing oods Mangroves provide physical Mangrove deforestation for
buffering to prevent oods. shrimp and other aquaculture,
overexploitation, coastal
development and land
reclamation.

Aesthetic services
Mangroves provide a The foreign visitor recreational Over-visitation; user conicts
recreational habitat for value of a mangrove in the with traditional shing practices
visitors western coast of Sri Lanka is (i.e, damage to by motor boats):
estimated at 1196 USD/ha/year. irresponsible trash disposal

19
What is being done to conserve mangroves?

Setting aside protected areas.

One of the surest methods of ensuring the protection of habitats is to set aside protected
areas where human use is restricted to varying degrees.

Worldwide, there are over 700 protected areas containing mangroves (UNEP, 2006).

Prevention of habitat destruction/ degradation through legislation

There is a great deal of variation in the national laws for Integrated Coastal Management
in Asian countries and in their enforcement. There is unclear denition of the coastal
zone in some countries; unclear property rights in the coastal zone in others; little local
level participation in decision-making and inadequate sharing of benets of the use of
mangroves and other coastal resources with coastal communities; and inadequate zoning
and other land use controls (IUCN, 2006). Mangrove ecosystems, therefore, tend to ‘fall
through the cracks’ (IUCN, 2006).

In Sri Lanka, the Coast Conservation Act governs the coastal zone, but mangroves are
governed by the Forest Act. This causes conicts related to jurisdiction and poor enforcement
of both laws (IUCN, 2006).

The most extensive treaty for the protection of mangroves all over the world is The
Convention on Wetlands (popularly known as the Ramsar Convention), signed in
Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. This is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework
for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of
wetlands and their resources.

• There are presently 155 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1675 wetland sites,
totalling 150 million ha, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International
Importance.
• There are 182 Ramsar sites in south, southeast and far eastern Asia.
(Source: http://www.ramsar.org/)

20
Mangrove restoration

After the tsunami of December 2004, there was a rush to replant mangroves where
damage had been severe, given that, in many cases, mangroves had provided some
protection from the waves. Although mangrove restoration is ongoing in most tsunami
affected countries and it appears to be simple and cheap, it is, in fact, complex and
difcult. What is needed is the correct mix of species, ‘not a collection of branches, roots
and mud ‘ (IUCN, 2006). Monocultures will not provide this. Because of this, many post
tsunami mangrove restoration projects have failed.

Also, the selection of sites was unsuitable in many cases, and mangroves were planted
in areas that never had mangroves before. Further if there were human stresses – such
as shrimp farming and pollution – prior to the tsunami and those stresses still continued
after restoration, then the process will fail (IUCN, 2006).

However, there are also several success stories of mangrove restoration in the region.

Creating awareness:

In the past, mangroves areas were considered to be swamps with no value to humans, so
that development was made easy through acquisition of mangrove habitats. However, in
the last decade, a concerted effort has been made to create awareness among the public
that ‘wetlands are not wastelands’ (Spray & McGlothin, 2004). Since 1997, February 2nd
of each year has been designated as World Wetlands day.

21
Awareness among the public has led to increased tourism to mangrove areas.

• The Xixi National Wetland Park, China has had over 977,000 visitors since its opening in
2005 (Wetlands Link International, 2007).
• The Osaka Nankou Bird Sanctuary (ONBS), opened in 1983, was created from a landll and
wetland habitats have been regenerated for key water bird species. The sanctuary has about
100,000 visitors per year, including many schools (Wetlands Link International, 2007).

There are many databases on the Internet that have a wealth of information about
mangrove ecosystems worldwide. Some of these are listed below.

• The Global Mangrove Database and Information Center GLOMIS (http://www.glomis.com/) is

a worldwide database on mangroves, satellite images and articles.
• The World Atlas of Mangroves (http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/mangroveatlas/en/) provides
information per country of mangrove distribution, areas estimates, status and trends and
species checklists.
• Wetlands International (http://www.wetlands.org/) gives access to publications, newsletters,
projects and photographs.
• The Ramsar Convention site (http://www.ramsar.org/) describes wetlands and discusses
wise use and has many manuals for practitioners.
• EarthTrends - the Environmental Information Portal (http://earthtrends.wri.org/) has country
proles and maps for coastal ecosystems.

22
Mangrove valuation:

While much time and effort is invested in infrastructure such as roads, bridges, ports, and
water treatment plants, investment in natural infrastructure is often neglected. Despite
the direct link between ecosystem well-being and human well-being, ecosystem under-
valuation is a continuing problem in development planning.

Although economic models traditionally have only dealt with the provisioning services (i.e,
goods) of ecosystems and have ignored indirect values, there have been many recent
valuation studies of mangroves that explicitly cost their various services and highlight
their varied importance to human well-being.

Ecosystem service Location of study Value

Provisioning – food (sh) Mangroves on the One thousand three hundred USD/ha/
Baluchistan coast of year (95% of local income) are obtained
Pakistan from inshore sheries. Mangroves
provide the nursery and breeding habitat
upon which up to a half of offshore
commercial sh stocks (valued at around
USD 900/ha) depend (Baig & Ifthikar,
2005).

Indus River Delta, The annual value of catch from mangrove

Pakistan dependent sh species in the Indus Delta
is estimated at around 20 million USD.
Shrimps are particularly important, with a
domestic value of 70 million USD and an
export value of about 1.5 times this gure.
The export of mud crabs contributes an
additional 3 million USD to the regional
economy (Ifthikar, 2002).

Provisioning – traditional Indonesia Traditional use is valued at 3,000USD/

use of mangrove ha/year, contributing up to a half of
products the income of the poorest households
(Ruitenbeek, 1992).

Southern Thailand Mangroves contribute more than a quarter

of per capita GDP (Sathirathai, 1998).

Protection against storms Hambantota, Sri Lanka 2,196–9,884,000 USD per ha coastal
protection in three villages (Ranasinghe &
Kallesoe, 2006).

23
 Ecosystem service Location of study Value

Flood protection Muthurajawela marsh, Protective services (from oods) of the

Sri Lanka Marsh is valued at 5,394,556 USD per
year (2,500 USD per ha) (Emerton &
Kekulandala, 2002).

Water purication Muthurajawela marsh, Water purication services provided by

Sri Lanka the Marsh are valued 1,803,444 USD
per year (Emerton & Kekulandala,
2002).

Carbon sequestration Ream National Park, The value of carbon sequestration

Viet Nam is the national park is valued at 3.6
million USD per year (Emerton et al.,
2002).

Recreation Maldives Coastal tourism produces 74% of

(coastal tourism) national income (Emerton, 2006).

Cost of damage to Indus River Delta, Thirty thousand households incurred

mangroves and their Pakistan average annual losses of 70,000 USD
services (siltation and in crop damage and 45,000 USD from
salinisation) reduction in sh catches as a result of
saltwater intrusion (Ifthikar, 2002).

24
Acknowledgments

The author thanks Channa Bambaradeniya, Janaki Galappatti, Tahir Qureshi, and Ali Raza for
reviewing this booklet; Anouchka Wijenaike for proof-reading it; and Niroshan Mirando for nalising
the design.

Various photographers assisted the author by allowing use of their photographs. Each is credited
individually at the end of the book.

This document was produced with nancial support from the German Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) through a grant made to IUCN.

25
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27
Photocredits

Page no. Caption Credit

iii Water palm (Nypa fruticans) growth along a © Raquibul Amin

riverbank in the Sunderbans, Bangladesh.

1 Stilt roots of Rhizophora. © Sriyanie Miththapala

2 top Barnacles on mangrove stilt roots. © Sanjeewa Lelwala/IUCN

2 bottom Mudskippers. © Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

3 top Leathery leaves of mangrove ora. © Thushara Ranasinghe

3 bottom Water monitor (Varanus salvator) basking in © Sriyanie Miththapala

the sun in Muthurajewala marsh, Sri Lanka.

4 top Stilt roots. © Sriyanie Miththapala

4 middle Pencil roots. © Sanjeewa Lelwala/IUCN

4 bottom Knee roots. © Sriyanie Miththapala

5 top Xylocarpus granatum. © Vimukthi Weeratunga

5 middle Bruguiera gymnorhiza. © Vimukthi Weeratunga

5 bottom Sonneratia caseolaris. © Ahmed Saleem

6 Cerbera manghas used to carve masks in © Sriyanie Miththapala

Sri Lanka.

8 top Flower Crab (Portunus pelagicus). © Sriyanie Miththapala

8 bottom Harvesting Water Palm (Nypa fruticans) © Somsak Soonthornwaphat/

in Thailand. IUCN

11 top Brush pile shery, Sri Lanka. © Vimukthi Weeratunga

11 bottom Traditional net shing, Sri Lanka. © Sriyanie Miththapala

15 top Woman collecting rewood from mangrove © Thushara Ranasinghe

habitat, Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka.

15 bottom Mangrove sherman in Thailand. © IUCN Thailand

19 Solid waste pollution at the edge of a © Thushara Ranasinghe

mangrove habitat, Sri Lanka.

21 Mangrove replanting in Aceh, Indonesia. © Elaine Slamet/ UNDP

22 Visitors to Muthurajawela marsh, Sri Lanka. © Hasantha Lokugamage/

Jetwing Hotels

24 Community participation in mangrove © Vimukthi Weeratunga

replanting, southern Sri Lanka.

24 Little Green Heron (Butorides striatus). © Vimukthi Weeratunga

28
iv
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

The IUCN Asia region covers 23

countries, stretching from Pakistan in
the West to Japan in the East, Indonesia
in the South to Mongolia in the North.
IUCN maintains offices in Bangladesh,
Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Nepal,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia
Nam.The Asia Regional Office is in IUCN
4/1 Adams Avenue
Bangkok, Thailand.
Colombo 4
Sri Lanka
IUCN’s seven regional thematic Phone: +94 11 2559634
Fax: +94 11 2559637
programmes, known collectively as the
E-mail: coastalinfo@iucnsl.org
Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group
http: //www.iucn.org/coastalinfo/
(ELG), are based in two clusters: one
in Colombo, Sri Lanka (environmental
economics, marine and coastal, © 2008 IUCN, International Union for Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources
species conservation), and one in
Bangkok, Thailand (environmental
Opinions expressed in this booklet do not
law, forests, protected areas, wetlands
necessarily reflect the official views of IUCN or its
and water resources). members.