Class Notes: The Structure and Function of DNA
Date: February 18, 2025
Topic: The Structure and Function of DNA
I. Overview of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms and is responsible for
storing and transmitting genetic information. It contains the instructions
necessary for the growth, development, and functioning of an organism. DNA is
composed of two long strands that coil around each other to form a double helix
structure.
II. The Structure of DNA
Nucleotides: The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which consist of
three components:
A phosphate group
A deoxyribose sugar (a 5-carbon sugar)
A nitrogenous base (one of four types: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or
guanine (G)).
The Double Helix:
The structure of DNA is a double helix, resembling a twisted ladder. The sides of
the ladder are made up of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules, while the
rungs are pairs of nitrogenous bases. The base pairs follow specific pairing rules:
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
Antiparallel Orientation: The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions,
meaning one strand runs 5' to 3' and the other runs 3' to 5'. This orientation is
crucial for DNA replication and transcription.
Hydrogen Bonds: The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds:
Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine.
Cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.
These bonds ensure the stability of the DNA molecule while still allowing for easy
separation of the strands during replication.
III. The Function of DNA
DNA serves several key functions within a cell:
Genetic Information Storage: DNA contains the instructions for producing proteins,
which carry out virtually all cellular functions. The sequence of nucleotides in a
DNA strand encodes the information needed for protein synthesis.
Replication: DNA is capable of replicating itself during cell division. This
ensures that each new cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material. DNA
replication is highly accurate, thanks to the proofreading capabilities of DNA
polymerases.
Gene Expression: Genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins. Through
processes like transcription and translation, the genetic code stored in DNA is
used to produce proteins.
Transcription is the process by which an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA
template.
Translation is the process by which the RNA molecule is used to assemble a protein
at the ribosome.
IV. DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself
before cell division. The key steps involved are:
Unwinding of the Double Helix: The enzyme helicase unwinds the DNA double helix by
breaking the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs, creating two single-stranded
templates.
Primer Binding: The enzyme primase synthesizes a short RNA primer to provide a
starting point for DNA synthesis.
Elongation: The enzyme DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the growing strand in
the 5' to 3' direction. It also proofreads the newly synthesized strand to ensure
accuracy.
Okazaki Fragments and Ligase: On the lagging strand, replication occurs in small
segments known as Okazaki fragments. These fragments are later joined together by
DNA ligase.
Result: The result of DNA replication is two identical DNA molecules, each
consisting of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand (this is known
as semi-conservative replication).
V. DNA Repair Mechanisms
Despite the accuracy of DNA replication, errors can still occur. Cells have several
mechanisms to detect and repair DNA damage:
Proofreading by DNA Polymerase: During replication, DNA polymerase checks for
errors and corrects them by removing incorrect nucleotides and replacing them with
the correct ones.
Mismatch Repair: After replication, specialized enzymes scan the DNA for any
mismatched base pairs and correct them.
Excision Repair: Damaged sections of DNA, such as those caused by UV radiation or
chemicals, can be excised and replaced by correct nucleotides through a process
called nucleotide excision repair.
VI. Chromosomes and DNA Packaging
DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes, which are made up of DNA
wrapped around proteins called histones. The DNA-histone complex forms a structure
called chromatin. Chromatin further condenses to form visible chromosomes during
cell division. This packaging is important for fitting the large amount of DNA
inside the nucleus and for regulating gene expression.
VII. Conclusion
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms. Its
structure as a double helix, consisting of nucleotides with complementary base
pairs, ensures stability and efficient replication. Through processes like
transcription and translation, DNA also plays a critical role in protein synthesis.
Understanding DNA's structure and function is fundamental to fields like genetics,
molecular biology, and biotechnology.
