UNIT- I

INTRODUCTION AND SENSORS

Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems – Need for Mechatronics – Emerging areas

of Mechatronics – Classification of Mechatronics. Sensors and Transducers: Static
and Dynamic Characteristics of Sensor, Potentiometers – LVDT – Capacitance
Sensors – Strain Gauges – Eddy Current Sensor – Hall Effect Sensor –Temperature
Sensors – Light Sensors.

PART A

1. Define Mechatronics. Give examples (or) what is a mechatronics system?

The term Mechatronics is defined as the integration of microprocessor control
system, electrical systems and mechanical systems. Mechatronics can also be defined as
the integration of précised mechanical & electronic control for the development of smart
products & process.
Example: Washing machine, Robot, Automobile electronic fuel injection & antilock brake
systems, digital camera.

2. List some of the applications of Mechatronics.

The applications of Mechatronics are:
1. Home Appliances: Washing machine, Bread machines etc
2. Automobile: Electrical fuel injection, Antilock brake system
3. Aircraft: Flight control, Navigation system
4. Automated Manufacturing

3. What are the key elements of a Mechatronics system?

The key elements of a Mechatronics system are:
1. Actuators and sensors
2. signal and conditioning
3. Digital logic systems
4. Software and data acquisition system
5. Computer and display devices.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics system?

Advantage:
1. Cost effective and good quality product
2. High degree of flexibility to modify or redesign
3. Very good performance characteristics

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 4. Wide area of applications
5. Greater productivity in case manufacture organization
6. Greater extend of machine utilization.
Disadvantage:
1. High initial cost
2. Multi – disciplinary engineering background required to design and
implementation.
3. Need of high trained workers
4. Complexity in identification and correction of problems in the system

5. Identify the different Mechatronics systems used in automobiles.

Automobile application of Mechatronics includes electronic engine management system,
collision detection system, global positioning system, antilock brake system, keyless entry
system, parking assistance system and many more.

6. What are the two methods for measurement?

 Direct method
 indirect method.

7. Mention the function of a mechatronics system.

The functions of a mechatronics system are:
1. Need for design.
2. Analysis of problem.
3. Preparation of specification.
4. Generation of possible solution.
5. Production of detailed design.

8. What is mean by control system in Mechatronics?

A control system in Mechatronics refers to a group of physical component
connected or related in such a manner as to command or regulate itself or another
system. The physical components may be of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
thermal or chemical in nature.

9. Give some applications of control systems.

The applications of control systems are:
1.Idle speed control system of an automobile
2.Print wheel control system of a printer

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 3.Temperature control of an electric furnace or oven.
4.Sun tracking control of solar collector.
5.Aircraft rudder control system.
6.Gun or missile director.
7.Missile guidance system
8.Laser-guidance projectiles.

10. How the control systems are classified?

Control systems are classified into two groups:
1.Open loop control system
2.Closed loop or feedback control system.

11. Distinguish between open loop and closed loop control systems.
The difference between open loop and closed loop control systems are:
Open loop systems Closed loop systems
It is suitable where accurate
The feedback signal controls
positioning of the tools is
the tool position accurately
not required
System is very simple System is complicated
It is suitable for rough It’s not suitable for rough
works works
Error is not currently Error is currently checked and
checked and rectified rectified

12. What do you understand by signal conditioning?

A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it in to a
condition, which is suitable for either display, or in the case of a control system, for use
to exercise control.

13. Write about the Mechatronics approach in a micro-processor – controlled

washing machine.
In the microprocessor-controlled washing machine, a mechanical system has
become integrated with electronic controls. As a consequence, a bulky mechanical system
is replaced by a much more compact microprocessor system, which is readily adjustable
to give a greater variety of programs.

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14. What are the various fields in Emerging areas of Mechatronics?
The various fields in Emerging areas of Mechatronics are:
MAJOR FIELDS:
1. Mechanical Engineering
2. Civil Engineering
3. Electrical Engineering
EMERGING FIELDS:
1. Electronics Engineering
2. Software Engineering
3. Mechatronics Engineering
4. Computer system Engineering
5. Telecom Engineering
6. Automotive
7. Industrial Electronics

15. What is the various classifications of Mechatronics?

 Convictional Mechatronics system
 Micro mechatronics system
 Nano mechatronics system

16. What is the purpose of a sensor?

Sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity
being measured. i.e., an electrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being
measured is temperature and the sensor transforms an input of temperature into a
change in resistance.
Examples: Loud speakers, thermometer, position and pressure sensor.

17. How do you classify the sensors? And mention their features.
Based on its power requirement sensor are generally classified into two ways:
 Passive sensor and
 Active sensors
Based on the type of output signal sensors can also be classified as :
 Analog sensor and
 Digital sensors
Based on the relationship between input and output sensors are generally classified into
2 type:
 Primary sensor

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  Secondary sensors.
Based on quality to be measured sensors are classified as:
 Displacement sensors
 Proximity sensors
 Force, torque and pressure sensors
 Velocity and acceleration sensors
 Flow sensors
 Level sensors
 Temperature sensor and
 Light sensors.

18. Define transducer. Write an example for a transducer and state its
transduction principle.
Transducer is defined as elements that when subject to some physical change
experience a related change. Thus, sensors are transducers.
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and
pressure sensors, and antenna.

19. State the difference between primary and secondary transducers.

The difference between primary and secondary transducers is given below.

Primary transducers secondary transducers

Primary sensor produces the Secondary sensors on the other

output which is the direct hand produce output which is the
measure of the input direct representation of the physical
phenomenon phenomenon

Mostly active sensors are referred Whereas the passive sensors are
as primary sensors. referred to as secondary sensors.

20. State the purpose of using potentiometer in displacement sensor and

Classify the types of potentiometer.
Potentiometer is a primary sensor which converts the linear motion or the angular motion
of a shaft into changes in resistance.
Type of Potentiometer:

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  linear potentiometers
 rotary potentiometers

21. List the advantages and disadvantages of potentiometers.

Advantage:
 Easy to use
 Low cost
 High-amplitude output signal
 Proven technology
 Rugged construction
 Very high electrical efficiency
 Availability in different forms ranges and sizes.
Disadvantage:
 Limited bandwidth
 Frictional loading
 Inertial loading
 Limited life due to wear.

22. What are the uses of LVDT?

The uses are as follows:
a. Widely used as primary transducers for monitoring displacements.
b. Also used as secondary transducers in the measurement of force, weight and
pressure.

23. What are the applications, advantages and disadvantages of LVDT?

Applications:
LVDT can be used to measure the displacement, deflection, position and profile of
work piece.
Advantage:
1.Relative low cost due to its popularity.
2.Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments.
3.High signal to noise ratio and low output impedance.
4.High sensitivity up to 40V/mm.
Disadvantage:
1.The performance of these sensors is likely affected by vibration etc.
2.Relatively large outputs are required for the appreciable output.

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3.Not suitable for fast dynamic measurement.
4.Internally low in power output.

24. What are the applications, advantages and disadvantages of capacitive type
proximity sensor?
Application: This sensor can be employed for measuring position, displacement, and
gauging or any other similar parameter in a machine tool.

Advantage:
1.Excellent linearity over entire dynamic range, when area is changed.
2.High sensitivity
3.The system responds to average displacement of a large of a moving electrode.
4.capacitors are noiseless

Disadvantage:
1.The performance of this sensor is likely affected due to the environmental
conditions, such as dust, moisture, vibration etc.
2.The metallic parts of the capacitor must be insulated from each other.

25. Write about the strain – gauged element.

The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip or a strip of
semiconductor material, which is wafer – like and can be stuck onto surfaces like a
postage stamp.
26. What are the types of strain gauge?
The types of strain gauge are:
a) Unbounded strain gauge
b) Bonded strain gauge
c) Fine wire strain gauge.

27. Define gauge factor.

The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit
change in length.

∆R/R
Gauge factor Gf= ----------
∆L/L

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28. What are the Applications of eddy current sensors?
The Applications of eddy current sensors are:
1.Automation requiring precise location
2.Machine tool monitoring
3.Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
4.Drive shaft monitoring
5.Vibration measurement

29. What are the advantages of eddy current sensors?

They have the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, small in size, with high
reliability and can have high sensitivity to small displacements.

30. Write about Hall Effect sensors.

When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on
the particles and the beam is deflected from its straight line path. A current flowing in a
conductor is like a beam of moving charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field.

31. what is see beck effect?

The See beck effect is when electricity is created between a thermocouple when
the ends are subjected to a temperature difference between them. The Peltier effect
occurs when a temperature difference is created between the junctions by applying a
voltage difference across the terminals.

32.Write about the bimetallic strips.

Bimetallic strips consist of two different metal strips bonded together. The metals
have different co-efficient of expansion and when the temperature changes the composite
strip bends into the curve. The deformation may be used as a temperature controlled
switch.

33.What is light sensor? List the various light sensor.

A Light Sensor is something that a robot can use to detect the current ambient
light level - i.e. how bright/dark it is. There are a range of different types of light sensors,
including 'Photo resistors', 'Photodiodes', and 'Phototransistors'.

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34.List the application of light sensor.
A light sensor may be part of a safety or security device like a garage door opener
or a burglary alarm. Several modern electronics, including TV's, computers and wireless
phones use ambient light sensors in order to automatically control the brightness of a
screen in situations where light intensity is high or low.

35.Is 3D printer a mechatronics product? Justify your answer.

Yes,3D printers are considered mechatronic systems because they involve mechanical
parts that are controlled by embedded controllers and driven by power electronics. The
design of mechatronic systems is a challenge because it involves many interacting
subsystems from different disciplines.

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 PART - B

1. What is Mechatronics?

Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that combines principles from

mechanics, electronics, computer science, and control systems to design,
develop, and control intelligent systems with enhanced functionality and
performance.

The word mechatronics originated in Japanese-English and was created by Tetsuro

Mori, an engineer of Yaskawa Electric Corporation.

Mechatronics integrates knowledge from various areas, including:

1. Mechanical engineering (mechanical systems, kinematics, and dynamics)

2. Electrical engineering (electronic circuits, microcontrollers, and electromagnetism)
3. Computer science (programming, algorithms, and software engineering)
4. Control systems (sensors, actuators, and control algorithms)

The goal of mechatronics is to create intelligent systems that can interact with their
environment, adapt to changing conditions, and make decisions autonomously. Examples
of mechatronic systems include:

 Robotics
 Autonomous vehicles
 Smart home devices
 Medical devices (e.g., insulin pumps, portable defibrillators)
 Industrial automation systems
 Aerospace systems (e.g., navigation, control, and communication systems)

Mechatronics has transformed the way we design, develop, and interact with complex
systems, enabling innovations that improve our daily lives.

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 2. Explain the various type of Systems in Mechatronics.

A system can be thought of as a box which has an input and an output and where
we are not concerned with what goes on inside the box. For example, a motor may be
thought of as a system which has as its input electric power and as output the
rotation of a shaft. The system is shown below Fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 SYSTEM

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
A measurement system can be thought of as a black box which is used for making
measurements. It has as its input the quantity being measured and its output
the value of that quantity.
For example, a temperature measurement system, i.e. a thermometer, has an input of
temperature and an output of a number on a scale. Measurement system is shown below
Fig 1.2.

Fig 1.2 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Measurement Systems elements:

Measurement systems can, in general, be considered to be made up of three elements as
shown below Fig 1.3.

Fig 1.3 A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND ITS CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS

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A sensor which responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a signal
which is related to the quantity. For example, thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The
input to the sensor is a temperature and the output is an E.M.F. which is related to the
temperature value.

A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a condition
which is suitable for display. Thus, for example, the output from a thermocouple is a
rather small E.M.F and might be fed through an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The
amplifier is the signal conditioner.

A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is displayed. This might,
for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.

CONTROL SYSTEM:

A control system can be thought of as a black box which is used to control its output
to some particular value or particular sequence of values.

For example, a domestic central heating control system has as its input the temperature
required in the house and as its output the house at that temperature, i.e. you set the
required temperature on the thermostat or controller such a system is shown below Fig
1.4

Fig 1.4 CONTROL SYSTEM

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3.What are the basic elements of an Open loop and closed loop system? Explain.

The elements of open loop control system are shown below Fig 1.5.

Fig 1.5 The Elements of Open Loop Control System

Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1 kW or a 2

kW heating element to be selected. If a person used the heating element to heat a room,
they might just switch on the 1 kW element if the room is not required to be at too high
a temperature.

The room will heat up and reach a temperature which is only determined by the
fact that the 1 kW element was switched on and not the 2 kW element.

This is an example of open-loop control in that there is no information fed back to

the element to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature.

Open-loop systems have the advantage of being relatively simple and consequently low
cost with generally good reliability.

The elements of closed loop control system are shown below Fig 1.6.

Fig 1.6 The Elements of Closed Loop Control System

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Comparison element:
The comparison element compares the reference value with measured value and
produces an error signal.
Error signal = (reference value signal – measured value signal.)
Mostly negative feedback is employed in control system.

Control element:
The control element decides what action to be taken when an error signal is
received. For example, modifying the behavior of a signal through feedback.

Correction element:
The correction element which is responsible for transforming the output of a
controller into a change in the process which aims to correct the change in the controlled
variable.

Process element:
The process is what is being controlled. For example, the components that make
of a process are called “process elements.”

Measurement element:
The measurement element produces a signal related to the process output. For
example, it produces a signal suitable for transmission.

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4.Explain in detail the concepts of Mechatronics approach with a neat diagram.

Technology issues of a general mechatronic system are indicated in Figure 1.7. It is seen
that they span the traditional fields of mechanical engineering, electrical and electronic
engineering, control engineering, and computer engineering.

The study of mechatronic engineering should include all stages of modelling, design,
development, integration, instrumentation, control, testing, operation, and maintenance
of a mechatronic system.

Fig 1.7 Concepts of Mechatronics Approach

System development tasks refer to the various activities and processes involved in
designing, building, testing, deploying, and maintaining a software system or application.
These tasks can be broken down into several categories, including:

1. Planning and analysis: defining project scope

2. Design: detailed designs for the system
3. Implementation (coding): writing the code for the system
4. Testing: verifying that the system meets requirements and works correctly
5. Deployment: releasing the system to production
6. Maintenance: updating, modifying, and fixing the system after deployment

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A mechatronics system is, indeed, composed of mechanical parts, electric devices,
electronics components, sensors, hardware and it is operated and controlled under the
supervisions and commands that are programmed through suitable software.

5. Explain the Need for Mechatronics.

Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field that combines principles from mechanics,

electrical engineering, computer science, and control engineering to design, develop, and
control intelligent systems with enhanced functionality and performance.
The need for mechatronics arises from the increasing demand for:

1. Smart products: Integrating sensors, actuators, and microcontrollers to create

intelligent products that can interact with their environment.

2. Automation: Replacing manual processes with automated systems to improve

efficiency, accuracy, and reliability.

3. Precision engineering: Developing high-precision systems with enhanced control and

accuracy.

4. Miniaturization: Creating compact, portable devices with integrated functions.

5. Energy efficiency: Optimizing system performance while reducing energy

consumption.

6. Safety and reliability: Designing fault-tolerant systems with real-time monitoring

and control.

7. Interdisciplinary approaches: Combining expertise from multiple fields to tackle

complex problems.

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The need diagram of mechatronics is shown below Fig 1.8

Fig 1.8 NEED DIAGRAM OF MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics is crucial in various industries, including:

1. Robotics
2. Automotive
3. Aerospace
4. Medical devices
5. Industrial automation
6. Consumer electronics

The integration of mechatronics enables innovative solutions, improved performance, and

increased efficiency, driving technological advancements and economic growth.

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6. Explain in detail about the Emerging areas of Mechatronics.

MAJOR FIELDS:

1. Mechanical Engineering
2. Civil Engineering
3. Electrical Engineering
EMERGING FIELDS:

1. Electronics Engineering
2. Software Engineering
3. Mechatronics Engineering
4. Computer system Engineering
5. Telecom Engineering
6. Automotive
7. Industrial Electronics

Emerging areas of Mechatronics include:

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Integrating AI and ML to
create intelligent systems that can learn, adapt, and make decisions.

2. Internet of Things (IoT): Connecting devices, sensors, and actuators to create smart
systems and networks.

3. Robotics and Autonomous Systems: Developing robots and autonomous vehicles

that can interact with their environment.

4. Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS): Integrating physical and computational systems to

create smart, connected, and autonomous systems.

5. Nanotechnology and Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS): Developing tiny

devices and systems with unique properties.

6. Advanced Sensors and Sensor Networks: Creating smart sensors and networks
that can detect and respond.

7. Autonomous Vehicles and Drones: Developing self-driving cars, drones, and other
vehicles that can navigate and interact with their environment.

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8. Smart Homes and Buildings: Creating intelligent, connected, and automated living
and working spaces.

9. Wearable Devices and Health Monitoring: Developing wearable devices and

systems for health monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment.

10. Agricultural Mechatronics: Applying mechatronics to agriculture for precision

farming, automation, and crop monitoring.

11. Environmental Monitoring and Sustainability: Using mechatronics to monitor

and mitigate the impact of human activity on the environment.

The Emerging areas of Mechatronics in diagram representation is shown below

Fig 1.9:

Fig 1.9: Emerging areas of Mechatronics

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7. Explain the Classification of Mechatronics.
The classification of Mechatronics is as shown below Fig 1.10

Fig 1.10 The classification of Mechatronics

Mechatronics can be classified into various categories based on their application,

functionality, Technology and complexity. Here's a classification of mechatronics:

1. Based on Application:
 Industrial Mechatronics (factory automation, robotics)
 Automotive Mechatronics (vehicle control systems, driver assistance)
 Medical Mechatronics (medical devices)
 Aerospace Mechatronics (navigation)
 Consumer Mechatronics (home appliances, gadgets)

2. Based on Functionality:

 Sensing and Measurement Mechatronics (sensors, data acquisition)

 Actuation and Control Mechatronics (actuators, control systems)
 Computing and Communication Mechatronics (embedded systems,
networking)

3. Based on Complexity:

 Simple Mechatronics (basic sensors and actuators)

 Complex Mechatronics (integrated systems with multiple components)

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  Intelligent Mechatronics (AI, machine learning, and decision-making
capabilities)

4. Based on Technology:

 Mechanical Mechatronics (mechanical components, mechanisms)

 Electrical Mechatronics (electrical components, circuits)
 Software Mechatronics (programming, algorithms)
 Hybrid Mechatronics (combination of mechanical, electrical, and software
components)

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS (STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

SENSOR):

8. Explain in detail the static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor (or) Briefly
explain the Performance terminology of Sensors and transducers.

Static characteristics:
The various static characteristics are:

1.Sensitivity: The ratio of output change to input change, indicating how much the
sensor responds to a change in the measured parameter.

Sensitivity = change in output/change in input

2.Accuracy: The degree of closeness of the sensor's output to the true value of the
measured parameter.

3.Precision: The degree of consistency of the sensor's output for repeated

measurements of the same parameter.

4. Resolution: The smallest change in the measured parameter that the sensor can
detect.

5. Linearity: The degree to which the sensor's output is directly proportional to the
measured parameter.

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6.Nonlinearity:
Non-linearity of a sensor refers to the output that is not proportional to the input
over its entire range, so that the slope a graph of output versus input describes curves.

The linearity & non-linearity graph is shown below Fig 1.11

Fig 1.11 Linearity & Non Linearity

7. Hysteresis: The difference in output values for the same input value, depending on
whether the input is increasing or decreasing.

The Hysteresis effect is shown below Fig 1.12

Fig 1.12 Hysteresis Effects

8. Offset: The output value when the input is zero.

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9.Error:
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value
of the quantity' being measured.
Error = measured value - true value
10.Stability:
Stability means the ability of the sensor to indicate the same output over a period
of time for a constant input.

11.Zero drift:
Drift is the variation of change in output for a given input over period of time.

12.Output impedance:
Impedance is the ratio of voltage and current flow for a sensor; two types of
impedance are important in sensor application input impedance and output impedance.
13.Repeatability/reproducibility

The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its
ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value.

Dynamic characteristics:
The various dynamic characteristics are:

1.Response Time: The time it takes for the sensor to respond to a change in the
measured parameter.
The response time is shown below Fig 1.13

Fig 1.13 Response Time

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2.Rise Time: The time it takes for the sensor's output to rise from 10% to 90% of its
final value.

3.Settling Time: The time it takes for the sensor's output to settle within a specified
range of its final value.

4.Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which the sensor can accurately measure
the parameter.

5. Damping: The degree to which the sensor's output oscillates or overshoots its final
value.
6. Frequency Response: The sensor's output as a function of frequency, indicating how
well it can track changing parameters.

7. Phase Shift: The difference in phase between the sensor's output and the measured
parameter.

9. Explain in detail the working principle of potentiometer sensor.

A potentiometer is a type of sensor or transducer that measures the position or
displacement of an object. It converts the mechanical motion into an electrical
signal.

A potentiometer typically consists of:

1. A resistive element/Track (e.g., a wire or a conductive strip)
2. A wiper or slider that moves along the resistive element
3. Two fixed terminals connected to the resistive element

Fig 1.14 Potentiometer

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 Fig 1.15 Potentiometer illustration

As the wiper moves, it divides the resistive element into two parts, creating a voltage
divider. The output voltage between the wiper and one of the fixed terminals is
proportional to the position of the wiper.

The above diagram shows the role of a potentiometer in a circuit. The potentiometer acts
as an adjustable voltage divider varying the wipers position across the resistive material.
The full input voltage is applied across the resistors length as shown by the circuit diagram
the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding contact.

Mathematically:

Vout = (Vcc x (R1 / (R1 + R2)))

where:
Vout = output voltage
Vcc = applied voltage
R1 & R2= resistance between wiper and terminal

Types of potentiometers:
1. Linear potentiometer: The wiper moves linearly along the resistive element.
2. Rotary potentiometer: The wiper rotates around a circular resistive element.
3. Digital potentiometer: Uses digital signals to control the output voltage.

Applications:
1. Position sensing
2. Displacement measurement

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3. Joysticks and game controllers
4. Audio equipment (volume control)
5. Industrial control systems
6. Robotics
7. Medical devices

Advantages:
1. Simple and inexpensive
2. High resolution and accuracy
3. Low power consumption
4. Robust and durable

10. Explain the construction and working of LVDT in details.

LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a type of transducer that
converts linear displacement into an electrical signal or it is a type of electrical
transformer used to measure linear displacement, position, or motion.

An LVDT consists of:

1. Primary coil (excitation coil)

2. Secondary coils (output coils)
3. Movable core (connected to the object being measured)

When the core moves, the magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coils, which
is proportional to the displacement. The output is a differential voltage, meaning the
voltage across one coil increases while the voltage across the other coil decreases.

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 Fig 1. 16 LVDT

Construction:
1. Primary Winding: A coil of wire wound around a central core.
2. Secondary Windings: Two coils, wound around the core, symmetrically placed on
either side of the primary winding.
3. Core: A movable ferromagnetic core, connected to the object being measured.
4. Housing: A protective casing that holds the windings and core in place.

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Working:
1. Excitation: An AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, creating a magnetic field.
2. Core Movement: When the core moves, the magnetic field induces a voltage in the
secondary windings.
3. Differential Output: The voltages induced in the secondary windings are proportional
to the displacement of the core.
4. Null Point: When the core is centered, the output voltages are equal and opposite,
resulting in a null output.
5. Displacement Measurement: As the core moves, the output voltages change,
allowing for precise measurement of displacement.

The EMF induced in a secondary coil by a changing current (i) in the primary coil is
given by:

Fig 1. 17 LVDT OUPUT

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LVDTs are commonly used for:
1. Position sensing
2. Displacement measurement
3. Vibration measurement
4. Pressure measurement (using a pressure-sensing diaphragm)
5. Weight measurement (using a load cell)
Advantages:
1. High sensitivity
2. High accuracy
3. Linearity
4. Frictionless operation
5. Robust and durable

11. Explain the capacitive sensors in detail.

Capacitive sensors are a type of sensor that detect changes in capacitance (the
ability of a material to store electric charge) to measure various physical
parameters such as:

1. Proximity
2. Distance
3. Position
4. Displacement
5. Level
6. Pressure
7. Temperature
8. Humidity

Principle:
Capacitive sensors consist of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material (air,
plastic, or ceramic). When a target object approaches or touches the sensor, it alters the
capacitance between the plates. This change is detected and converted into an electrical
signal.

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 Fig 1.18: Forms of capacitive sensing elements: (a) plate movement
apart (b) plates sliding(c) dielectric movement, (d) push–pull sensor

Working:

1. Excitation: An AC voltage is applied to one plate.

2. Capacitance change: The target object alters the capacitance between the plates.
3. Detection: The change in capacitance is detected by a circuit.
4. Signal processing: The detected signal is processed and converted into a digital
output.

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo a constant
called the permittivity of free space, A is the area of overlap between the two plates and
d the plate separation.

The displacement moves the central plate between the two other plates. The result
of, for example, the central plate moving downwards is to increase the plate separation
of the upper capacitor and decrease the separation of the lower capacitor.
We thus have:

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 When C1 is in one arm of an A.C bridge and C2 in the other, then the resulting out-
of-balance voltage is proportional to x. Such a sensor is typically used for monitoring
displacements from a few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. Non-linearity and
hysteresis are about ± 0.01% of full range.

Advantages:
1. High sensitivity
2. Non-contact measurement
3. Robust and durable
4. Low power consumption
5. High accuracy

Applications:
1. Industrial automation
2. Robotics
3. Medical devices
4. Consumer electronics
5. Aerospace

12. Explain strain gauges in detail.

A strain gauge is a sensor used to measure the deformation (strain) of an object

under stress. It converts the mechanical deformation into an electrical signal,
allowing for precise measurement of:

1. Strain (deformation)
2. Stress (force)
3. Force
4. Pressure
5. Torque
6. Vibration

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Principle:

Strain gauges work on the principle of piezo resistivity, which states that the electrical
resistance of a material changes when it is subjected to mechanical stress. When a strain
gauge is attached to an object and the object is deformed, the resistance of the gauge
changes, resulting in a change in voltage.

Construction:
1. Grid pattern: Metal foil or wire is arranged in a grid pattern.
2. Adhesive: The grid is attached to a carrier material using adhesive.
3. Lead wires: Connected to the grid for electrical connection.

Fig 1.19: Strain gauges: (a)metal wire (b) metal foil (c) semiconductor.

Fig 1.20: Strain-gauged element.

Working:
1. Deformation: The object is subjected to stress, causing deformation.
2. Resistance change: The strain gauge's resistance changes due to deformation.
3. Voltage change: The change in resistance results in a change in voltage.

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4. Signal processing: The voltage change is processed and converted into a digital
output.

When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance
AR/R being proportional to the strain ℇ, i.e.

R / R = G ℇ

where G, the constant of proportionality, is called the gauge factor.

Since strain is the ratio (change in length/original length) then the resistance change of
a strain gauge is a measurement of the change in length of the element to which the
strain gauge is attached.

Applications:
1. Structural monitoring: Measure stress and strain in buildings, bridges, and aircraft.
2. Force measurement: Measure force, torque, and pressure.
3. Vibration analysis: Measure vibration and oscillations.
4. Medical devices: Measure blood pressure, respiratory rate, and muscle activity.

Advantages:
1. High accuracy
2. High sensitivity
3. Robust and durable
4. Low power consumption

13. Explain eddy current Sensor/transducer for measurement of linear

displacement sensors.
An Eddy Current Sensor is a non-contact sensor that uses electromagnetic
induction to detect changes in the distance between the sensor and a conductive
target.
It consists of a coil of wire (the sensor) and a target (the object being detected).

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Construction:
An Eddy Current Sensor consists of:

1. Coil: A wire coil (usually copper) wound around a core (air, ferrite, or plastic).
2. Core: A non-conductive material that supports the coil.
3. Target: A conductive material (metal) that interacts with the sensor.
4. Oscillator: A circuit that generates a high-frequency alternating current (AC) for the
coil.
5. Detector: A circuit that measures the change in impedance or voltage caused by the
target.

Working principle:

1. The sensor coil is excited by an alternating current (AC), generating a magnetic field.
2. When a conductive target enters the magnetic field, it induces eddy currents (swirling
electrical currents) on the target's surface.
3. The eddy currents, in turn, generate their own magnetic field, which interacts with the
original magnetic field.
4. The sensor detects the changes in the magnetic field caused by the target's presence
or movement.
5. The changes are converted into an electrical signal, which is then processed to provide
information about the target's distance, position, or presence.

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 Fig 1.21 EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

Fig 1.22: The object breaking the beam & It reflecting light

Eddy current sensors are commonly used in:

 Position sensing
 Distance measurement
 Proximity detection
 Material detection (e.g., metal vs. non-metal)
 Speed and vibration measurement
 Industrial automation
 Medical devices
 Aerospace applications

Their advantages include:

 Non-contact measurement, reducing wear and tear
 High accuracy and precision
 Robustness and reliability
 Ability to detect multiple targets

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However, they also have some limitations, such as:
 Limited range and sensitivity
 Susceptibility to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
 Requires calibration and setup

14. Explain Hall Effect sensors in detail.

Hall Effect sensors are a type of non-contact sensor that detect magnetic
fields and convert them into electrical signals.

The Hall effect is a phenomenon where a voltage is generated across a conductor

or semiconductor when it is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field and an
electric current is flowing through it. This effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in
1879.

Working Principle:

The Hall Effect sensor works on the principle of the Hall Effect, which states that
when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is generated
across the conductor, perpendicular to both the current flow and the magnetic field.

1.Current flow: A constant current flows through the semiconductor material.

2.Magnetic field application: A magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current

flow.

3.Voltage generation: A voltage is generated across the semiconductor material,

proportional to the magnetic field strength.

4. Output measurement: The output voltage is measured and converted into a digital
signal.

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 Fig 1.23 Hall effect

The result is a transverse potential difference V given by

where B is the magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate, I the current through
it, t the plate thickness and KH a constant called the Hall coefficient.

Construction:
A Hall Effect sensor consists of:

1. Semiconductor material: A thin layer of silicon or other semiconductor material.

2. Current source: A circuit that supplies a constant current to the semiconductor
material.
3. Magnetic field source: A magnet or current-carrying wire that generates the
magnetic field.
4. Voltage output: A circuit that measures the output voltage generated by the Hall
Effect.

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Types:
1. Analog Hall Effect sensors: Output a continuous voltage signal.
2. Digital Hall Effect sensors: Output a digital signal (0 or 1).
3. Latching Hall Effect sensors: Output a digital signal that "latches" on or off.

Fig 1.24 Hall effect sensor: (a) analogue, (b) digital.

Advantages:
1. Non-contact measurement
2. High accuracy
3. Robust and durable
4. Low power consumption
5. High-speed measurement

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 Limitations:
1. Sensitive to temperature changes
2. Affected by magnetic field strength and direction
3. May require calibration

Applications:
1. Automotive: Position sensing, current measurement, and speed measurement.
2. Industrial: Proximity detection, angle measurement, and current measurement.
3. Medical: Current measurement and position sensing.
4. Consumer electronics: Position sensing and proximity detection.

15.Explain the various temperature sensors in detail.

Temperature sensors are devices that measure the temperature of an object,

environment, or system. They convert the thermal energy into an electrical
signal, allowing for precise temperature measurement and monitoring.

Fig 1.24: LM35 – Temperature sensor

Types of Temperature Sensors:

1. Thermocouples: Generate a voltage proportional to temperature difference between
two dissimilar metals.
2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): Measure temperature based on
changes in electrical resistance.
3. Thermistors: Use semiconductor materials to measure temperature based on changes
in resistance.
4. Infrared (IR) Sensors: Measure temperature by detecting thermal radiation.
5. Digital Temperature Sensors: Use integrated circuits to measure temperature and
provide digital output.

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Working Principle:
1. Thermocouples: Junction of two metals generates a voltage proportional to
temperature difference.
2. RTDs: Resistance changes with temperature, measured using a Wheatstone bridge
circuit.
3. Thermistors: Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
4. IR Sensors: Detect thermal radiation and convert it into an electrical signal.
5. Digital Temperature Sensors: Use internal thermistors or thermocouples and
provide digital output.

Applications:
1. Industrial process control
2. HVAC systems
3. Automotive systems
4. Medical devices
5. Consumer electronics
6. Aerospace
7. Food processing
8. Chemical processing

Advantages:
1. High accuracy
2. Fast response time
3. Robust and durable
4. Low power consumption
5. Wide temperature range

Limitations:
1. Calibration required
2. Sensitivity to environmental factors
3. Limited temperature range for some sensors
4. Signal conditioning required for analog sensors

40
VARIOUS TEMPERATURE SENSORS:
A. Bimetallic strips:
The bimetallic strip temperature measurement is based on change in
dimension of the metal. A very widely used method of temperature measurement is
the bimetallic strip.

Fig 1.25 Bimetallic strips

APPLICATIONS:

 Bimetallic strips are frequently used in simple ON-OFF switches.

 The bimetallic strips are also used in control witches.

B. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs).

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are temperature sensors that measure
temperature based on changes in electrical resistance. They consist of a resistive
element, typically made of metal (e.g., platinum, copper, or nickel), that changes
resistance in response to temperature changes.

Working Principle:

1. The resistive element is connected to a measuring circuit.

2. As temperature increases, the resistance of the element increases.
3. The measuring circuit detects the change in resistance and converts it into a
temperature reading.

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 Fig 1.26 RTD

Fig 1.27 various metals resistance

Applications:

1. Industrial process control

2. HVAC systems
3. Aerospace
4. Automotive systems
5. Medical devices
6. Food processing
7. Chemical processing

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 C. Thermistors:
Thermistors are temperature sensors that use semiconductor materials to
measure temperature. They are highly sensitive and accurate, and are commonly used
in a wide range of applications.

Working Principle:

1. Thermistors are made from semiconductor materials (e.g., ceramic, polymer).

2. The material's resistance changes in response to temperature changes.
3. The change in resistance is measured and converted into a temperature reading.

Fig 1.28 Thermistors

Applications:

1. Industrial process control

2. HVAC systems
3. Automotive systems
4. Medical devices
5. Consumer electronics
6. Aerospace
7. Food processing
8. Chemical processing

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D. Thermocouples:

A thermocouple is a temperature sensor that consists of two dissimilar metals

joined together at one end, called the hot junction. The other end, called the
cold junction, is connected to a measuring instrument. When there is a temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions, a small voltage is generated between the
two metals. This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference and can be used to
measure temperature.

Construction of Thermocouple:

A thermocouple consists of:

1. Two dissimilar metals: Joined together at one end, called the hot junction.

2. Insulation: Surrounds the metals to prevent electrical noise and ensure accurate
measurement.

3. Sheath: Protects the thermocouple from environmental factors like corrosion and
vibration.

4. Lead wires: Connect the thermocouple to a measuring instrument.

Working of Thermocouple:

1. Temperature difference: A temperature difference exists between the hot junction

and the cold junction.

2. Electromotive force (EMF): A small voltage is generated between the two metals
due to the temperature difference.

3. Thermoelectric effect: The EMF is proportional to the temperature difference

between the hot and cold junctions.

4. Measurement: The EMF is measured by a instrument, such as a multimeter or

thermometer.

5. Temperature calculation: The measured EMF is converted to a temperature reading

using a thermocouple reference table or equation.

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 Fig 1.28 (a) A thermocouple, (b) thermoelectric E.M.F –temperature graphs.

Thermocouples are commonly used in various applications, including:

1. Temperature measurement in industrial processes

2. HVAC systems
3. Aerospace
4. Automotive systems
5. Medical devices
6. Food processing
7. Chemical processing

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Light sensors

16. Explain the working principle of light sensors in detail.

A light sensor is a device that detects and measures the intensity of light. It
converts light energy into electrical energy, which can be used to trigger various actions,
such as:

Construction of Light Sensor:

A light sensor typically consists of:

1. Photodetector: Converts light into electrical signal (e.g., photodiode,

phototransistor).
2. Amplifier: Amplifies the weak electrical signal.
3. Filter: Removes noise and unwanted signals.
4. Microcontroller: Processes and interprets the signal.
5. Output: Provides a digital or analog output (e.g., LED, LCD, relay).

Working Principle of Light Sensor:

1. Light Absorption: Light enters the photodetector, exciting electrons.

2. Electron Flow: Electrons flow through the circuit, generating a current.
3. Amplification: The amplifier increases the weak current.
4. Filtering: The filter removes noise and unwanted signals.
5. Signal Processing: The microcontroller processes and interprets the signal.
6. Output: The output device responds to the processed signal (e.g., turns on an LED).

Fig 1.29: Light Sensor (Photo Darlington)

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Light sensors are used in various applications, including:
1. Lighting control systems
2. Security systems
3. Automotive systems (e.g., automatic headlights)
4. Consumer electronics (e.g., smartphones, tablets)
5. Industrial automation
6. Medical devices
7. Aerospace

There are several types of light sensors in common use. The principles of operation and
characteristics of the most widely used including photo resistor, photodiode and photo
transistor.

VARIOUS TYPES OF LIGHT SENSOR:

A. PHOTO RESISTOR
A photoresistor, also known as a light-dependent resistor (LDR), is a type of
resistor that changes its electrical resistance in response to changes in light
intensity.

Working principle:

1. Light enters the photoresistor, exciting electrons in the semiconductor material.

2. The electrons reduce the resistance of the material.
3. The resistance decreases as the light intensity increases.

Fig 1.30 Photo Resister circuit and structure

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Applications:

1. Light detection and switching

2. Lighting control systems
3. Security systems
4. Automotive systems (e.g., automatic headlight dimming)
5. Consumer electronics (e.g., light meters, optical toys)

B. PHOTODIODE

A photodiode is a type of semiconductor device that converts light into electrical

current. It's a light sensor that detects changes in light intensity and produces
a corresponding electrical signal.

Working Principle:

1. Light enters the photodiode, exciting electrons in the semiconductor material.

2. The electrons flow through the material, creating an electrical current.
3. The current is proportional to the intensity of the light.

Fig 1.31 Photodiode

Applications:

1. Light detection and switching

2. Optical communication systems (fiber optics)
3. Industrial automation
4. Medical devices (e.g., pulse oximeters)
5. Consumer electronics (e.g., camera light meters, optical mice)

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 C. PHOTOTRANSISTOR

A phototransistor is a type of light sensor that combines a photodiode and a

transistor in a single device. It converts light energy into electrical energy,
amplifying the signal to produce a stronger output.

Working principle:

1. Light enters the phototransistor, exciting electrons in the photodiode.

2. The electrons flow through the transistor, amplifying the current.
3. The amplified current is output through the collector-emitter junction.

Fig 1.32 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

Applications:

1. Light detection and switching

2. Optical communication systems
3. Industrial automation
4. Medical devices
5. Consumer electronics (e.g., light meters, optical mice)

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17. What are the factors considered for the selection of sensors?

In selecting a sensor for a particular application there are a number of factors

that need to be considered:

1. Measurement range: The sensor's ability to measure the desired range of physical
parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, light).

2. Accuracy: The sensor's ability to provide accurate measurements, usually specified as

a percentage of the full-scale range.

3. Precision: The sensor's ability to provide consistent measurements, usually specified

as a percentage of the full-scale range.

4. Sensitivity: The sensor's ability to detect small changes in the physical parameter
being measured.

5. Resolution: The smallest change in the physical parameter that can be detected by
the sensor.

6. Response time: The time it takes for the sensor to respond to changes in the physical
parameter.

7. Frequency response: The sensor's ability to measure dynamic changes in the

physical parameter.

8. Operating environment: The sensor's ability to operate in various environmental

conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, pressure).

9. Power requirements: The sensor's power consumption and compatibility with the
system's power supply.

10. Size and weight: The sensor's physical dimensions and weight, which can impact
system design and portability.

11. Cost: The sensor's cost, which can impact system affordability and ROI.

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12. Interfacing: The sensor's compatibility with the system's communication protocols
and interfaces.

13. Reliability: The sensor's ability to provide consistent measurements over time, even
in harsh environments.

14. Calibration: The need for calibration, and the ease of calibration.

15. Certifications: Compliance with relevant industry standards and certifications.

51