UNIT 1: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC DEVICES(PLD)

Programmable Logic Devices: The concept of programmable Logic Devices,

SPLDs, PAL devices, PLA devices, GAL devices, CPLD-Architecture, FPGAs-FPGA
technology, architecture, virtex CLB and slice, FPGA Programming Technologies,
Xilinx XC2000, XC3000, XC4000 Architectures, Actel ACT1, ACT2 and ACT3
Architectures.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) are a collection of integrated circuits which are
configured to perform various logical functions. PLDs play an important role in the field of
engineering and technology, as they form the basis of innovation and support engineers to
develop automated digital systems to improve process flexibility and efficiency. Here,
"programmable" means defining a function that can be performed multiple times without human
intervention.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) are the integrated circuits. They contain an array of AND
gates & another array of OR gates. There are three kinds of PLDs based on the type of array(s),
which has programmable feature.

1.Programmable Read Only Memory

2.Programmable Array Logic
3.Programmable Logic Array

The process of entering the information into these devices is known as programming. Basically,
users can program these devices or ICs electrically in order to implement the Boolean functions
based on the requirement. Here, the term programming refers to hardware programming but not
software programming.

In this chapter, we will explain the basic concepts of programmable logic devices, their types,
advantages, limitations, and applications.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a memory device, which stores the binary information
permanently. That means, we can’t change that stored information by any means later. If the
ROM has programmable feature, then it is called as Programmable ROM (PROM). The user
has the flexibility to program the binary information electrically once by using PROM
programmer.

PROM is a programmable logic device that has fixed AND array & Programmable OR array.
The block diagram of PROM is shown in the following figure.
Here, the inputs of AND gates are not of programmable type. So, we have to generate 2 n product
terms by using 2n AND gates having n inputs each. We can implement these product terms by
using nx2n decoder. So, this decoder generates ‘n’ min terms.

Here, the inputs of OR gates are programmable. That means, we can program any number of
required product terms, since all the outputs of AND gates are applied as inputs to each OR gate.
Therefore, the outputs of PROM will be in the form of sum of min terms.

Example

Let us implement the following Boolean functions using PROM.

A(X, Y, Z)=∑m(5,6,7)A(X,Y,Z)=∑m(5,6,7)

B(X,Y,Z)=∑m(3,5,6,7)B(X,Y,Z)=∑m(3,5,6,7)

The given two functions are in sum of min terms form and each function is having three
variables X, Y & Z. So, we require a 3 to 8 decoder and two programmable OR gates for
producing these two functions. The corresponding PROM is shown in the following figure.
Here, 3 to 8 decoder generates eight min terms. The two programmable OR gates have the access
of all these min terms. But, only the required min terms are programmed in order to produce the
respective Boolean functions by each OR gate. The symbol ‘X’ is used for programmable
connections.

What is a Programmable Logic Device?

A Programmable Logic Device (PLD) can be defined as an integrated circuit (IC) which can be
programmed to perform specific functions. Here, programming means we can define a set of
instructions that can be executed to perform the functions multiple times without need of any
human intervention.

The primary need of developing PLDs is occurred to implement digital logic functions that can
copy the behavior of conventional logic circuits and replicate it many times. However, the PLDs
are different from normal digital logic circuits in terms of programmability, which means we can
define the desired logic functions by setting a collection of instructions in the device.
Types of PLDs:

Based on the type of device used, Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) can be classified into the
following two types −

Bipolar PLDs
CMOS PLDs

Let us discuss each type of programmable logic device in detail.

Bipolar PLDs

Bipolar PLDs are the types of programmable logic devices in which Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) is the main functional device. Bipolar PLDs are the older versions of programmable logic
devices. Thus, they were commonly used before the development of CMOS PLDs.

The following are some important characteristics of the bipolar programmable logic devices −

Bipolar PLDs provide fast switching speeds and hence they can operate at higher frequencies.
Bipolar PLDs are better suited for applications involving rapid signal processing and
require fast response times.
Bipolar PLDs require more power to operate.
Bipolar PLDs have better immunity to electronic noise and interference.

All these characteristics make the bipolar programmable logic devices well-suited to use in the
applications where high-speed operation and reliability are critical, such as aerospace, military,
and telecommunications systems.

CMOS PLDs

CMOS PLDs stand for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Programmable Logic
Devices. As their name implies, CMOS PLDs use the CMOS transistors i.e., NMOS (N-channel
Metal Oxide Semiconductor) and PMOS (P-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor) transistors as
the fundamental component.

CMOS PLDs are basically the modern versions of PLDs and are widely used in modern digital
systems due to their numerous advantages.

Some important characteristics of CMOS PLDs are described below :

1.CMOS PLDs require very less amount of power to operate. Hence, this characteristic makes the
CMOS PLDs well-suited to use in battery-power devices where energy efficiency is an important
factor.
2.CMOS PLDs are more reliable and robust. As they are designed to withstand against various
environmental factors like high/low temperatures, voltage fluctuations, and different radiation
interferences.
3.CMOS PLDs are also excellent in terms of scalability.

4.CMOS PLDs are newer PLD devices and hence are very commonly used in various modern
electronics devices like consumer electronics, medical equipment, industrial automation systems,
automotive systems.

SPLD (SIMPLE PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC DEVICE):

A simple programmable logic device (SPLD) is a small, inexpensive, and basic type of
programmable logic device (PLD) that can be used to replace standard logic components. SPLDs
are used in a variety of applications, including:

• Memory: SPLDs are often used as components in simpler types of memory, such as
Read Only Memory (ROM).
• Data communication: SPLDs play a role in data communication, device interfacing,
data display, and signaling communications.
• Household devices: SPLDs are found in many basic household devices.
• Computers: SPLDs are components in computers.
SPLDs are made up of macrocells that are fully connected and typically contain combinatorial
logic and a flip-flop. Each macrocell can build a small Boolean logic equation that combines the
state of binary inputs into a binary output.

SPLDs are programmed using fuses or non-volatile memory cells, such as EPROM, EEPROM,
and Flash. They are generally programmed only once.

Some types of SPLDs include:

• Programmable array logic (PAL): A PLD with a fixed OR array and a programmable
AND array.
• Programmable logic arrays (PLA): An SPLD with an array of AND gates driving an
array of OR gates.
What is a PAL:
The Programmable Array Logic (PAL) is also a type of PLD used to design and implement a
variety of custom logic functions. These programmable array logic devices allow digital
designers to develop complex logic structures with high flexibility and efficiency.
Construction-wise, a PAL device consists of an array of programmable AND gates connected to
a fixed array of OR gates. This array structure helps to implement various logic functions by
interconnecting the input lines, AND gates and OR gates.

Block Diagram of PAL:

Similar to PLA, the Programmable Array Logic (PAL) is also a type of fixed architecture logic
device having an array of programmable AND gates and an array of fixed OR gates as shown in
the following figure −

From this block diagram, it can be seen that a PAL consists of the following three main
components −

• Input Buffers
• AND Gate Array
• OR Gate Array
Programmable AND Array:
This array allows you to select which input signals should be connected to each AND gate.
The connections are made or broken using programmable fuses.
Fixed OR Array:
The outputs of the AND gates are connected to fixed OR gates.
The OR gates combine the outputs of the AND gates to produce the final output.

These components are connected together through a programmed connection indicated by "X".
In practice, these programmed connections can be made through EPROM cells or other
programming technologies.
Advantages of PAL:

1. PAL devices provide greater flexibility in design and implementation of custom logic
functions.
2. PAL devices also provide less expensive ways of implementing complex logic functions.
3. PALs also help to minimize the time required for developing and launching the electronic
products.
4. Due to their high integration density, PALs allow for implementing multiple logic functions
within a single device.

Disadvantages of PAL:

1.Limited Flexibility: Once programmed, the configuration of the AND array cannot be
altered limiting the flexibility of design compared to the more advanced programmable
devices like Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA).
2.Size Constraints: The PAL devices may have a limited number of logic gates and inputs
which can restrict the complexity of the logic circuits that can be implemented.
3.Propagation Delay: The fixed structure of the OR array may introduce propagation
delays that can affect the performance of the high-speed applications.
.

Applications:
• Digital Signal Processing: The PALs are used in the various digital signal
processing applications where custom logic is required for the filtering and signal
manipulation.
• Control Systems: They are employed in the control systems to implement specific logic
functions such as the state machines and control logic for the automation.
• Embedded Systems: The PALs are commonly found in embedded systems for the
implementing simple logic functions without the requiring extensive hardware resources.
• Communication Systems: Used in communication systems for the routing signals and
implementing encoding/decoding functions.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC ARRAY(PLA):

In this chapter, we will talk about Programmable Logic Array (PLA), its block diagram, and
applications. The programmable logic array (PLA) is a type of programmable logic device (PLD).
Historically, PLA is the first PLD device. It contains an array/matrix of AND and OR gates whose
configuration is done as per the needs of applications.
In a PLA, a set of fusible links is used to establish or remove the contact of a literal in the AND
operation or contact of a product term in the OR operation. Therefore, a PLA is a type of PLD that
allows both AND matrix and OR matrix to program.

In digital electronics, PLAs are used to design and implement a variety of complex combinational
circuits. However, some PLAs also have a memory element, hence they can be used to implement
sequential circuits as well.

Block Diagram of PLA

A programmable logic array (PLA) is a type of fixed architecture programmable logic device
(PLD) which consists of programmable AND and OR gates. A PLA contains a programmable
AND array which is followed by a programmable OR array.

The block diagram of the PLA is shown in the following figure −

It consists of the following main components −

Input Buffer

The input buffer is used in PLA to avoid the loading effect on the source that drives the inputs.

AND Array/Matrix

The AND array/matrix is used in PLA to generate the product terms.

OR Array/Matrix

In a PLA, the OR array/matrix is used to generate the desired output. This is done by Oring the
product terms to produce the sum terms.

Invert/Non-Invert Matrix

It is a buffer used in PLAs to set the output to active-high or active-low.

Output Buffer

This buffer is used at the output side. It is mainly provided to increase the driving capability of the
programmable logic array (PLA).

GENERIC ARRAY LOGIC(GAL):Generic Array Logic (GAL) is a programmable logic

device based on Programmable Array Logic (PAL). GALs use Electrically Erasable CMOS
(EECMOS) technology, improving programmability & simplifying programming. This makes
GALs versatile in electronics.

GAL devices feature the Output Logic Macro Cell (OLMC). This component enhances
flexibility & ease in setting up & modifying logic gates. It offers greater adaptability than PAL
devices, because rapid design changes accelerate product launches & enhance functionality.

EECMOS technology in GALs supports environmental sustainability by allowing devices to be

electrically erased & reprogrammed, reducing electronic waste. Extensive testing ensures that
GALs are robust & efficient, meeting demands for high-performance & sustainable electronic
components.

Generic Array Logic (GAL) Basic Structure

 Figure 2: Representations of GAL16V8 Device

Generic Array Logic (GAL), such as the GAL16V8 model, showcases the sophistication &
adaptability of modern programmable logic devices. The structure of the GAL16V8 is designed
to meet various complex digital needs through its modular yet integrated components. Each
component plays a strategic role in the device's functionality & flexibility.

Input Terminal Design - The GAL16V8 has a refined input system with pins 2 through 9
designated as input terminals. Each of these eight inputs is paired with a buffer that splits
incoming signals into two complementary outputs. This dual-output approach enhances the
fidelity & integrity of the signal as it enters the AND array. By maintaining signal integrity, the
GAL16V8 ensures reliable & accurate processing of logic functions for systems that depend on
precise signal manipulation.

AND Array Configuration - The AND array is a central component in GAL's architecture.
Designed to handle complex logic operations efficiently. It consists of eight inputs & outputs,
each producing two complementary outputs, forming a matrix of 32 columns. These feed into a
secondary stage of eight-input OR gates, resulting in a grid of 64 rows. This structure creates a
programmable matrix with 2048 potential nodes, each configurable to perform specific logic
functions. This expansive matrix allows for high flexibility in programming the device to execute
a wide array of logic operations, from simple gating functions to complex computational
algorithms.

Output Macro Unit's Versatility - Each of the eight output macro units, connected to pins 12 to
19, highlights GAL's adaptability & functional richness. These units can be programmed to
match any output configuration typical of a PAL device, with enhanced customization options.
This programmability allows designers to tailor the logic outputs to meet the specific needs of
their circuits.

Precision Timing with System Clock - A dedicated system clock connected via pin 1 is
necessary for applications requiring synchronized sequential circuits. This system clock feeds
directly into the D flip-flop clock input of each output macro unit. Thus, ensure all operations are
timed with precision & consistency. While this feature underscores the GAL16V8's capabilities
in synchronous operations, the lack of support for asynchronous circuits may limit its application
in environments where timing flexibility is required.

Effective Output State Management - The output three-state control terminal is located at pin
11 and manages the output state of the GAL16V8.This feature allows the outputs to be placed in
a high-impedance state, facilitating seamless integration of the GAL into more complex circuit
arrangements without the risk of signal interference. This control mechanism is valuable in
multi-chip setups where various components must interact without conflict.
Features of GAL:

1. Programmability: GALs are programmable, allowing users to configure the device to

perform specific logic functions. The programming can be done using specialized
software and programmers. The logic functions are typically configured by writing to
fuse or anti-fuse elements within the device.
2. Multiple Input/Output Pins: GAL devices feature a wide range of input and output
pins, typically supporting from 8 to 24 pins, though some can support even more. This
allows them to implement relatively complex logic functions with multiple variables.
3. Flexibility: GALs support a variety of logic gates and functions. They are capable of
performing any combinational logic function, and with the use of flip-flops, they can also
handle sequential logic, which makes them highly versatile.
4. Fast Propagation Times: GALs are designed to have fast switching times, making them
suitable for high-speed applications where performance is critical. The propagation delay
typically ranges from a few nanoseconds, depending on the specific GAL model and
technology.
5. Low Power Consumption: Compared to larger programmable devices (such as FPGAs),
GALs are typically more power-efficient, making them ideal for battery-powered or
portable applications.
 6. Reprogrammability: Some GALs, such as those using EEPROM technology, can be
reprogrammed multiple times. This allows for design iteration and correction after the
initial programming.
7. Non-Volatile Memory: Many GAL devices use non-volatile memory (e.g., EPROM or
EEPROM), meaning that the logic configuration remains intact even when the device is
powered off.
8. Interconnect Flexibility: GALs feature a flexible array of programmable interconnects
that allow the user to customize the logic paths for different inputs and outputs. This
gives designers the ability to implement custom logic circuits without having to resort to
discrete logic gates.
9. Ease of Use: GALs are generally easier to program and use compared to more complex
programmable devices like FPGAs. Many software tools are available to help users
program GALs, making them accessible to a wide range of engineers and hobbyists.

Summary of Features:

• Programmable Logic Array (PLA)-like architecture

• Multiple inputs and outputs
• Fast switching speeds
• Low power consumption
• Reprogramming capability (for some models)
• Low-cost and simple to use
• Flexible interconnect options

Applications of GAL:

1. Glue Logic: GALs are often used as glue logic between integrated circuits in complex
digital systems. They can combine and interconnect different logic circuits, ensuring that
they work together efficiently. This is especially useful in cases where simple control or
interface logic is needed but not a full FPGA or CPLD.
2. Digital Signal Processing (DSP): While not as powerful as dedicated DSP chips, GALs
can be used in simple signal processing tasks such as encoding/decoding, filtering, and
pulse width modulation (PWM).
3. Bus Control Logic: GALs can handle the routing and control of signals in
microprocessor systems or other bus-based architectures. They can be used for tasks such
as address decoding, interrupt handling, or selecting between different peripheral devices.
4. State Machine Implementation: GALs are widely used to implement finite state
machines (FSMs), which are often needed in control systems, communication protocols,
and timing circuits. GALs can handle complex transitions and logic with relatively low
resource usage.
5. Interface Logic: GAL devices are frequently used to interface different types of logic
families or to match signal levels and protocols between devices. For example, they can
be used to convert between TTL and CMOS logic levels or to provide the necessary logic
to interface a microcontroller with external peripherals.
6. Low-Cost Custom Logic: GALs are used in low-cost consumer electronics, automotive
applications, and other embedded systems for implementing custom logic without the
need for costly dedicated chips or complex programmable devices.
 7. Timing and Control: GAL devices are used in systems that require precise timing and
control of signals, such as clock generation, synchronization, and sequencing of different
system operations.

CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Devices)

Simple PLDs (SPLDs) include PLAs, PALs and other similar types of devices.

• SPLDs have limitations of number of input product terms and outputs. For applications which
requires more number of inputs or product terms or output we have to expand the capacity of PLDs
by cascading them.

• The Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) are introduced to solve the above-
mentioned difficulty of SPLDs. A typical CPLD is merely a collection of multiple PLDs and an
interconnection structure, all on the same chip, as shown in the Figure
• In CPLDs, in addition to the individual PLDs the on-chip interconnection structure is also
programmable. Therefore, unlike PLDs, the CPLDs can be scaled to larger sizes by increasing the
number of individual PLDs.

Block Diagram

• The Fig. 9.6.2 shows the block diagram of a Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD).

• It consists of collection of PAL like blocks, I/O blocks and a set of interconnection wires, called
programmable interconnection structure.
• The PAL like blocks are connected to the programmable interconnect structure and to the I/O
blocks. The chip input-output pins are attached to the I/O blocks.

• A PAL like block in the CPLD usually consists of about 16 macrocells. Like other macrocells,
the macrocell in CPLD consists of AND-OR configuration, an EX-OR gate, a flip-flop, a
multiplexer, and a tri-state buffer.

The Fig. 9.6.3 shows the typical macrocell for CPLD. Each AND-OR configuration usually
consists of 5-20 AND gates and an OR gate with 5-20 inputs.

Advantages of CPLD :
1) Easy to design : CPLDs gives simple way to implement a designs.
2) Lower cost : CPLDs require low costs due to the feature of re-programmable.
3) Large product profit : CPLDs require very short development cycles because of which products
time to market is faster and generates the profit.
4) Lower board area : CPLDs has high level of integration.
5) Simple design changes due to re-programming.
6) CPLDs are used in wide applications for prototyping small gate arrays
• The EX-OR gate provides the output of OR-gate in inverted or non-inverted form as per the fuse
link status.

• AD flip-flop stores the output of EX-OR gate.

• A multiplexer selects either the output of the D flip-flop or the output of the EX-OR gate
depending upon its select input (either 1 or 0).

• The tri-state buffer acts as a switch which enables or disables the output.

What is a Field-Programmable Gate Array?

A Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is a type of programmable logic device (PLD) that
provides high degree of flexibility and can be used for implementing complete digital system on a
single chip. It contains an array of identical logic cells that can be programmed. By programming
these logic cells or blocks, FPGAs can be used to perform various logic functions. Also, we can
interconnect them to implement complex digital systems.

FPGAs also have several input/output (I/O) blocks to create interface between external devices
and the FPGA’s internal logic circuit. They also consist of a memory element to store the programs
that specifies the operational behavior of the logic cells and programmable interconnects.

In order to program FPGAs, there are various hardware description languages (HDLs) available
like Verilog or VHDL. These programming languages are used to define the desired functionality
and behavior of the digital system.The general block diagram of an FPGA is depicted in the
following figure.

Components of
FPGA

It consists of the
following main
components −

1.Configurable Logic
Blocks (CLBs)
2.Programmable Interconnects
3.I/O Blocks

1.Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):

These are the core processing elements of an FPGA. Each CLB contains look-up tables (LUTs),
flip-flops, and multiplexers that can implement logic functions and store data.

2.Programmable Interconnects:

These provide the pathways to connect different CLBs, input/output blocks, and other components
within the FPGA. Users can program the interconnects to establish the required data paths.

3.Input/Output Blocks (IOBs):

These handle communication between the FPGA and external devices. They are configured to
meet the electrical standards of connected devices, such as LVDS or CMOS .
Types of FPGAs

Depending on the applications, FPGAs can be classified into the following main types −

Low-End FPGAs
Mid-Range FPGAs
High-End FPGAs

Let us now discuss these different types of FPGAs in detail.

Low-End FPGAs

Low-End FPGAs are primarily designed to consume least power than the mid-range and high-end
FPGAs. Thus, they are well-suited to use in battery-powered devices and other applications where
energy efficiency is critical.

In low-end FPGAs, a smaller number of logic gates are used, hence they use less resources for
implementing complex logic systems. Also, these FPGAs have a less complex architecture. Some
common applications of low-end FPGAs include simple control systems, basic signal processing
systems, and low-cost consumer electronics.

Mid-Range FPGAs

Mid-range FPGAs take more power than low-end FPGAs but less power than high-end FPGAs.
This is mainly because the mid-range FPGAs consist of a larger number of logic gates as compared
to low-end FPGAs. This in turn increases the overall complexity of the circuit. Although, these
FPGAs offer a balance between performance and efficiency.

Since mid-range FPGAs provide a larger number of resources, they allow to implement more
complex digital circuits.

These FPGAs are used in a wide range of applications such as digital signal processing,
communication systems, embedded systems, industrial automation systems, telecommunication
devices, medical equipment, etc.

High-End FPGAs

High-end FPGAs consume more power than both low-end and mid-range FPGAs. This is because
they use a larger number of logic gates and also have higher operating frequencies. Although, these
FPGAs are supposed to be exceptional in terms of performance and processing efficiency.
Due to availability of large number resources, the high-end FPGAs can be used for implementing
highly complex logic circuits and systems. Also, they provide the highest level of flexibility and
performance.

Some common applications where the high-end FPGAs are used include high-speed processing
systems, real-time data analysis systems, data centers, high-performance computing systems,
aerospace and defense systems, etc.

Advantages of FPGAs

1.Fast Development Cycle:

Reprogrammability allows for iterative design and testing.

2.Lower Cost for Low-Volume Production:

FPGAs are cost-effective compared to ASICs for small production runs.

3.Energy Efficiency:

Optimized designs can achieve better power efficiency than software-based solutions.

Disadvantages of FPGAs

1.Cost for High Volumes:

FPGAs are more expensive than ASICs for large-scale production.

2.Power Consumption:

Typically, higher than ASICs for equivalent performance.

3.Complexity:

Requires expertise in hardware design and tools.

4.Latency:

Can introduce latency due to configuration overhead.

Applications of FPGAs

1.Telecommunications:

Used in base stations, network switches, and signal processing.

2.Automotive:

Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and autonomous driving applications.

3.Aerospace and Defense: Radar systems, secure communications, and electronic warfare.

4.Artificial Intelligence:

FPGA accelerators are used for deep learning inference due to their high throughput and energy
efficiency.

5.Data Centers:

Used for hardware acceleration in tasks like video transcoding, database management, and
search algorithms.

FPGA ARCHITECTURE:

Block RAMs, DSP Slices, PCI Express compatibility, and programmable fabric are all part of
FPGAs’ heterogeneous computation platforms. Because all of these compute resources can be
accessed at the same time, they enable parallelism and pipelining of applications throughout the
platform. An FPGA’s basic structure consists of logic units, programmable interconnects, and
memory. The placement of these blocks is unique to each manufacturer. U
FIGURE: FPGA ARCHITECTURE

FPGAs can be classified into three groups based on their internal block arrangement:

Symmetrical arrays

The logic elements (called CLBs) are placed in rows and columns of a matrix, with connections
built out between them. I/O blocks surround this symmetrical matrix, connecting it to the outside
world. A pair of programmable flip-flops and an n-input Lookup table make up each CLB.

Functions such as tristate control and output transition speed are likewise controlled by I/O
blocks. Interconnects are used to create a routing path. When compared to general-purpose
interconnect, direct interconnects between neighboring logic elements have a shorter delay.

Row-based architecture

Alternating rows of logic modules and customizable connection tracks make up a row-based
design. The input-output blocks are located on the row’s periphery. Vertical interconnects can
connect one row to neighboring rows.

Logic modules can be combined in a variety of ways. Combinatorial modules are made up
entirely of combinational parts. Sequential modules include both combinational and flip-flop
features. Complex combinatorial-sequential functions can be implemented with this sequential
module. Anti-fuse components are used to connect the smaller pieces of the routing rails.

Hierarchical PLDs

This architecture is organized hierarchically, with just logic blocks and interconnects at the top
level. There are a number of logic modules in each logic block. Each logic module includes both
combinatorial and sequential functional features.

The programmed memory controls each of these functioning parts. Programmable interconnect
arrays are used to communicate between logic blocks. This system of logic blocks and
interconnects is surrounded by input-output utilized blocks.

Internal Structure of an FPGA

Each FPGA includes three important features that can be found at the heart of modern-day
FPGA architecture:

Logic Blocks

An FPGA’s logic blocks can be designed to provide functionality as simple as that of a transistor
or as complicated as that of a microprocessor. It may be used to implement a variety of
sequential and combinational logic functions.

Modern FPGAs are made up of a variety of distinct blocks, such as dedicated memory blocks
and multiplexers. To control the precise function of each piece, configuration memory is used
across the logic blocks. Any of the following can be used to implement logic blocks in an FPGA:

• Transistor pairs
• combinational gates like basic NAND gates or XOR gates
• n-input Lookup tables
• Multiplexers
• Wide fan-in And-OR structure
Routing

In FPGAs, routing is made up of wire segments of variable lengths that are joined by electrically
programmable switches. The length and number of wire segments utilized for routing determine
the density of logic blocks used in an FPGA.

The number of connecting segments utilized is often a compromise between the density of logic
blocks employed and the amount of space taken up by routing. To complete a user-defined
design unit, programmable routing connects logic blocks and input/output blocks. Multiplexers,
pass transistors, and tri-state buffers make up this circuit. In a logic cluster, pass transistors and
multiplexers are utilized to connect the logic units.

I/O blocks

An input/output (I/O) block is a type of input/output device that can be used for both input and
output. Edge-triggered D flip flops are used in both the input and output channels. The goal of
the I/O blocks is to give a user interface from the outside world to the internal architecture of the
FPGA. These cells take up a lot of space on the FPGA.
The design of I/O programmable blocks is very difficult due to the large variances in supply and
reference voltages. In I/O architecture design, the standard selection is critical. Supporting a high
number of standards might increase the size required for I/O cells on a silicon device.

Applications

Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are versatile integrated circuits that can be configured
and reconfigured to implement a wide range of digital circuits and functions. Here are some
common applications of FPGAs:

Aerospace & Defense

FPGAs, or field programmable gate arrays, are important in the aerospace and defense industries.
Signal processing, radar systems, avionics, cybersecurity, UAVs, electronic warfare, testing, and
space exploration are the main applications of FPGA in aerospace and defense.

Additionally, it offers a high-performance, flexible, and adaptive solution that guarantees

systems maintain their relevance through upgradability without requiring total hardware
overhauls.

Automotive

Advances in safety, performance, and connectivity in automotive technology are made possible
by FPGAs. They facilitate sensor fusion and provide critical processing for autonomous driving
in addition to providing real-time processing for ADAS.

FPGAs support cybersecurity, functional safety, and power efficiency in addition to infotainment
and V2X communication customization. They will be crucial in influencing the development of
automotive systems in the future due to their versatility and reconfigurability.

Data Center

Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are becoming more and more popular in data centers
because of their energy efficiency, customization options, and capacity for parallel processing.
FPGAs are used in accelerated computing, network function virtualization, and enhanced
security through accelerated cryptography.

They also offer dynamic reconfiguration and lower latency. Cost considerations and complex
programming are challenges. It is anticipated that FPGAs’ role in data centers will grow as
technology advances and programming tools advance, offering enhanced performance, energy
efficiency, and innovative data processing.

Medical

Biomedical images produced by PET procedures, CT scans, X-rays, three-dimensional imaging,

and other techniques are increasingly being treated using FPGA design.

The benefits of frequency come from the fact that these medical vision systems increasingly need
greater resolution and processing power, and many of them must be designed in real-time.
Parallel processing and FPGA design are ideal for meeting these needs.

Video and Image Processing

FPGAs use parallel processing to handle data simultaneously, making them essential for
processing images and videos. They are perfect for real-time applications like streaming and
medical imaging because of their adaptable architecture, which maximizes performance and
resource usage.

FPGAs speed up deep learning inference and are excellent at object recognition, video
compression, and image enhancement. Their versatility includes a wide range of I/O and camera
interfaces, which makes system integration easier.

Digital Signal Processing

Field-programmable gate arrays, or FPGAs, are essential to digital signal processing (DSP)
because of their parallel processing capacity and reconfigurability. Real-time signal processing,
image, and video processing, software-defined radio, speech and audio processing, sonar and
radar systems, digital filters and transformations, and biomedical signal processing are examples
of common applications.

FPGAs are indispensable in a variety of fields requiring high-performance and customizable

signal manipulation because they excel in these areas by enabling real-time, parallelized
execution of complex algorithms.

Wireless Communications

Wireless communications are undergoing a revolution thanks in large part to Field-

Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), which provide unmatched flexibility and adaptability.
Their reconfigurable nature makes it easier to quickly implement different communication
standards, such as LTE and 5G, and their parallel processing capabilities improve throughput and
processing speed in real-time. Baseband processing, MIMO systems, Software-Defined Radio,
and cognitive radio applications are areas in which FPGAs thrive.

VIRTEX CLD ANDSLICE:

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are programmable integrated circuits that consist of
an array of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) and other resources connected by programmable
interconnects. The Virtex series from Xilinx (now part of AMD) is a popular line of high-
performance FPGAs. Within Virtex FPGAs, Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) and slices are
fundamental elements that enable the implementation of custom logic designs.

1. Configurable Logic Block (CLB)

• Definition: CLBs are the primary building blocks in FPGAs for implementing
combinational and sequential logic.
• Structure: Each CLB typically contains:
o Multiple slices (often two or four).
o Interconnect resources for connecting slices to each other and to other FPGA
elements.
o Configurable routing resources for interconnecting CLBs with the rest of the FPGA.

CLBs serve as a flexible, reusable module capable of implementing logic gates, flip-flops,
multiplexers, or any combination of these.

2. Slice
• Definition: A slice is a smaller sub-block within a CLB and is the fundamental unit that
directly performs logic operations.
• Structure: Each slice contains several key components:
o Look-Up Tables (LUTs): Used to implement combinational logic. They can
often serve as small RAM blocks as well.
o Flip-Flops/Registers: For implementing sequential logic.
o Carry Logic: For efficient arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction.
o Multiplexers: For selecting between multiple data inputs.
o Wide-Function Support: For combining multiple LUTs to implement larger
logic .

Types of Slices

Virtex FPGAs typically feature two types of slices:

 1. SLICEM:
a. Enhanced slices that support memory operations like distributed RAM and shift
registers.
b. Contain additional functionality for more complex operations.
2. SLICEL:
a. Regular slices designed for general-purpose logic operations.
b. Lack the memory-specific features of SLICEM.

Key Features of Virtex CLBs and Slices

1. Flexibility: CLBs and slices can implement a variety of logic and memory functions,
making them versatile for digital design.
2. Performance: Virtex FPGAs are optimized for high-speed operation, with efficient
routing and dedicated carry logic for fast arithmetic operations.
3. Scalability: Newer generations (e.g., Virtex-7, UltraScale) have more slices per CLB and
greater logic density, supporting larger and more complex designs.
4. Power Efficiency: Improved slice architecture reduces power consumption, especially in
advanced Virtex families.

FPGA PROGRAMMING TECHNOLOGIES:

There are a number of programming technologies that have been used for reconfigurable
architectures. Each of these technologies have different characteristics which in turn have
significant effect on the programmable architecture. Some of the well-known technologies include
static memory, flash, and anti-fuse.

SRAM-Based Programming Technology:

Static memory cells are the basic cells used for SRAM-based FPGAs. Most commercial vendors
use static memory (SRAM) based programming technology in their devices. These devices use
static memory cells which are divided throughout the FPGA to provide configurability. In an
SRAM-based FPGA, SRAM cells are mainly used for following purposes:
1. To program the routing interconnect of FPGAs which are generally steered by small
multiplexors.

2. To program Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) that are used to implement logic functions.
SRAM-based programming technology has become the dominant approach for FPGAs because of
its re-programmability and the use of standard CMOS process technology and therefore leading
to increased integration, higher speed and lower dynamic power consumption of new process with
smaller geometry. There are however a number of drawbacks associated with SRAM-based
programming technology. For example, an SRAM cell requires 6 transistors which makes the use
of this technology costly in terms of area compared to other programming technologies. Further
SRAM cells are volatile in nature and external devices are required to permanently store the
configuration data. These external devices add to the cost and area overhead of SRAM-based
FPGAs.
FLASH PROGRAMMING TECHNOLOGY:

Flash Programming Technology One alternative to the SRAM-based programming technology is

the use of flash or EEPROM based programming technology. Flash-based programming
technology offers several advantages. For example, this programming technology is nonvolatile in
nature. Flash-based programming technology is also more area efficient than SRAM-based
programming technology. Flash-based programming technology has its own disadvantages also.
Unlike SRAM-based programming technology, flashbased devices can not be
reconfigured/reprogrammed an infinite number of times. Also, flash-based technology uses non-
standard CMOS process.
ANTIFUSE PROGRAMMING TECHNOLOGY:

Anti-fuse Programming Technology An alternative to SRAM and flash-based technologies is anti-

fuse programming technology. The primary advantage of anti-fuse programming technology is its
low area. Also this technology has lower on resistance and parasitic capacitance than other two
programming technologies. Further, this technology is non-volatile in nature. There are however
significant disadvantages associated with this programming technology. For example, this
technology does not make use of standard CMOS process. Also, anti-fuse programming
technology based devices can not be reprogrammed. In this section, an overview of three
commonly used programming technologies is given where all of them have their advantages and
disadvantages. Ideally, one would like to have a programming technology which is
reprogrammable, non-volatile, and that uses a standard CMOS process. Apparently, none of the
above presented technologies satisfy these conditions. However, SRAM-based programming
technology is the most widely used programming technology. The main reason is its use of
standard CMOS process and for this very reason, it is expected that this technology will continue
to dominate the other two programming technologies.

Xilinx XC2000: A Pioneer in FPGA Technology

The Xilinx XC2000 series was a groundbreaking family of Field Programmable Gate Arrays
(FPGAs) introduced in 1984. It marked a significant milestone in the evolution of programmable
logic devices, offering a flexible and reconfigurable platform for digital circuit design.

Architecture Overview

The XC2000 architecture is based on a modular design, consisting of three primary components:

1. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs):

a. Provide the interface between the FPGA and external devices.
b. Each IOB can be configured as an input, output, or bidirectional pin.
c. They include input buffers, output drivers, and tri-state buffers.
2. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):
a. The core logic elements of the FPGA.
b. Each CLB consists of multiple logic cells, which can be configured to implement
various logic functions, such as AND, OR, XOR, and flip-flops.
 c. CLBs are interconnected through a network of programmable switches.
3. Interconnect:
a. The wiring network that connects the IOBs and CLBs.
b. It is a hierarchical structure of programmable switches and routing channels.
c. The interconnect allows for flexible routing of signals between different parts of
the FPGA.

Architecture Diagram:

Xilinx XC2000 Architecture Diagram

Key Features of XC2000

• Flexibility: The programmable nature of the FPGA allows for rapid prototyping and design
iterations.
• Reconfigurability: The FPGA can be reprogrammed to implement different functions,
enabling a wide range of applications.
• Scalability: The XC2000 family offered devices with varying densities, allowing for the
selection of the appropriate device for specific needs.
• Performance: While not as fast as modern FPGAs, the XC2000 provided a significant
performance improvement over traditional programmable logic devices.

How it Works

1. Configuration:
1.The FPGA is configured by loading a bitstream into its configuration memory.
 2.The bitstream specifies the configuration of each CLB, IOB, and interconnect switch.
2. Logic Implementation:
1.The CLBs are used to implement the desired logic functions.
2.The logic cells within each CLB are configured to perform specific logic operations.
3. Interconnection:
1.The interconnect is used to route signals between the CLBs and IOBs.
2.The programmable switches are configured to establish the desired connections.

Legacy and Impact

Although the XC2000 series is now considered a historical artifact, it laid the foundation for the
rapid development of FPGA technology. Its innovative architecture and design principles continue
to influence the development of modern FPGAs, which are now used in a wide range of
applications, including telecommunications, automotive, aerospace, and artificial intelligence.

Note: While I cannot provide a specific diagram due to image limitations, you can refer to Xilinx's
official documentation or various online resources for detailed architectural diagrams and
explanations of the XC2000 series.

Xilinx XC3000 Architecture

The Xilinx XC3000 series was a significant advancement in FPGA technology, offering high
performance and density in a flexible, user-programmable array architecture. Let's delve into its
key architectural components and how they work together.

Core Components

1. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):

a. The fundamental building blocks of the XC3000 FPGA.
b. Each CLB consists of a Look-Up Table (LUT) and flip-flops.
c. The LUT can implement any Boolean function of up to five input variables.
d. Flip-flops are used for storing state information.
2. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs):
a. Provide the interface between the FPGA and external devices.
b. Each IOB can be configured as an input, output, or bidirectional pin.
 c. They include input buffers, output drivers, and tri-state buffers.
3. Interconnect:
a. The wiring network that connects the CLBs and IOBs.
b. It consists of programmable switches and routing channels.
c. The interconnect allows for flexible routing of signals between different parts of
the FPGA.

Architectural Diagram
 How it Works
1. Configuration:
a. The FPGA is configured by loading a bitstream into its configuration memory.
b. The bitstream specifies the configuration of each CLB, IOB, and interconnect
switch.
2. Logic Implementation:
a. The CLBs are used to implement the desired logic functions.
b. The LUTs are programmed to implement the truth table of the desired function.
c. The flip-flops are used to store state information.
3. Interconnection:
a. The interconnect is used to route signals between the CLBs and IOBs.
b. The programmable switches are configured to establish the desired connections.

Key Features of XC3000

• High Performance and Density: Offers high-performance, high-density digital integrated

circuits.

• Flexibility: User-programmable array architecture allows for customization and

reconfiguration.

• Scalability: Available in various device sizes to meet different application needs.

• Low Power Consumption: Efficient power management for various operating conditions.

Applications

The XC3000 series has been used in a wide range of applications, including:

• Telecommunications

• Networking

• Military and aerospace

 • Industrial automation

• Consumer electronics

By understanding the core components and architecture of the Xilinx XC3000, you can effectively
design and implement complex digital systems using this powerful FPGA technology.

Xilinx XC4000 Architecture(1):

The Xilinx XC4000 series was a significant advancement in FPGA technology, offering higher
performance and density than previous generations. Its architecture is based on a modular design,
consisting of three primary components:

1. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):

The principle CLB elements are shown in Figure 1. Each CLB contains a pair of flip-flops and
two independent 4-input function generators. These function generators have a good deal of
flexabilty as most combinatorial logic functions need less than four inputs. Thirteen CLB inputs
and four CLB outputs provide access to the functional flip-flops. Configurable Logic Blocks
implement most of the logic in an FPGA. The principal CLB elements are shown in Figure 1. Two
4-input function generators (F and G) offer unre-stricted versatility. Most combinatorial logic
functions need four or fewer inputs. However, a third function generator (H) is provided. The H
function generator has three inputs. One or both of these inputs can be the outputs of F and G; the
other input(s) are from outside the CLB. The CLB can therefore implement certain functions of up
to nine variables, like parity check or expandable-identity comparison of two sets of four inputs.
 Fig. 1 Block Diagram of XC4000 Families Configuration Logic Block (CLB)

Each CLB contains two flip-flops that can be used to store the function generator outputs. However,
the flip-flops and function generators can also be used independently. DIN can be used as a direct
input to either of the two flip-flops. H1 can drive the other flip-flop through the H function gen-
erator. Function generator outputs can also be accessed from outside the CLB, using two outputs
independent of the flip-flop outputs. This versatility increases logic density and simplifies routing.
Thirteen CLB inputs and four CLB outputs provide access to the function generators and flip-flops.
These inputs and outputs connect to the programmable interconnect resources outside the block.

Four independent inputs are provided to each of two func-tion generators (F1 - F4 and G1 - G4).
These function gen-erators, whose outputs are labeled F’ and G’, are each capable of implementing
any arbitrarily defined Boolean function of four inputs. The function generators are imple-mented
as memory look-up tables. The propagation delay is therefore independent of the function
implemented. A third function generator, labeled H’, can implement any Boolean function of its
three inputs. Two of these inputs can optionally be the F’ and G’ functional generator out-puts.
Alternatively, one or both of these inputs can come from outside the CLB (H2, H0). The third
input must come from outside the block (H1).

Signals from the function generators can exit the CLB on two outputs. F’ or H’ can be connected
to the X output. G’ or H’ can be connected to the Y output. A CLB can be used to implement any
of the following functions:

1. any function of up to four variables, plus any second function of up to four unrelated
variables, plus any third function of up to three unrelated variables
2. any single function of five variables
3. any function of four variables together with some functions of six variables
4. some functions of up to nine variables

Implementing wide functions in a single block reduces both the number of blocks required and the
delay in the signal path, achieving both increased density and speed. The versatility of the CLB
function generators significantly improves system speed. In addition, the design-software tools can
deal with each function generator independently. This flexibility improves cell usage.

The flexabilty and symmetry of the CLB architecture facilitates the placement and routing of a
given application. Since the function generators and flip-flops have independent inputs and outputs,
each can be treated as a seperate entity during placement to achieve high packing density. Inputs,
outputs and the functions themselves can freely swap positions within thew CLB to avoid routing
congestion during the placement and routing operation.

2. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs):

User-configurable input/output blocks (IOBs) provide the interface between external package pins
and the internal logic. Each IOB controls one package pin and can be defined for input, output, or
bidirectional signals. Figure 6 shows a simplified block diagram of the XC4000E IOB.
 Fig. 6 Input/Out Block

Input Signals
Two paths, labeled I1 and I2, bring input signals into the array. Inputs also connect to an input
register that can be programmed as either an edge-triggered flip-flop or a level-sensitive
transparent-Low latch. The choice is made by placing the appropriate primitive from the symbol
library.The inputs can be globally configured for either TTL (1.2V) or CMOS (2.5V) thresholds.

The two global adjustments of input threshold and output level are independent of each other.
There is a slight hysteresis of about 300mV.Seperate clock signals are provided for the input and
output registers; these clocks can be inverted, generating either falling-edge or rising-edge
triggered flip-flops. As is the case with the CLB registers, a global set/reset signal can be used to
set or clear the input and output registers whenever the RESET net is alive.

Registered Inputs
The I1 and I2 signals that exit the block can each carry either the direct or registered input signal. The input and output storage

elements in each IOB have a common clock enable input, which through configuration can be activated individually for the

input or output flip-flop or both. This clock enable operates exactly like the EC pin on the XC4000E CLB. It cannot be inverted

within the IOB.

3.Programmable Interconnects

All internal connections are composed of metal segments with programmable switching points to
implement the desired routing. An abundance of different routing resources is provided to acheive
efficient automated routing. The number of routing channels is scaled to the size of the array; i.e.
it increases with the array size. The CLB inputs and outputs are distributed on all four sides of the
block, providing additional routing flexibilty (Figure 7).

There are four main types of interconnect, three are distinguished by the relative length of their
segments: single-length lines, double-length lines and Longlines. (NOTE: The number of routing
channels shown in the figure below are for illustration purposes only; the actual number of routing
channels varies with the array size.) In addition, eight global buffers drive fast, low-skew nets most
often used for clocks or global control signals.

Fig. 7 Single-Length Lines

The single-length lines are a grid of horizontal and vertical lines that intersect at a Switch Matrix
between each block. Figure 7 illustrates the single-length interconnect surrounding one CLB in
the array. Each Switch Matrix consists of programmable n-channel pass transistors used to
establish connections bewteen the single-length lines. For example, a signal entering on the right
side of the Switch Matrix can be routed to a single-length line on the top, left or bottom sides, or
any combination thereof. Single-length lines are normally used to conduct signals within a
localized area and to provide the branching for nets with fanout greater than one.
The function generator and control inputs to the CLB (F1-F4, G1-G4, and C1-C4) can be driven
from any adjacent single-length line segment. The CLB clock (K) input can be driven from one-
half of the adjacent single-length lines. Each CLB output can drive several of the single-length
lines, with connections to both the horizontal and vertical Longlines.

Fig. 8 Double-Length Lines

The doubled-length lines (Figure 8) consists of a gird of metal segments twice as long as the
single-length lines; i.e. a double-length line runs past two CLBs before entering a Switch Matrix.
Double-length lines are grouped in pairs with the Switch Matrices staggered so that each line goes
through a Matrix Switch at every other CLB location in that row or column. As with single-length
lines, all the CLB inputs except K can be driven from any adjacent double-length line, and each
CLB output can be drive nearby double-length lines in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
Double-length lines provide the most efficient implementation of intermediate lenggth, point-to-
point interconnections.

Xilinx XC4000 Architecture(2):

The Xilinx XC4000 series was a significant advancement in FPGA technology, offering higher
performance and density than previous generations. Its architecture is based on a modular design,
consisting of three primary components:

1. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):

• The core logic elements of the FPGA.

• Each CLB contains multiple logic cells, which can be configured to implement various
logic functions, such as AND, OR, XOR, and flip-flops.

• CLBs are interconnected through a network of programmable switches.

• The XC4000 CLB architecture is more complex than previous generations, offering
features like:
o Look-Up Tables (LUTs) for implementing complex logic functions.
o Flip-flops for storing state information.
o Carry logic for efficient arithmetic operations.
o On-chip RAM for memory-intensive applications.

2. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs):

• Provide the interface between the FPGA and external devices.

• Each IOB can be configured as an input, output, or bidirectional pin.

• They include input buffers, output drivers, and tri-state buffers.

• The XC4000 IOBs offer improved performance and flexibility compared to previous
generations.

3. Interconnect:

• The wiring network that connects the CLBs and IOBs.

• It is a hierarchical structure of programmable switches and routing channels.

• The interconnect allows for flexible routing of signals between different parts of the FPGA.
 • The XC4000 interconnect provides more routing resources and improved routing
algorithms for efficient signal routing.

Architectural Diagram

Xilinx XC4000 Architecture Diagram

Key Features of XC4000

• High Performance and Density: Offers higher performance and density than previous
generations.

• Flexibility: User-programmable array architecture allows for customization and

reconfiguration.

• Scalability: Available in various device sizes to meet different application needs.

• Low Power Consumption: Efficient power management for various operating conditions.
 • Advanced Features: Includes features like on-chip RAM, dedicated carry logic, and
improved routing resources.

Applications

The XC4000 series has been used in a wide range of applications, including:

• Telecommunications

• Networking

• Military and aerospace

• Industrial automation

• Consumer electronics

By understanding the core components and architecture of the Xilinx XC4000, you can effectively
design and implement complex digital systems using this powerful FPGA technology.

Actel act:

The basic logic cells in the Actel ACT family of FPGAs are called Logic Modules . The ACT 1
family uses just one type of Logic Module and the ACT 2 and ACT 3 FPGA families both use two
different types of Logic Module.

ACT 1 Logic Module:

The functional behavior of the Actel ACT 1 Logic Module is shown

in Figure 5.1 (a). Figure 5.1 (b) represents a possible circuit-level implementation. We can build
a logic function using an Actel Logic Module by connecting logic signals to some or all of the
Logic Module inputs, and by connecting any remaining Logic Module inputs to VDD or GND.
As an example, Figure 5.1 (c) shows the connections to implement the function F = A · B + B' ·
C + D. How did we know what connections to make? To understand how the Actel Logic
Module works, we take a detour via multiplexer logic and some theory.
FIGURE 5.1 The Actel ACT architecture. (a) Organization of the basic logic cells. (b) The
ACT 1 Logic Module. (c) An implementation using pass transistors (without any buffering).
(d) An example logic macro.

ACT2 and ACT3 Logic Modules:

Using two ACT 1 Logic Modules for a flip-flop also requires added interconnect and associated
parasitic capacitance to connect the two Logic Modules. To produce an efficient two-module
flip-flop macro we could use extra antifuses in the Logic Module to cut down on the parasitic
connections. However, the extra antifuses would have an adverse impact on the performance of
the Logic Module in other macros. The alternative is to use a separate flip-flop module, reducing
flexibility and increasing layout complexity. In the ACT 1 family Actel chose to use just one
type of Logic Module. The ACT 2 and ACT 3 architectures use two different types of Logic
Modules, and one of them does include the equivalent of a D flip-flop.

Figure 5.4 showsthe ACT 2 and ACT 3 Logic Modules. The ACT 2 C-Module is similar to the
ACT 1 Logic Module but is capable of implementing five-input logic functions. Actel calls its C-
module a combinatorial module even though the module implements combinational logic. John
Wakerly blames MMI for the introduction of the term combinatorial [Wakerly, 1994, p. 404].

The use of MUXes in the Actel Logic Modules (and in other places) can cause confusion in
using and creating logic macros. For the Actel library, setting S = '0' selects input A of a two-
input MUX. For other libraries setting S = '1' selects input A. This can lead to some very hard to
find errors when moving schematics between libraries. Similar problems arise in flip-flops and
latches with MUX inputs. A safer way to label the inputs of a two-input MUX is with '0' and '1',
corresponding to the input selected when the select input is '1' or '0'. This notation can be
extended to bigger MUXes, but in Figure 5.4 , does the input combination S0 = '1' and S1 = '0'
select input D10 or input D01? These problems are not caused by Actel, but by failure to use the
IEEE standard symbols in this area.
The S-Module ( sequential module ) contains the same combinational function capability as the
C-Module together with a sequential element that can be configured as a flip-flop. Figure 5.4 (d)
shows the sequential element implementation in the ACT 2 and ACT 3 architectures.

FIGURE 5.4 The Actel ACT 2 and ACT 3 Logic Modules. (a) The C-Module for
combinational logic. (b) The ACT 2 S-Module. (c) The ACT 3 S-Module. (d) The equivalent
circuit (without buffering) of the SE (sequential element). (e) The sequential element configured
as a positive-edge–triggered D flip-flop. (Source: Actel.)
 UNIT-2
Analysis and derivation of clocked sequential circuits with state
graphs and tables

S.no Topics
I A sequential parity checker
II Analysis by signal tracing and timing charts-state tables and
graphs-general models for sequential circuits
III Design of a sequence detector
IV More Complex design problems
V Guidelines for construction of state graphs
VI Serial data conversion
VII Alphanumeric state graph notation.
VIII Need and Design stratagies for multi-clock sequential circuits.

Moto:
What is that?
Types?
Where do we use it?
Advan/disadvan?

NOTE: Analysis clocked sequential circuits: The behaviour of a sequential network is

determined from the inputs, the outputs, and the states of its flip-flops.
*The analysis of sequential circuit consists of obtaining a table or a diagram for the time
sequence of inputs, outputs and internal states.
A sequential parity checker is a state-based digital circuit that determines whether the parity
(odd or even) of a binary sequence is correct. In the context of FPGA design, it is implemented
using:
1. State Machines: A finite state machine (FSM) is used to track the parity dynamically.
2. Flip-Flops: Memory elements store the current parity state.
3. Combinational Logic: Implements the XOR operation for parity checks.
4. FPGA Design Tools: Designed in Verilog/VHDL and synthesized for FPGA targets.
 5. Applications: Used for error detection in communication and data storage systems.
Would you like a detailed implementation?

I. A sequential parity checker

• A sequential parity checker is a digital circuit or algorithm that determines whether the number
of 1s in a sequence of binary data ‘bits’ is odd or even.
• It operates sequentially, meaning it processes the input bits one at a time in order. This type
of circuit is commonly used in error detection systems to ensure data integrity during
communication or storage.

What Is A Parity Checker?

• Parity is a simple error detection technique used in digital communication and storage
systems.
• Parity Checker is a logic circuit that checks for possible errors in the transmission. This
circuit can be an even parity checker or odd parity checker depending on the type of parity
generated at the transmission end. When this circuit is used as even parity checker, the
number of input bits must always be even.

Types of Parity:
❖ Even Parity:
• The parity bit is set to make the total number of 1s in the data word even.
Example: If the data word is 1011, the parity bit would be 1 to make the total
number of 1s even.
❖ Odd Parity:
• The parity bit is set to make the total number of 1s in the data word odd.
Example: If the data word is 1011, the parity bit would be 0 to make the total
number of 1s odd.
Implementation
Sequential parity checkers are typically implemented using flip-flops and logic gates. The flip-
flops store the current parity state, and the logic gates determine the next state based on the current
input bit and the current parity state.
Example: 4-Bit Sequential Parity Checker
Consider a 4-bit sequential parity checker with even parity. The circuit will have two states:
• State 0: Even number of 1s
• State 1: Odd number of 1s
The circuit transitions between these states based on the input bits. If the input bit is 1, the state
flips. If the input bit is 0, the state remains the same. The final state after processing all input bits
indicates whether an error has occurred.

Applications:
• Sequential parity checkers are widely used in various digital systems, including:
• Data Transmission: To detect errors in data transmitted over communication channels.
• Data Storage: To detect errors in data stored in memory devices.
• Error Correction Codes: As a component of more complex error correction codes.

Limitations/Disadvantages:
• Single-Bit Error Detection: Sequential parity checkers can only detect single-bit errors. Multiple-
bit errors may go undetected if they don't change the overall parity.
• No Error Correction: Parity checkers can only detect errors, not correct them.
II. Analysis by signal tracing and timing charts-state tables and graphs-general
models for sequential circuits:
Understanding Sequential Circuits and Analysis Techniques
Sequential circuits are a fundamental building block in digital systems. They rely on both combinational
logic and memory elements (like flip-flops) to store information and produce outputs based on both current
inputs and past states.

Analysis Techniques:
To analyze sequential circuits, we employ several techniques:

1) Signal Tracing and Timing Diagrams:

Signal Tracing and Timing Diagrams are essential tools in the design and analysis of digital systems.
They help visualize the behavior of circuits over time, identify potential timing issues, and validate the
correct functionality of a design.

• Signal Tracing:
Signal tracing involves manually or using simulation tools to follow the propagation of signals through
a circuit. This technique helps in understanding:
o Data Flow: How data moves from inputs to outputs through logic gates and flip-flops.
o Timing Behavior: How signals change over time, including propagation delays and setup and hold
times.
o State Transitions: How the state of a sequential circuit changes in response to input changes.

• Timing Diagrams:
Timing diagrams are graphical representations of signal waveforms over time. They provide a visual
representation of:
o Clock Cycles: The timing reference for synchronous circuits.
o Input Signals: The values of input signals at different points in time.
o Output Signals: The values of output signals in response to input changes.
o Timing Constraints: Setup and hold times, clock skew, and propagation delays.

2.General Models for Sequential Circuits:

Sequential circuits store and process state information, with outputs depending on the
current state and possibly the input. The Moore and Mealy models are the two general models for
describing such circuits. These models are often analyzed using timing charts, state tables, and
state graphs (or diagrams).
1. Timing Charts:
 A timing chart visually represents how the inputs, outputs, and states of a sequential
circuit change over time, typically with respect to clock cycles.
2. State Tables:
A state table is a tabular representation of the behavior of a sequential circuit. It lists:
• Current State: The present state of the system.
• Input: The input conditions.
• Next State: The state the system transitions to based on the current state and
input.
• Output: The output produced.

Fig-1
3. State Graphs (or Diagrams):
A state graph is a graphical representation of the behavior of a sequential circuit. States
are represented as nodes, and transitions are represented as directed edges labeled with
input/output values.
4. General Models for Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuits are fundamental to digital system design, as they allow circuits to
store information and exhibit time-dependent behavior. The general models for sequential
circuits describe how states, inputs, and outputs interact. These models are typically categorized
into two main types: Moore machines and Mealy machines
o Graphical representation of a sequential circuit's behavior.

• For more clear info go through this link.

• NOTE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2thB1ncOlM
Construct state tables and graphs from logic circuits:

Moore machine:
1.Determine the Flip-Flop input equation & the circuit output equation
DA=X⊕B’ DB=X+A Z=A⊕B.

2) Derive the next-state equations.

A+ = DA = X⊕B’ B+ = DB = X + A

3) Plot a next-state map

4) Combine all next-state maps to form the state table

5) Corresponding state graph (Moore)

6) Construction of timing chart

Fig-1
 Fig-2

Fig-3

Mealy machine:
Construct state tables and graphs from logic circuit:
 Fig
1) Determine the F/F input equation & the circuit output equation

2) Derive the next-state equations

3) Plot a next-state map

4) Combine all next-state maps to form the state table

5) Corresponding state graph (Mealy)

6) Construction of timing chart

Fig-1

Fig-2
Fig-3

Fig-4
Fig-5

Fig-6
III. Design of a sequence detector
A sequence detector is the digital circuit that detects some input signal sequences from a set of the
binary data. One can determine whether incoming bits are equal to a prestored sequence, thus widely used
in communication systems, data processing, and digital signal processing. Meanwhile, implemented
through several technologies, among them, state machines, and programmable logic devices.
Thus, showing its applicability across various fields. Sequence detector is of two types:

1. Overlapping
2. Non-Overlapping

In an overlapping sequence detector, the last bit of one sequence becomes the first bit of the
next sequence.
However, in a non-overlapping sequence detector, the last bit of one sequence does not
become the first bit of the next sequence.
Let’s discuss the design procedure for non-overlapping 101 Mealy sequence detectors:
The steps to design a non-overlapping 101 Mealy sequence detectors are:

Step 1: Develop the state diagram –

The state diagram of a Mealy machine for a 101 sequence detector is:

Step 2: Code Assignment –

Rule 1 : States having the same next states for a given input condition should have adjacent assignments.
Rule 2: States that are the next states to a single state must be given adjacent assignments.
Rule 1 given preference over Rule 2.
The state diagram after the code assignment is:

Step 3: Make Present State/Next State table:

We’ll use D-Flip Flops for design purposes.

Step 4: Draw K-maps for Dx, Dy and output (Z) –

Step 5: Finally implement the circuit –

This is the final circuit for a Mealy 101 non-overlapping sequence detector.

Advantages of Sequence Detector

• Pattern Detection: The Detectors distinguish high fidelity data streams and, hence, enhance the
integrity of communication systems.
• Flexibility: Their range runs from telecommunication to bioinformatics and hence supports great
flexibility in design and development.
 • High Resolution: Advanced sequence detectors can differentiate between sequences in noisier
environments too. Hence, they are dependable for any critical applications.
• Integrability with other digital elements: It can easily be integrated with other digital elements.
The circuits become more useful to the general system.

Disadvantages of Sequence Detector

• Design Complexity: A sequence detector for sequences can sometimes consume more resources
and hence might demand long techniques of design.
• Latency: The implementation of the sequence detectors is also prone to latency effects during the
detection of the sequence. This latency is more likely to be a problem in real-time systems.
• Resource Intensive: Advanced sequence detectors are sometimes resource-intensive too;
therefore, it makes them cost-inefficient.
• Scalability Challenges: The more complex sequences tend to be, the further design and resource
requirements push up can pose scalability challenges.

Applications of Sequence Detector

• Data Compression: It is used in algorithms that need pattern identification for specific sequences
of data storage.
• Control Systems: It is applied in control systems that perform monitoring and decision-making
based on patterns of the input signal observed.
• Bioinformatics: Applied to find specific nucleotide sequences in DNA or RNA for purposes of
genetic analysis and study.
• Pattern recognition: Applied to a vast amount of applications from image and machine learning
down to pattern recognition in datasets.
• Embedded systems: Embedded systems are Applied in microcontrollers as well as digital circuits
with applications requiring control logic to identify sequences.

IV. More Complex design problems

More Complex Design Problems in Digital Systems
While the basic sequence detector is a good starting point, many real-world digital systems involve
more complex design problems. Here are some examples:

1. Multiple Sequence Detection: [ GO FOR V ANSWER” Sequence Detection”]

A multiple sequence detector is a digital circuit designed to recognize multiple specific patterns within
a sequence of input bits. This is a more complex variation of a single sequence detector, requiring a more
sophisticated state machine design.
Example: Detecting multiple sequences simultaneously, such as "101" and "011".
• Approach:
o Create a state machine with multiple states to track each sequence.
o Use additional logic to determine which sequence is detected first.
 o Consider overlapping sequences and prioritize detection.

2.Variable-Length Sequence Detection:

A variable-length sequence detector is a digital circuit designed to recognize sequences of varying
lengths within an input bit stream. Unlike fixed-length sequence detectors, which detect specific sequences
of a fixed number of bits, variable-length detectors can recognize patterns of varying lengths.

• Scenario: Detecting sequences of variable length, such as any sequence of three consecutive 1s.
• Approach:
o Use a counter to track the number of consecutive 1s.
o Reset the counter when a 0 is encountered.
o Generate an output when the counter reaches the desired threshold.

3. Error Detection and Correction:

Error detection and correction techniques are crucial in digital systems to ensure reliable data
transmission and storage. These techniques add redundancy to the data, allowing the receiver to detect and,
in some cases, correct errors that may occur during transmission or storage.

Error Detection Codes:

Error detection codes add extra bits to the data, called parity bits, to detect errors. Common error detection
codes include:
• Parity Check:
o Adds a parity bit to make the total number of 1s even or odd.
o Detects single-bit errors.
• Checksum:
o Calculates the sum of all data bits and adds the checksum to the data.
o Detects multiple-bit errors.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
o Divides the data by a generator polynomial and appends the remainder as a checksum.
o Detects burst errors and some multiple-bit errors.

Error Correction Codes:

Error correction codes add more redundancy to the data, allowing the receiver to not only detect but also
correct errors. Some common error correction codes are:
• Hamming Codes:
o Add parity bits to detect and correct single-bit errors.
 o Can also detect some multiple-bit errors.
• Reed-Solomon Codes:
o Can correct multiple-bit errors in a block of data.
o Widely used in storage systems like CDs and DVDs.
• Turbo Codes:
o Powerful error correction codes that approach the theoretical limit of error correction.
o Used in modern communication systems.

4.Pipeline Design:
[ https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-pipeline-design-patterns-system-design/]
Pipeline design is a technique used to improve the performance of digital systems by dividing a
complex task into smaller stages and processing multiple data items simultaneously. This approach can
significantly increase the throughput of a system, especially for tasks that involve multiple sequential steps.

These stages operate concurrently, with data flowing continuously through the pipeline,
maximizing resource utilization and improving throughput. For more intricate systems,
Challenges include managing inter-stage dependencies, balancing workloads, and
minimizing latency. Effective pipeline design requires careful partitioning, synchronization, and
buffering strategies to handle data dependencies and ensure efficient performance.
Applications:
It is widely applied in processors, signal processing, and large-scale digital systems.
Process:
Pipeline design in digital systems involves dividing a complex operation into smaller,
sequential stages, with each stage performing a specific function. Here's a breakdown of typical
stages found in many digital systems, such as processors:

1. Instruction Fetch (IF):

• Purpose: Retrieve the next instruction from memory.
• Details:
o The program counter (PC) points to the memory address of the instruction
to be fetched.
o The fetched instruction is loaded into the instruction register for further
processing.
 • Key Challenges:
o Ensuring the correct instruction is fetched when branches or jumps occur.
• Example: Accessing an instruction like ADD R1, R2, R3.

2. Instruction Decode (ID):

• Purpose: Interpret the fetched instruction to determine what action to perform.
• Details:
o The opcode is extracted and analyzed to understand the operation (e.g.,
addition, subtraction, load, etc.).
o Identify the registers or memory locations involved in the operation.
o If needed, control signals are generated for subsequent stages.
• Key Challenges:
o Handling complex instructions and ensuring correct interpretation.
• Example: Decoding ADD R1, R2, R3 to understand it means R1 = R2 + R3.

3. Execute (EX)
• Purpose: Perform the actual operation specified by the instruction.
• Details:
o Arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication).
o Logical operations (e.g., AND, OR, NOT).
o Address calculations for memory access instructions.
o Branch condition evaluations.
• Key Challenges:
o Minimizing delays for complex arithmetic operations (e.g., division,
multiplication).
• Example: Computing the sum of R2 + R3 and storing the result in a temporary
register.

4. Memory Access (MEM)

• Purpose: Access data from or write data to memory if required by the instruction.
• Details:
o For load instructions, the computed address is used to fetch data from memory.
o For store instructions, the result of the operation is written to a specific
memory location.
o For non-memory instructions, this stage may simply pass the data through.
 • Key Challenges:
o Avoiding delays due to memory access times (e.g., cache misses).
• Example: Loading the value at address A into a register.

5. Write Back (WB)

• Purpose: Store the result of the operation in the appropriate destination register.
• Details:
o The computed result from the execute or memory access stage is written back
to the specified register or memory location.
• Key Challenges:
o Ensuring the result is written in the correct order to avoid overwriting values
prematurely.
• Example: Writing the result of R1 = R2 + R3 back into register R1.

Consider a sequence of three instructions:

1. Instruction 1: ADD R1, R2, R3
2. Instruction 2: SUB R4, R5, R6
3. Instruction 3: LOAD R7, [R8]
The pipeline operates as follows:
• Clock Cycle 1: Instruction 1 in IF.
• Clock Cycle 2: Instruction 1 in ID, Instruction 2 in IF.
• Clock Cycle 3: Instruction 1 in EX, Instruction 2 in ID, Instruction 3 in IF.
• And so on...
This overlapping allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously, improving
throughput.
Fig-1:Example fig for clock cycles

Fig-2
V. Guidelines for construction of state graphs
[https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-draw-a-state-machine-diagram/]
State graphs are visual representations of the behavior of a sequential circuit. 1 They are
essential tools for designing and analyzing digital systems. Here are some key guidelines for
constructing effective state graphs:
1. Understand the Problem:
• Clearly define the desired behavior: What is the circuit supposed to do?
• Identify inputs and outputs: What signals will be input to the circuit, and what signals
should it output?
• Determine the required states: What different internal states does the circuit need to
remember?
2. Create a State Table:
• List all possible input combinations: For each input combination, determine the next state
and output.
• Organize the table: Use a clear and organized format to represent the state transitions.
3. Construct the State Diagram:
• Represent states as nodes: Each state should be represented by a circle or a box. 2
• Represent transitions as edges: Use arrows to indicate transitions between states.
• Label edges with input conditions: Label each edge with the input condition that triggers
the transition.3
• Label nodes or edges with output values: Indicate the output associated with each state or
transition.4
4. Minimize the State Graph:
• Combine equivalent states: If two or more states have the same next state and output for
all input combinations, they can be merged.
• Eliminate unreachable states: If a state cannot be reached from the initial state, it can be
removed.
5. Implement the State Machine:
• Assign binary codes to states: Assign unique binary codes to each state.
• Design the combinational logic: Implement the state transition logic and output logic using
logic gates.
 • Use flip-flops: Use flip-flops to store the current state.

VI. Serial data conversion:

Serial data conversion refers to the process of converting data between parallel and serial
formats to facilitate communication, storage, or processing. This technique is essential in digital systems,
especially in communication interfaces like UART, SPI, or I²C.
1.Serial to Parallel conversion
2.Parallel to serial conversion

1.Serial to Parallel Conversion:

To convert serial data to parallel data a set of D flip-flops is needed. The number of flip-flops is
exactly the size of the serial data to be transmitted. For example, to transmit four-bit serial stream four
flip-flops a required. A schematic of a four-bit converter is depicted.
The serial data is delivered at the input of the first flip-flop, and bits are successfully transferred
to the next flip-flop on the rising (or falling) edge of the clock. The next figure shows an actual circuit for
a four-bit converter, where four bits (0, 0, 0, and 1) are stored at the input of the first flip-flop.
With the first rising edge (i.e. tick) of the clock, the first bit (1 in this case) is transferred to the input
of the second flip-flop. Successive ticks moves the bits to the next flip-flop, until all four bits are stored at
the output of each flip-flop. In this figure we have not shown all the circuitry of an actual converter. The
converter does not release the parallel set of bits until all the bits (four in this case) are transferred, and
each one is stored at the output (Q) of a corresponding flip-flop. Once all the outputs are filled, the
converter releases all the bits at once. For this process to happen, the converter is disabled (by means of
one or more control lines) during the transfer process and enabled once all the bits are at the output bus.
This is summarized by stating that the conversion is carried out in three stages:
1. Disable the output bus. The converter can't send output data.
2. Load all the bits into the outputs of the flip-flops by moving them one bit at a time using the
clock.
3. Once all the bits are loaded (all the flip-flops have one bit stored in the Q pin), then enable the
bus operation. The four bits are sent at once.
 Example Circuit:
• Components:
o Shift register (e.g., 74HC595).
o Clock signal for synchronization.
o Output lines for parallel data.

2.Parallel to Serial Conversion

In this converter all parallel data is loaded (stored) simultaneously into the D-type flip-
flops. Once this is achieved, with the help of the clock, data is shifted one bit a a time from the
last flip-flop. This two-step process is schematically illustrated in the accompanying figure.
In an actual converter, more circuitry is needed. Simply, the parallel data is multiplexed
in order to convert it into serial data. The multiplexer will force the parallel data to be shifted one
bit at a time through the last (most significant bit) flip-flop. The following figure is the diagram
of a four bit converter. There are four flip-flops and three multiplexers. Each flip-flop is the
output of a multiplexer, with the exception of the first flip-flop, which will represent the least
significant bit (LSB) of the output serial data. Each multiplexer has two inputs (known as a 2 x 1
mux) and one output. The inputs are one bit of the parallel data and one input from the previous
flip-flop.
 Example Circuit:
• Components:
o Shift register (e.g., 74HC165).
o Clock signal for synchronization.
o Data lines for parallel input.

Specifications
• Clock speed. Normally given in Hz, it is the speed at which the data is shifted inside the
converter
• The size of the converter. This is the number of bits the converter can handle
• Power. The total power needed to operate the device (current or voltage, or both)

Applications of Serial Data Conversion

1. Data Communication:
o Used in serial communication protocols like UART, SPI, and I²C to reduce the number of
physical lines.
2. Storage Devices:
o Interfaces like SATA and USB use serial data transmission for storage devices.
3. Microcontrollers and Processors:
o Microcontrollers often need to convert between parallel and serial data for interfacing
with peripherals.
4. Networking:
o Ethernet and other networking protocols rely on serial transmission for efficient data
transfer.
5. Digital Displays:
o Serial-to-parallel converters drive pixel data in LED and LCD displays.
 Advantages of Serial Data Conversion
• Reduced Complexity: Fewer wires and pins are required, simplifying circuit design.
• Lower Cost: Minimizes material costs for wiring and connectors.
• High Speed: Suitable for high-frequency transmission with proper encoding.

VII. Alphanumeric state graph notation.

When a state sequential circuit has several inputs, it is often convenient to label the
state graph arcs with alphanumeric input variable names instead of 0’s and 1’s.
Properly Specified State Graphs Section 14.5 (p. 449) In general, a completely
specified state graph has the following properties: 1. When we OR together all
input labels on arcs emanating from a state, the result reduces to 1. 2. When we
AND together any pair of input labels on arcs emanating from a state, the result is
0
Alphanumeric Notation for Mealy State Graphs
XiXj / ZpZq means if inputs Xi and Xj are 1 (we don’t care what the other input values
are), the outputs Zp and Zq are 1 (and the other outputs are 0). That is, for a circuit with four
inputs (X1 , X2 , X3 , and X4 ) and four outputs (Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , and Z4 ), X1X4 ′ / Z2Z3 is
equivalent to 1--0 / 0110.
This type of notation is very useful for large sequential circuits where there are many
inputs and outputs.

VIII. Need and Design stratagies for multi-clock sequential circuits.

Designing multi-clock sequential circuits requires strategies that handle
synchronization between different clock domains, ensuring that signals between
domains are properly synchronized to avoid timing errors like metastability or race
conditions. Below are some strategies and considerations for designing multi-clock
sequential circuits:
1. Clock Domain Crossing (CDC) Handling:
In digital electronic design a clock domain crossing (CDC), or simply clock crossing, is the
traversal of a signal in a synchronous digital circuit from one clock domain into another. If a
signal does not assert long enough and is not registered, it may appear asynchronous on the
incoming clock boundary.
(OR)
 • Synchronizers:

oUse two-flip-flop synchronizers (or more) to safely pass signals between clock
domains. This helps to prevent metastability when a signal changes in one clock
domain and is sampled in another.
o For high-speed designs, asynchronous FIFO buffers or dual-port RAM can
be used to buffer data between clocks and ensure safe transfer.
• Gray Code Encoding:
o When passing a counter or sequence between clock domains, consider using
Gray code to avoid glitches, as it changes only one bit at a time and reduces
the risk of invalid intermediate states.
• Handshake Protocols:
o Use handshaking mechanisms (e.g., ready/valid signals) between clock
domains to manage the flow of data and ensure that data is available before it is
sampled by the receiving domain.
Techniques to overcome Clock Domain Crossing(CDC):

2. Clock Skew and Synchronization:

Clock distribution and synchronization in synchronous systems are important issues especially as
the size of the system and/or the clock rate increase. Minimization of clock skew has always been a
major concern for the designers. Many factors contribute to clock synchronization and skew in a
synchronous system. Among the major factors are: the clock distribution network, choice of clocking
scheme, the underlying technology, the size of the system and level of integration, the type of material
used in distributing the clock, clock buffers, and the clock rate. To be able to get around the problems
related to clock skew and synchronization , one has to understand the effect that clock skew can have
on the operation" of a given system. In this paper we derive simple and practical formulations of these
effects in terms of a few time-parameters that can be considered as properties of the individual modules
and the clock network in a synchronous system. Knowing these timeparameters, one can determine the
maximum throughput of a given system as well as its reaction to a change in clock skew. Three
different clocking schemes, namely, edge-triggered, single-phase level sensitive, and two-phase
clocking are considered. However, using the approaches discussed in this paper, the effect of clock
skew for any other clocking scheme can be analyzed and formulated.
1. tpl -propagation delay of the individual modules (e.g., processing elements) in the
synchronous system.
2. t,l - settling time or the computation delay of the modules.
3. tpr - propagation delay ofregisters involved in data transfer between modules.
4. t,r - settling time of registers.
5. tck - the time of arrival of the clock signal at a given register involved in a
synchronous data transfer.
6. tpi - propagation delay of the interconnection between communicating modules.
• Clock Alignment:
o Ensure that the clocks are properly aligned or that the timing between
clock edges is understood (clock skew). For example, if two clocks have a
known phase relationship, this should be accounted for in the design.
• Global Clock Distribution:
o Use global clock networks to distribute a common clock to multiple
sequential elements when necessary, especially if synchronizing data or
performing operations across multiple clock domains.
• Clock Gating:
o Use clock gating techniques to disable clocks to parts of the design that
don’t need to run, which can help reduce power consumption and control
the flow of data.

3. Timing Constraints and Analysis:

Timing constraints is a vital attribute in real-time systems. Timing constraints decides the total
correctness of the result in real-time systems. The correctness of results in real-time system
does not depends only on logical correctness but also the result should be obtained within the
time constraint. There might be several events happening in real time system and these events
are scheduled by schedulers using timing constraints.
Classification of Timing Constraints:
Timing constraints associated with the real-time system is classified to identify the different
types of timing constraints in a real-time system. Timing constraints are broadly classified into
two categories:
1. Performance Constraints
The constraints enforced on the response of the system is known as Performance Constraints.
This basically describes the overall performance of the system. This shows how quickly and
accurately the system is responding. It ensures that the real-time system performs
satisfactorily.
2. Behavioral Constraint
The constraints enforced on the stimuli generated by the environment is known as Behavioral
Constraints. This basically describes the behavior of the environment. It ensures that the
environment of a system is well behaved.
Further, the both performance and behavioral constraints are classified into three categories:
Delay Constraint, Deadline Constraint, and Duration Constraint. These are explained as
following below.
i.Delay Constraint –
A delay constraint describes the minimum time interval between occurrence of two
consecutive events in the real-time system. If an event occurs before the delay constraint, then
it is called a delay violation. The time interval between occurrence of two events should be
greater than or equal to delay constraint.
If D is the actual time interval between occurrence of two events and d is the delay constraint,
then

ii. Deadline Constraint –

A deadline constraint describes the maximum time interval between occurrence of two
consecutive events in the real-time system. If an event occurs after the deadline constraint,
then the result of event is considered incorrect. The time interval between occurrence of two
events should be less than or equal to deadline constraint.
If D is the actual time interval between occurrence of two events and d is the deadline
constraint, then
3.Duration Constraint –
Duration constraint describes the duration of an event in real-time system. It describes the
minimum and maximum time period of an event. On this basis it is further classified into two
types:
• Minimum Duration Constraint: It describes that after the initiation of an event,
it can not stop before a certain minimum duration.
• Maximum Duration Constraint: It describes that after the starting of an event, it
must end before a certain maximum duration elapses.

4. FIFO (First-In, First-Out) Buffers:

In computing and in systems theory, first in, first out (the first in is the first out), acronymized as FIFO,
is a method for organizing the manipulation of a data structure (often, specifically a data buffer)
where the oldest (first) entry, or "head" of the queue, is processed first.
Such processing is analogous to servicing people in a queue area on a first-come, first-served (FCFS)
basis, i.e. in the same sequence in which they arrive at the queue's tail.
FCFS is also the jargon term for the FIFO operating system scheduling algorithm, which gives every
process central processing unit (CPU) time in the order in which it is demanded.[1] FIFO's opposite
is LIFO, last-in-first-out, where the youngest entry or "top of the stack" is processed first.[2] A priority
queue is neither FIFO or LIFO but may adopt similar behaviour temporarily or by default. Queueing
theory encompasses these methods for processing data structures, as well as interactions between
strict-FIFO queues.
 Fig-1

Fig-2
• FIFO buffers are useful for managing data transfer between clock domains with
different speeds. They allow data to be stored temporarily before it’s read by the next
domain, ensuring that the data is ready and properly synchronized when sampled.
• For high-throughput applications, deep FIFOs with pointers or flags may be used to
manage the flow of data between clock domains effectively.
 UNIT-3: SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT DESIGN

Sequential circuit Design: Design procedure for sequential circuits-design

example, Code converter, Design of Iterative circuits, Design of a comparator,
Controller (FSM) – Metastability, Synchronization, FSM Issues, Pipelining
resources sharing, Sequential circuit design using FPGAs, Simulation and testing
of Sequential circuits, Overview of computer Aided Design.

Introduction:
Digital circuits are classified into two major categories namely, combinational
circuits and sequential circuits. We have already discussed about combinational
circuits in the earlier chapters of this tutorial. This chapter will highlight the details
of sequential circuits.

A sequential circuit is a type of digital logic circuit whose output depends on

present inputs as well as past operation of the circuit. Let us start this section of the
tutorial with a basic introduction to sequential circuits.

What is a Sequential Circuit?

A sequential circuit is a logic circuit that consists of a memory element to store

history of past operation of the circuit. Therefore, the output of a sequential circuit
depends on present inputs as well as past outputs of the circuit.

The block diagram of a typical sequential circuit is shown in the following

figure −
Here, it can be seen that a sequential circuit is basically a combination of a
combinational circuit and a memory element. The combinational circuit performs
the logical operations specified, while the memory element records the history of
operation of the circuit. This history is then used to perform various logical
operations in future.

The sequential circuits are named so because they use a series of latest and
previous inputs to determine the new output.

Main Components of Sequential Circuit

A sequential circuit consists of several different digital components to process and

hold information in the system. Here are some key components of a sequential
circuit explained −

Logic Gates

The logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, etc. are used to implement the data
processing mechanism of the sequential circuits. These logic gates are basically
interconnected in a specific manner to implement combinational circuits to
perform logical operations on input data.

Memory Element

In sequential circuits, the memory element is another crucial component that holds
history of circuit operation. Generally, flip-flops are used as the memory element
in sequential circuits.

In sequential circuits, a feedback path is provided between the output and the input
that transfers information from output end to the memory element and from
memory element to the input end.

All these components are interconnected together to design a sequential circuit that
can perform complex operations and store state information in the memory
element.
Based on structure, operation, and applications, the sequential circuits are
classified into the following two types −

1.Asynchronous Sequential Circuit

2.Synchronous Sequential Circuit

Let us discuss both of these sequential circuits in detail.

Asynchronous Sequential Circuit

A type of sequential circuit whose operation does not depend on the clock signals
is known as an asynchronous sequential circuit. This type of sequential circuits
operates using the input pulses that means their state changes with the change in
the input pulses.

The main components of the asynchronous sequential circuits include un-clocked

flip flops and combinational logic circuits. The block diagram of a typical
asynchronous sequential circuit is shown in the following figure.

From this diagram, it is clear that an asynchronous sequential circuit is similar to a

combinational logic circuit with a feedback mechanism.

Asynchronous sequential circuits are mainly used in applications where the clock
signals are not available or practical to use. For example, in conditions when speed
of the task execution is important.

Asynchronous sequential circuits are relatively difficult to design and sometimes

they produce uncertain output.

The ripple counter is a common example of asynchronous sequential circuit.

Synchronous Sequential Circuit

A synchronous sequential circuit is a type of sequential circuit in which all the

memory elements are synchronized by a common clock signal. Hence,
synchronous sequential circuits take a clock signal along with input signals.

In synchronous sequential circuits, the duration of the output pulse is equivalent to

the duration of the clock pulse applied. Take a look at the block diagram of a
typical synchronous sequential circuit −

In this figure, it can be seen that the memory element of the sequential circuit is
synchronized by a clock signal.

The major disadvantage of the synchronous sequential circuits is that their

operation is quite slow. This is because, every time the circuit has to wait for a
clock pulse for the operation to take place. However, the most significant
advantage of synchronous sequential circuits is that they have a reliable and
predictable operation.

Some common examples of synchronous sequential circuits include counters,

registers, memory units, control units, etc.

Disadvantages:

1.Sequential circuits have higher propagation delay because the input signal passes
through multiple stages of logic circuits and memory elements.
2.Sequential circuits are relatively complicated and time taking process to design
and analyze.
3.Sequential circuits require a proper synchronization and clock distribution to work
as intended.
4.As compared to combinational circuits, sequential circuits consume relatively
more power due to complex design and use of additional components like clock and
memory element.

Applications:

1.Sequential circuits are used in digital counters employed in applications like

frequency division, event counting, time keeping, and more.
2.Sequential circuits are also used in digital memory devices like flip-flops, registers,
etc. to store and retrieve data.
3.Sequential circuits are used to design control circuits in digital systems.
4.Sequential circuits play an important role in sequential logic and state-based data
processing operations.
5.Sequential circuits are also used in automation systems to control the operation of
machines based on predefined logics.
6.In communication systems, sequential circuits are used to implement
communication protocols and data transmission standards.

Analysis and Design of Sequential circuits:

To design of Sequential circuits, the procedure involves the following steps:
1. Derive the state table and state equations.
2. Derive the state diagram using the state table.
3. Reduce states using state reduction technique.
4. Verify the number of Flip-Flops and type of Flip-Flop to be used.
5. Derive the excitation equations using the excitation table.
6. Derive the output function and the Flip-Flop input functions.
7. Derive the logic functions or equation for each output variable.
8. Draw the required logic diagram.

Examples of sequential circuits are Registers, Shift Registers, Counters, Ripple

Counters, Synchronous Counters etc.
Design Procedure for Sequential Circuits

Sequential circuits are digital circuits whose outputs depend not only on the
present inputs but also on the past sequence of inputs. This makes them more
complex than combinational circuits, but also more powerful. Here's a detailed
design procedure, illustrated with diagrams:

1. Define the Problem:

• Inputs: Determine the number and type of inputs (binary or other).

• Outputs: Define the required outputs and their functionality.
• Timing: Specify the timing constraints, such as clock frequency and
input/output delays.
• State Diagram: Create a state diagram to visually represent the circuit's
behavior. Each state represents a specific condition of the circuit, and
transitions between states are triggered by input changes.

2. State Assignment:

• State Encoding: Assign binary codes to each state in the state diagram.
• State Table: Create a state table that lists all possible input combinations,
current states, next states, and outputs.

3. Flip-Flop Selection:

• Type of Flip-Flop: Choose the appropriate type of flip-flop (e.g., JK, SR, T,
or D) based on the desired behavior and timing constraints.
• Number of Flip-Flops: Determine the number of flip-flops required to
represent the number of states.

4. Excitation Table:

• Excitation Table: Create an excitation table that shows the required inputs
to the flip-flops to achieve the desired state transitions. This table relates the
present state, next state, and flip-flop inputs.

5. Simplification of Excitation and Output Functions:

 • Karnaugh Maps: Use Karnaugh maps or other minimization techniques to
simplify the Boolean expressions for the flip-flop inputs and outputs.

6. Logic Circuit Design:

• Logic Gates: Implement the simplified Boolean expressions using logic

gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) to create the combinational logic portion of the
circuit.
• Flip-Flop Connections: Connect the flip-flops to the combinational logic to
form the sequential circuit.
• Clock Signal: Provide a clock signal to synchronize the state transitions.

Example: A 2-bit Synchronous Counter

State Diagram:

state diagram for a 2bit synchronous counter

State Table:

Present State
Input (X) Next State (Q1+Q0+) Output (Z)
(Q1Q0)
00 X 01 0
01 X 10 0
10 X 11 0
11 X 00 1
Export to Sheets

Excitation Table (using JK flip-flops):

 Present State
Next State (Q1+Q0+) J1K1 J0K0
(Q1Q0)
00 01 01 0X
01 10 1X 01
10 11 X1 1X
11 00 X0 X0
Export to Sheets

Logic Circuit:

logic circuit for a 2bit synchronous counter using JK flipflops

Key Points:

• State Diagram: Visually represents the circuit's behavior.

• State Table: Defines the circuit's behavior in tabular form.
• Excitation Table: Specifies the inputs to the flip-flops to achieve state
transitions.
• Simplification: Reduces the complexity of the circuit.
• Logic Circuit: Implements the design using logic gates and flip-flops.

By following these steps and using appropriate design tools, you can effectively
design a wide range of sequential circuits to meet specific requirements.

Examples of sequential circuits are Registers, Shift Registers, Counters,

Ripple Counters, Synchronous Counters etc.
A Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times
a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.
Counters are used in digital electronics for counting purpose, they can count
specific event happening in the circuit. For example, in UP counter a counter
increases count for every rising edge of clock. Not only counting, a counter can
follow the certain sequence based on our design like any random sequence
0,1,3,2… .They can also be designed with the help of flip flops. They are used as
frequency dividers where the frequency of given pulse waveform is divided.
Counters are sequential circuit that count the number of pulses can be either in
binary code or BCD form. The main properties of a counter are timing ,
sequencing , and counting. Counter works in two modes :
1.Up counter

2.Down counter

Counter Classification

Counters are broadly divided into two categories

1.Asynchronous counter

2.Synchronous counter

1. Asynchronous Counter

In asynchronous counter we don’t use universal clock, only first flip flop is
driven by main clock and the clock input of rest of the following flip flop is
driven by output of previous flip flops. We can understand it by following
diagram-
It is evident from timing diagram that Q0 is changing as soon as the rising
edge of clock pulse is encountered, Q1 is changing when rising edge of Q0 is
encountered(because Q0 is like clock pulse for second flip flop) and so on. In
this way ripples are generated through Q0,Q1,Q2,Q3 hence it is also called
RIPPLE counter and serial counter. A ripple counter is a cascaded
arrangement of flip flops where the output of one flip flop drives the clock
input of the following flip flop

2. Synchronous Counter

Unlike the asynchronous counter, synchronous counter has one global clock
which drives each flip flop so output changes in parallel. The one advantage
of synchronous counter over asynchronous counter is, it can operate on
higher frequency than asynchronous counter as it does not have cumulative
delay because of same clock is given to each flip flop. It is also called as
parallel counter.

Synchronous counter circuit

Timing diagram synchronous counter
From circuit diagram we see that Q0 bit gives response to each falling edge of
clock while Q1 is dependent on Q0, Q2 is dependent on Q1 and Q0 , Q3 is
dependent on Q2,Q1 and Q0.

Decade Counter
A decade counter counts ten different states and then reset to its initial states. A
simple decade counter will count from 0 to 9 but we can also make the decade
counters which can go through any ten states between 0 to 15(for 4 bit counter).

Clock pulse Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

2 0 0 1 0
 3 0 0 1 1

4 0 1 0 0

5 0 1 0 1

6 0 1 1 0

7 0 1 1 1

8 1 0 0 0

9 1 0 0 1

10 0 0 0 0

Truth table for simple decade counter

Decade counter circuit diagram

We see from circuit diagram that we have used nand gate for Q3 and Q1 and
feeding this to clear input line because binary representation of 10 is—
1010
And we see Q3 and Q1 are 1 here, if we give NAND of these two bits to clear
input then counter will be clear at 10 and again start from beginning.
Important point: Number of flip flops used in counter are always greater than
equal to (log2 n) where n=number of states in counter.
DESIGN EXAMPLE:

Design a 3-bit Up-Counter:A 3-bit up-counter is a sequential circuit that counts

from 0 to 7 and then resets to 0. Let's design this circuit using JK flip-flops.

1. State Diagram:

State diagram for a 3bit upcounter

2. State Assignment:

State Q2 Q1 Q0
S0 0 0 0
S1 0 0 1
S2 0 1 0
S3 0 1 1
S4 1 0 0
S5 1 0 1
 S6 1 1 0
S7 1 1 1
Export to Sheets

3. Excitation Table:

Present
Next State J2K2 J1K1 J0K0
State
000 001 0X 01 0X
001 010 0X 1X 01
010 011 0X X1 0X
011 100 1X X0 X0
100 101 X0 01 0X
101 110 X0 1X 01
110 111 X0 X1 0X
111 000 X1 X1 X1
Export to Sheets

4. Simplify Excitation Equations: Using Karnaugh maps, we can simplify the

excitation equations for the JK flip-flops:

• J2 = Q1Q0
• K2 = 1
• J1 = Q0
• K1 = 1
• J0 = 1
• K0 = 1

5. Design the Circuit:

logic circuit for a 3bit upcounter using JK flipflops

In this circuit:

• The three JK flip-flops represent the three bits of the counter.

• The logic gates implement the simplified excitation equations.
• A common clock signal synchronizes the state transitions.

This 3-bit up-counter will increment its output with each rising edge of the clock
signal, demonstrating the fundamental principles of sequential circuit design.

EXAMPLE-2:
Designing a 4-bit Shift Register

A shift register is a digital circuit that shifts its binary data one bit position to the
right or left at each clock pulse. Let's design a 4-bit right-shift register using D flip-
flops.

Design Steps:

1. Identify Components:
a. 4 D flip-flops
b. Logic gates (as needed)
2. Circuit Diagram:
 4bit rightshift register circuit diagram

3. Operation:
a. The input data is applied to the D input of the first flip-flop.
b. On each clock pulse, the data in each flip-flop shifts one position to
the right.
c. The data shifted out of the last flip-flop can be stored or used as
output.

Key Points:

• Serial Input, Serial Output (SISO): Data is input and output serially, one
bit at a time.
• Parallel Input, Serial Output (PISO): Data is input in parallel but output
serially.
• Serial Input, Parallel Output (SIPO): Data is input serially but output in
parallel.
• Parallel Input, Parallel Output (PIPO): Data is input and output in
parallel.

Designing a Finite State Machine (FSM) for Traffic Light Control

An FSM can be used to control traffic lights at an intersection. The FSM will have
different states representing different phases of the traffic light cycle.

States:

• Green: Cars on the north-south road have green light.

• Yellow: Cars on the north-south road have yellow light.
 • Red: Cars on the north-south road have red light, and cars on the east-west
road have green light.
• Yellow: Cars on the east-west road have yellow light.
Inputs:

• Clock signal

Outputs:

• Signals to control the traffic lights (red, yellow, green) for both north-south
and east-west roads.

State Transition Diagram:

state transition diagram for traffic light control

Implementation:

• Use flip-flops to store the current state.

• Use combinational logic to determine the next state and output signals based
on the current state and inputs.
• Use a clock signal to synchronize the state transitions.

By understanding these fundamental concepts and applying them to specific design

problems, you can create a wide range of digital systems, from simple shift
registers to complex microprocessors.
Code converters:

Code converters are important components in various digital systems and devices,
as they help to connect different digital devices together that support data in
different formats.

In this chapter, we will highlight different types of code converters used in digital
electronics, their features, and applications.

What is a Code Converter?

A code converter is a digital electronic circuit that is used to convert a digital code
from one form to another. A digital code is nothing but a piece of data or
information represented in binary format, i.e., in the form of strings of 0s and 1s.

A code converter is simply a translator which translates a code from one format to
another. For example, binary to decimal converter, BCD to Excess-3 converter,
binary to decimal converter, etc.

Code converters are essential components in various digital systems that use
different encoding schemes. They help to make two different digital systems
compatible with each other.

For example, consider a digital system that supports data in binary format, and we
need to connect this system with another system for processing that supports data
in decimal format. Then, we need a data converter between them that can translate
binary formatted data into decimal format for processing. This is how code
converters play an important role in system interfacing.

Function of a Code Converter

The primary function of a code converter is to accept code in one format and
translate it into a different format.

A code converter reads and interprets the input code and produces an equivalent
output code according to its functionality. For example, a binary-to-decimal code
converter takes a binary code as input and generates an equivalent decimal code as
output.
Types of Code Converters

Depending on the conversion task that a code converter performs, the following are
some common types of code converters −

1.Binary to Decimal Converter

2.Decimal to BCD Converter
3.BCD to Decimal Converter
4.Binary to Gray Code Converter
5.Gray Code to Binary Converter
6.BCD to Excess-3 Converter
7.Excess-3 to BCD Converter

Let us discuss each of these types of code converters −

Binary to Decimal Converter

A type of code converter used to convert data from binary format to decimal
format is called a binary-to-decimal converter.

The input to the binary-to-decimal converter is a number represented in a format of

0s and 1s. Then, the converter uses an algorithm to convert the input binary
number into an equivalent decimal number. Finally, it generates a decimal code as
output.

Decimal to BCD Converter

A decimal-to-BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) converter is a type of code convert

that converts a decimal number into its equivalent 4-bit binary code, called BCD
code.

BCD to Decimal Converter

A digital circuit that can convert a binary-coded decimal (BCD) number into an
equivalent decimal number is referred to as a BCD-to-decimal converter.

The input to a BCD to decimal converter is an 8421 BCD code and the output
generated by the converter is a decimal number.
Binary to Gray Code Converter

A binary-to-gray code converter is a type of code converter that can translate a

binary code into its equivalent gray code.

The binary-to-gray code converter accepts a binary number as input and produces a
corresponding gray code as output.

Gray Code to Binary Converter

A gray code-to-binary converter is a digital circuit that can translate a gray code
into an equivalent pure binary code. Thus, a gray code to binary converter takes a
gray code as input and gives a pure binary code as output.

BCD to Excess-3 Converter

A type of code converter in digital electronics that is used to convert a binary-

coded decimal number into an equivalent excess-3 code is called a BCD to excess-
3 converter.

Excess-3 to BCD Converter

An excess-3 to BCD converter is a type of code converter in digital electronics

used to translate an XS-3 code into an equivalent binary-coded decimal.

Therefore, an XS-3 to BCD code converter accepts a digital code in XS-3 format
and produces an equivalent digital code in BCD format.

Applications:

Some of the important applications of code converters are listed below −

Code converters are used in ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converters) and DAC

(Digital-to-Analog Converters).
Code converters are used in computers to translate data between different digital
formats.
Code converters are also employed in display devices like seven segment displays,
to convert binary codes into human readable form.
In digital communication systems, the code converters are used to perform
modulation and encoding tasks.
The code converters are also used as interfacing device between two digital devices
or systems that use different encoding schemes.
Code converters are also used in digital signal processing applications to manipulate
and process signals in different formats.

1.Binary to decimal converter:

A type of code converter used to convert data from binary format to decimal format
is called a binary-to-decimal converter.

The input to the binary-to-decimal converter is a number represented in a format of

0s and 1s. Then, the converter uses an algorithm to convert the input binary number
into an equivalent decimal number. Finally, it generates a decimal code as output.

Let us now understand the logic circuit implementation of a binary-to-decimal

converter.

The truth table of a two-bit binary-to-decimal converter is given below.

Binary Input
Decimal Output
B1 B0

0 0 Q0

0 1 Q1

1 0 Q2

1 1 Q3

Let us now derive the logical expression for each of the decimal outputs.

Q0=B1¯¯¯¯¯¯⋅B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

Q1=B1¯¯¯¯¯¯⋅B0
 Q2=B1⋅B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

Q3=B1⋅B0

The logic circuit diagram of the binary-to-decimal converter is shown in the

following figure.

This circuit converts a 2-bit binary number into an equivalent decimal number.
However, we can implement the binary-to-decimal converter for any number of bits
in the same way.

2.Decimal to BCD Converter:

A decimal-to-BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) converter is a type of code convert that

converts a decimal number into its equivalent 4-bit binary code, called BCD code.

The truth table of the decimal to binary-coded decimal (BCD) converter is shown
below.

Decimal BCD Code

B3 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

2 0 0 1 0
 3 0 0 1 1

4 0 1 0 0

5 0 1 0 1

6 0 1 1 0

7 0 1 1 1

8 1 0 0 0

9 1 0 0 1

The Boolean expressions for converting decimal to BCD are given below −

B0=D1+D3+D5+D7+D9

B1=D2+D3+D6+D7

B2=D4+D5+D6+D7

B3=D8+D9

The logic circuit implementation of the decimal to BCD converter is shown in the
following figure.
This logic circuit can perform the conversion of a given decimal number into a
binary-coded decimal or BCD code.

3.BCD to Decimal Converter:

A digital circuit that can convert a binary-coded decimal (BCD) number into an
equivalent decimal number is referred to as a BCD-to-decimal converter.

The input to a BCD to decimal converter is an 8421 BCD code and the output
generated by the converter is a decimal number.

The following is the truth table of the BCD to decimal converter describing its
operation.

BCD Code
Decimal
B3 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 D0

0 0 0 1 D1
 0 0 1 0 D2

0 0 1 1 D3

0 1 0 0 D4

0 1 0 1 D5

0 1 1 0 D6

0 1 1 1 D7

1 0 0 0 D8

1 0 0 1 D9

We can derive the Boolean expressions for each of the decimal outputs in terms of
8421 BCD code. These Boolean expressions are given below −

D0=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

D1=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0

D2=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

D3=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1B0

D4=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

D5=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0

D6=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2B1B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

D7=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2B1B0

D8=B3B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

D9=B3B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0

The logic circuit implementation of the BCD to decimal converter is shown in the
following figure.
4.Binary to gray code converter:

A binary-to-gray code converter is a type of code converter that can translate a binary
code into its equivalent gray code.

The binary-to-gray code converter accepts a binary number as input and produces a
corresponding gray code as output.

Here is the truth table explaining the operation of a 4-bit binary-to-gray code
converter.

Binary Code Gray Code

B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

Let us derive the Boolean expressions for the gray code output bits. For this, we will
simplify the truth table using the K-map technique.

K-Map for Gray Code Bit G0

The K-Map simplification to obtain the Boolean expression for the gray code bit G0
is shown in the following figure.
Hence, the Boolean expression for the gray code bit G0 is,

G0=B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0+ B1B0¯¯¯¯¯¯=B0⊕B1

K-Map for Gray Code Bit G1

The K-Map simplification for the gray code bit G1 is shown below −

Thus, the Boolean expression for the gray code bit G1 is,

G1=B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B1+ B2B1¯¯¯¯¯¯=B1⊕B2

K-Map for Gray Code Bit G2

The K-Map simplification for the gray code bit G2 is depicted in the following figure
−
The Boolean expression for the gray code bit G2 will be,

G2=B3¯¯¯¯¯¯B2+ B3B2¯¯¯¯¯¯=B2⊕B3

K-Map for Gray Code Bit G3

The K-Map simplification for the gray code bit G3 is shown in the following figure
−

Hence, the Boolean expression for the gray code bit G3 is,

G3=B3

Let us now utilize these Boolean expressions to implement the logic circuit of the
binary-to-gray code converter.

The following figure shows the logic circuit diagram of a 4-bit binary code to gray
code converter −
This circuit can convert a 4-bit binary number into an equivalent gray code.

We can follow the same procedure to design a binary-to-gray code converter for any
number of bits.

5.Gray code to binary converter:

A gray code-to-binary converter is a digital circuit that can translate a gray code into
an equivalent pure binary code. Thus, a gray code to binary converter takes a gray
code as input and gives a pure binary code as output.

The truth table of a 3-bit gray code to binary code converter is given below −

Gray Code Binary Code

G2 G1 G0 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1 0 0
 1 1 1 1 0 1

Let us obtain the Boolean expression for the binary output bits. For this, we will
simplify the truth table using the K-map technique.

K-Map for Binary Bit B0

The K-map simplification for the binary output bit B0 is shown in the following
figure.

The Boolean expression for the binary bit B0 will be,

B0=G2¯¯¯¯¯¯G1¯¯¯¯¯¯G0+G2¯¯¯¯¯¯G1G0¯¯¯¯¯¯+G2G1¯¯¯¯¯¯G0¯¯¯¯¯¯+G
2G1G0

We can further simplify this expression as follows,

⇒B0=G2¯¯¯¯¯¯(G1¯¯¯¯¯¯G0+G1G0¯¯¯¯¯¯)+G2(G1¯¯¯¯¯¯G0¯¯¯¯¯¯+G1G0)


⇒B0=G2¯¯¯¯¯¯(G0⊕G1)+G2(G0⊕G1)¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯

B0=G0⊕G1⊕G2

This is the simplified expression for the binary bit B0.

K-Map for Binary Bit B1

The K-map simplification for the binary output B1 is shown below.

The Boolean expression for the binary bit B1 is,

B1=G2G1¯¯¯¯¯¯+G2¯¯¯¯¯¯G1=G1⊕G2

K-Map for Binary Bit B2

The following figure shows the K-map simplification for the binary bit B2.

From this K-Map, we obtain the following Boolean expression −

B2=G2

The logic circuit implementation of this 3-bit gray to binary code converter is shown
in the following figure.
This logic circuit can translate a 3-bit gray code into an equivalent 3-bit binary code.
We can also follow the same procedure to implement a gray code to binary code
converter for any number of bits.

6.BCD to Excess-3:

A type of code converter in digital electronics that is used to convert a binary-coded

decimal number into an equivalent excess-3 code is called a BCD to excess-3
converter.

Hence, in the case of a BCD to excess-3 code converter, the input is an 8421 BCD
code and the output is an XS-3 code.

The following is the truth table of a BCD to excess-3 code converter −

BCD Code Excess-3 Code

B3 B2 B1 B0 X3 X2 X1 X0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
 1 0 1 0 X X X X

1 0 1 1 X X X X

1 1 0 0 X X X X

1 1 0 1 X X X X

1 1 1 0 X X X X

1 1 1 1 X X X X

Let us solve the truth table using the K-map to derive the Boolean expressions for
the XS-3 output bits X0, X1, X2, and X3.

K-Map for XS-3 Bit X0

The K-map simplification for the XS-3 bit X0 is shown in the following figure −

On simplifying this K-map, we obtain the following Boolean expression,

X0=B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

K-Map for XS-3 Bit X1

The K-map simplification for the XS-3 bit X1 is depicted below −

This K-map simplification gives the following Boolean expression,

X1=B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0¯¯¯¯¯¯+B1B0

K-Map for XS-3 Bit X2

The K-map simplification for the XS-3 bit X2 is shown in the figure below.

On simplifying this K-map, we obtain the following Boolean expression,

X2=B2B1+B2¯¯¯¯¯¯B0+B2B1¯¯¯¯¯¯B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

K-Map for XS-3 Bit X3

The K-map simplification for the XS-3 bit X3 is depicted in the figure below −
This K-map gives the following Boolean expression,

X3=B3+B2B1+B2B0

The logic circuit diagram of the BCD to XS-3 converter is shown in the following
figure −
This circuit converters a 4-bit BCD code into an equivalent XS-3 code.

7.Excess-3 to BCD Converter:

An excess-3 to BCD converter is a type of code converter in digital electronics used

to translate an XS-3 code into an equivalent binary-coded decimal.

Therefore, an XS-3 to BCD code converter accepts a digital code in XS-3 format
and produces an equivalent digital code in BCD format.

The truth table of the XS-3 to BCD code converter is given below −

Excess-3 Code BCD Code

X3 X2 X1 X0 B3 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 X X X X

0 0 0 1 X X X X

0 0 1 0 X X X X

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 X X X X

1 1 1 0 X X X X

1 1 1 1 X X X X

Now, we will simplify this truth table using K-map method to obtain the Boolean
expression for the output bits.

K-Map for BCD Bit B0

The following figure shows the K-map simplification for the BCD bit B0.

This K-map gives the following Boolean expression,

B0=X0¯¯¯¯¯¯B0=X0¯

K-Map for BCD Bit B1

The following figure shows the K-map simplification for the BCD bit B1.
This K-map gives the following Boolean expression,

B1=X1¯¯¯¯¯¯X0+X1X0

K-Map for BCD Bit B2

The K-map simplification for the BCD bit B2 is shown below −

The simplification of this K-map gives the following Boolean expression,

B2=X2¯¯¯¯¯¯X1¯¯¯¯¯¯+X2¯¯¯¯¯¯X0¯¯¯¯¯¯+X2X1X0

K-Map for BCD Bit B3

The K-map simplification for the BCD bit B3 is shown in the following figure −
By simplifying this K-map, we obtain the following Boolean expression,

B3=X3X2+X3X1X0

We can use these Boolean expressions to implement the digital logic circuit to
perform the XS-3 to BCD conversion.

The logic circuit diagram to convert an XS-3 code into equivalent BCD code i.e.,
Excess-3 to BCD converter is shown in the following figure −

This is all about some commonly used digital code converters used in various digital
electronic applications.

Iterative Circuits: A Deep Dive

Iterative circuits are a class of digital circuits that perform operations on a sequence
of input bits, one bit at a time. They are characterized by their modular structure,
where identical cells are repeated to process each input bit. This modularity allows
for efficient design and implementation, especially for large-scale systems.

Key Characteristics of Iterative Circuits:

• Modular Structure: Composed of identical cells, each processing one bit of

the input sequence.
• Serial Input/Output: Information flows sequentially through the cells.
• Pipeline Operation: Multiple bits can be processed simultaneously in
different stages of the circuit.
• Regular Structure: The same logic is repeated in each cell, making them
easy to design and implement.

Design of Iterative Circuits:

1. Problem Decomposition:
a. Break down the desired operation into smaller, identical sub-operations.
b. Identify the necessary inputs and outputs for each sub-operation.
2. Cell Design:
a. Design a single cell that can perform the sub-operation.
b. Consider the cell's inputs, outputs, and internal logic.
c. Optimize the cell's design for speed, area, and power consumption.
3. Cell Interconnection:
a. Connect the cells in a linear or tree-like structure, depending on the
desired operation.
b. Determine the appropriate connections for input, output, and control
signals.
4. Timing Analysis:
a. Analyze the propagation delay through the circuit to ensure correct
operation.
b. Identify potential timing issues and optimize the design accordingly.
5. Testing and Verification:
a. Design test vectors to verify the circuit's functionality.
b. Use simulation tools to analyze the circuit's behavior under different
input conditions.
Example: 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder

A 4-bit ripple carry adder is a classic example of an iterative circuit. It adds two 4-
bit binary numbers, producing a 4-bit sum and a carry-out bit.

4bit ripple carry adder circuit diagram

Each cell in the adder is a full adder, which takes two input bits (A and B) and a
carry-in bit (Cin) and produces a sum bit (S) and a carry-out bit (Cout). The carry-
out bit from one cell is connected to the carry-in bit of the next cell, creating a ripple
effect.

Advantages of Iterative Circuits:

• Regular Structure: Easy to design and implement.

• Modular Design: Can be easily scaled to accommodate larger inputs.
• Pipeline Operation: Can improve performance by processing multiple bits
simultaneously.
• Low Cost: Can be implemented using standard cell libraries.

Disadvantages of Iterative Circuits:

• Long Propagation Delay: The delay increases with the number of cells,
limiting the clock speed.
• Limited Fan-out: The number of cells that can be connected to a single
output is limited.
• Power Consumption: Can consume more power than other circuit
architectures.
Iterative circuits are widely used in digital systems for various applications,
including arithmetic operations, data processing, and communication systems. By
understanding their design principles and limitations, engineers can effectively
utilize them to create efficient and high-performance digital circuits.

Comparator: A Digital Circuit for Comparison

A comparator is a digital circuit that compares two input signals and generates an
output indicating their relative magnitudes. It's a fundamental building block in
many digital systems, used in applications like analog-to-digital conversion, data
sorting, and signal threshold detection.

Basic Structure of a Comparator:

A simple comparator typically consists of:

1. Input Terminals: Two input terminals, A and B, to receive the signals to be

compared.
2. Output Terminals: Two output terminals, A>B and A<B, to indicate the
comparison result.

Types of Comparators:
 1. Magnitude Comparator:
a. Compares two binary numbers and produces outputs indicating whether
one is greater than, less than, or equal to the other.
b. Implementation:
i. Bit-by-bit comparison using XOR gates and AND gates.
ii. Cascading multiple stages for larger bit widths.

1-Bit Magnitude Comparator:

A 1-bit magnitude comparator is a logic circuit which can compare two binary
numbers of one bit each. It produces an output that indicates the relationship between
the two input numbers.

In other words, a 1-bit magnitude comparator is one that compares two 1-bit binary
numbers and generates an output showing whether one number is equal to or greater
than or less than the other.

The block diagram of a 1-bit magnitude comparator is shown in the following figure
−

Here, A and B are the 1-bit input numbers, and L, E, and G are the output lines
indicating less than or equal to or greater than relationship between A and B
respectively.

Let us understand the working this type of comparator.

If A = 0 and B = 0 or if A = 1 and B = 1, then A = B. It indicates that the two binary

numbers are equal. Therefore,
 E=A¯¯¯¯⋅B¯¯¯¯+A⋅B=A⊙B

If A = 0 and B = 1, then A < B. This indicates that the binary number A is less than
the binary number B. Therefore,

L=A¯¯¯¯B

If A = 1 and B = 0, then A > B. It indicates that the binary number A is greater than
the binary number B. Therefore,

G=AB¯¯¯¯

The 1-bit magnitude comparator compares the corresponding bits of the input
numbers A and B. For this, it uses different types of logic gates.

The truth table of the 1-bit magnitude comparators is given below −

Inputs Outputs

A B L (A < B) E (A = B) G (A > B)

0 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0

We can use this truth table to obtain the Boolean expression of the 1-bit magnitude
comparator.

L=A¯¯¯¯B

E=A¯¯¯¯⋅B¯¯¯¯+A⋅B=A⊙B

G=AB¯¯¯¯

The logic circuit diagram of the 1-bit magnitude comparator is shown in the
following figure.
It consists of two AND gates, two NOT gate, and an XNOR gate.

2-Bit Magnitude Comparator

A digital combinational circuit used to compare the magnitudes of two 2-bit binary
numbers and determine the relationship between them is called a 2-bit magnitude
comparator.

Hence, the 2-bit magnitude comparator compares the values represented by two 2-
bit binary numbers and then generates an output that indicates whether one number
is equal to or greater than or less than the other.

The block diagram of a typical 2-bit magnitude comparator is shown in the following
figure −

Here, the lines A0A1 and B0B1 represents two 2-bit binary number inputs and the
lines L, E, and G represents the less than, equal to, and greater than output lines.

We can understand the operation of the 2-bit magnitude comparator with the help of
its truth table given below −
 Inputs Outputs

A1 A0 B1 B0 L (A < B) E (A = B) G (A > B)

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Let us now derive the Boolean expression for the outputs L, E, and G.
Case 1: A = B

The comparator produces an output A = B which is E, if A 0 = B0 and A1 = B1.

Therefore, the Boolean expression for the output E will be,

E=(A0⊙B0)(A1⊙B1)

Case 2: A < B

The comparator produces an output A < B which is L, if

A1 = 0 and B1 = 1, OR
A1 = B1 and A0 = 0 and B0 = 1.

From these statements, we can write the Boolean expression for the output L as
follows −

L=A1¯¯¯¯¯¯B1+(A1⊙B1)A0¯¯¯¯¯¯B0

Case 3: A > B

The output of the comparator will be A > B i.e., G, if

A1 = 1 and B1 = 0, OR
A1 = B1 and A0 = 1 and B0 = 0.

From these statements, the Boolean expression for the output G will be,

G=A1B1¯¯¯¯¯¯+(A1⊙B1)A0B0¯¯¯¯¯¯

The following figure shows the logic circuit diagram of the 2-bit magnitude
comparator −
4-Bit Magnitude Comparator

The 4-bit magnitude comparator is used in more complex digital circuits like
microprocessors, microcontrollers, and many more.

It is a type of comparator that can compare the values or magnitudes of two 4-bit
binary numbers and produce an output indicating whether one number is equal to or
less than or greater than the other.

The block diagram of the 4-bit magnitude comparator is shown in the following
figure −

Let us now understand the working of this 4-bit magnitude comparator. For that
consider A = A3A2A1A0 is the first 4-bit binary number and B = B3B2B1B0 is the
second 4-bit binary number.

The comparator will show the results as follows −

Case 1: A = B

The comparator will produce an output A = B which is E, if all the corresponding

bits in the two numbers are equal i.e., A3 = B3 and A2 = B2 and A1 = B1 and A0 = B0.

In this case, the Boolean expression of the output will be,

E=(A3⊙B3)(A2⊙B2)(A1⊙B1)(A0⊙B0)

Case 2: A < B

The comparator will produce an output A < B which is L, if

A3 = 0 and B3 = 1, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = 0 and B2 = 1, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = B2 and if A1 = 0 and B1 = 1, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = B2 and if A1 = B1 and if A0 = 0 and B0 = 1.

From these statements, we can derive the Boolean expression for the output L, which
is given below.

L=A3¯¯¯¯¯¯B3+(A3⊙B3)A2¯¯¯¯¯¯B2+(A3⊙B3)(A2⊙B2)A1¯¯¯¯¯¯B1+(A3
⊙B3)(A2⊙B2)(A1⊙B1)A0¯¯¯¯¯¯B0

Case 3: A > B

The comparator produces an output A > B which is G, if

A3 = 1 and B3 = 0, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = 1 and B2 = 0, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = B2 and if A1 = 1 and B1 = 0, OR
A3 = B3 and if A2 = B2 and if A1 = B1 and if A0 = 1 and B0 = 0.

Hence, from these statements, we can write the Boolean expression for the output G
which is,

G=A3B3¯¯¯¯¯¯+(A3⊙B3)A2B2¯¯¯¯¯¯+(A3⊙B3)(A2⊙B2)A1B1¯¯¯¯¯¯+(A3
⊙B3)(A2⊙B2)(A1⊙B1)A0B0¯¯¯¯¯¯
The logic circuit implementation of the 4-bit magnitude comparator is shown in the
following figure −

2. Voltage Comparator:
a. Compares two analog voltages and produces a digital output based on
the comparison result.
b. Implementation:
i. Often uses operational amplifiers configured as comparators.
ii. The output switches between high and low states depending on
the voltage difference.
 voltage comparator using an opamp

Example: 2-Bit Magnitude Comparator

Let's design a 2-bit magnitude comparator to compare two 2-bit binary numbers, A
(A1A0) and B (B1B0).

Truth Table:

A1 A0 B1 B0 A>B A<B A=B

0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Export to Sheets

Circuit Implementation:
By analyzing the truth table, we can design the comparator using logic gates. The
circuit will have three output functions: A>B, A<B, and A=B.

2bit magnitude comparator circuit diagram

Applications of Comparators:

• Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs): Used to compare the output voltage

with a reference voltage.
• Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): Used in successive approximation
ADCs to compare the input voltage with a reference voltage.
• Microprocessor Systems: Used for address decoding, data comparison, and
interrupt handling.
• Signal Processing: Used for peak detection, threshold detection, and
waveform shaping.

Comparators are essential components in various electronic systems, enabling

precise comparisons and decision-making based on input signals.

Controller(fsm):

In sequential circuits, the controller is a periodic clock that synchronizes the internal
changes of the circuit. The clock pulse is connected to the clock inputs of all the
memory elements, which are usually flip-flops or gated latches.

Finite State Machines are the fundamental building blocks of various digital and
computing systems. They provide a systematic approach to model the behavior of
sequential circuits. They also help to control various processes in digital systems.
Read this chapter to learn the components, types, advantages, and applications of
finite state machines.

What is a Finite State Machine?

A Finite State Machine (FSM) is a mathematical model that is used to explain and
understand the behavior of a digital system. More specifically, it is a structured and
systematic model that helps to understand the behavior of a sequential circuit that
exists in a finite number of states at a given point of time.

In more simple words, a synchronous sequential circuit is also called as Finite State
Machine FSM, if it has a finite number of states.

The transition of these finite states takes place based on the internal or external inputs
that results in the predictable and systematic changes in the behavior of the system.

Design Process of an FSM:

1. State Identification:
a. Determine the number of states required to represent the desired
behavior.
b. Each state corresponds to a specific condition or phase of the system's
operation.
2. Input and Output Definition:
a. Identify the input signals that will trigger state transitions.
b. Define the output signals generated by the FSM.
3. State Transition Diagram:
a. Create a graphical representation of the FSM's behavior.
b. Each state is represented by a circle, and transitions between states are
indicated by arrows labeled with input conditions.
c. Outputs can be associated with states (Moore) or transitions (Mealy).
4. State Table:
a. Tabulate the state transitions and output values based on the state
transition diagram.
b. The table typically includes columns for the current state, input, next
state, and output.
5. Logic Implementation:
 a. Design the combinational logic to implement the next-state and output
functions.
b. Use flip-flops to store the current state and trigger state transitions.

Types of Finite State Machine

There are two types of finite state machines namely,

1.Mealy State Machine

2.Moore State Machine

Let us now discuss these two types of finite state machines in detail.

Mealy State Machine

A Finite State Machine is said to be a Mealy state machine, if its outputs depend on
both present inputs & present states. The block diagram of the Mealy state
machine is shown in the following figure −

As shown in the figure, there are two main parts presents in the Mealy state machine.
Those are combinational logic circuit and memory element. The memory element is
useful to provide some part of previous outputs and present states as inputs to the
combinational logic circuit.

Based on the present inputs and present states, the Mealy state machine produces
outputs. Therefore, the outputs will be valid only at positive or negative transition of
the clock signal.
State Diagram of Mealy State Machine

The state diagram of Mealy state machine is shown in the following figure.

In the above figure, there are three states, namely A, B and C. These states are
labelled inside the circles and each circle corresponds to one state. State transitions
between these states are represented with directed lines. Here, 0 / 0, 1 / 0 and 1 / 1
denote the input / output. In the above figure, there are two state transitions from
each state based on the value of input.

In general, the number of states required in Mealy state machine is less than or equal
to the number of states required in Moore state machine. There is an equivalent
Moore state machine for each Mealy state machine.

Moore State Machine

A Finite State Machine is said to be a Moore state machine, if its outputs depend
only on the present states.

The block diagram of the Moore state machine is shown in the following figure
−

As shown in above figure, there are two parts presents in a Moore state machine.
Those are combinational logic and memory. In this case, the present inputs and
present states determine the next states. So, based on next states, Moore state
machine produces the outputs. Therefore, the outputs will be valid only after
transition of the state.

State Diagram of Moore State Machine

The state diagram of Moore state machine is shown in the following figure −

In the above figure, there are four states, namely A, B, C, and D. These states and
the respective outputs are labelled inside the circles. Here, only the input value is
labeled on each transition. In the above figure, there are two transitions from each
state based on the value of input.

In general, the number of states required in Moore state machine is more than or
equal to the number of states required in Mealy state machine. There is an equivalent
Mealy state machine for each Moore state machine. So, based on the requirement
we can use one of them.

Example: A Simple Traffic Light Controller

Let's design a traffic light controller using a Moore machine.

States:

• S0: Red light on

• S1: Yellow light on
• S2: Green light on

Inputs:

• Clock signal

Outputs:
 • Red, Yellow, Green lights

State Transition Diagram:

state
transition diagram for a traffic light controller

State Table:

Current Inpu Next Yello Gree

Red
State t State w n
Cloc
S0 S1 1 0 0
k
Cloc
S1 S2 0 1 0
k
Cloc
S2 S0 0 0 1
k

Implementation:

• Use flip-flops to store the current state.

• Use combinational logic to generate the output signals based on the current
state.

Applications of FSMs:

• Digital Circuit Design: Control units in microprocessors, digital signal

processing systems, and communication systems.
 • Software Design: Modeling and implementing finite-state automata in
software.
• Protocol Design: Designing communication protocols like Ethernet and
TCP/IP.
• Game Development: Creating game AI and behavior trees.

FSMs are a powerful tool for designing sequential circuits, enabling the creation of
complex systems with well-defined behaviors. By understanding their concepts and
design methodologies, engineers can effectively utilize FSMs to implement various
digital systems.

Metastability: A Digital Circuit's Unstable State

Metastability is a phenomenon in digital circuits where a flip-flop or latch fails to

settle into a stable state (0 or 1) within a specified time period. This occurs when the
input signal changes too close to the clock edge, violating the setup or hold time
requirements. As a result, the output of the flip-flop can oscillate unpredictably for
an indeterminate amount of time before finally settling into a stable state.

Why Metastability Occurs:

• Setup Time Violation: The input signal does not stabilize before the clock
edge.
• Hold Time Violation: The input signal changes too soon after the clock edge.

Diagram of Metastable State:

Opens in a new window

electronics.stackexchange.com
flipflop in a metastable state, with the output oscillating between 0 and 1
Consequences of Metastability:

• Incorrect Data Capture: If the flip-flop settles into an incorrect state, the
subsequent logic may be affected, leading to system malfunction.
• System Instability: In severe cases, metastability can propagate through the
circuit, causing unpredictable behavior and potential system crashes.

Mitigating Metastability:

1. Synchronization:
a. Synchronizer: A common technique involves using a series of flip-
flops to synchronize the asynchronous signal to the clock domain of the
destination circuit.
b. FIFO: A FIFO buffer can be used to synchronize data between
asynchronous clock domains.

synchronizer
circuit

2. Careful Timing Design:

a. Ensure that setup and hold time requirements are met for all flip-flops.
b. Use appropriate clock distribution techniques to minimize clock skew.
3. Metastability-Tolerant Flip-Flops:
a. Some flip-flops are designed to be more resistant to metastability, but
they may have higher power consumption or longer propagation delays.
4. Error Detection and Correction:
a. Implement mechanisms to detect and correct errors caused by
metastability, such as parity checking or error-correcting codes.

Example: Asynchronous Input to Synchronous Circuit

Consider a scenario where an asynchronous input signal needs to be captured by a
synchronous flip-flop. If the input signal changes too close to the clock edge, the
flip-flop may enter a metastable state. To mitigate this, a synchronizer can be used
to introduce a delay and ensure that the input signal is stable before it reaches the
flip-flop.

By understanding the causes and consequences of metastability, and by applying

appropriate design techniques, engineers can minimize the risk of this phenomenon
and ensure the reliability of digital systems.

Synchronization in Sequential Circuit Design

Synchronization is a critical aspect of digital circuit design, especially in sequential

circuits. It ensures that different components of the circuit operate in a coordinated
manner, preventing timing issues like metastability and race conditions.

Types of Synchronization:

1. Synchronous Synchronization:
a. All components in the circuit share a common clock signal.
b. State changes occur at the rising or falling edge of the clock pulse.
c. Advantages:
i. Simple to implement.
ii. Less prone to timing issues.
d. Disadvantages:
i. Limited clock frequency due to clock skew and propagation
delays.
e. Example:
 1.
1.Asynchronous Synchronization
f. Different components in the circuit operate with independent clock
signals.
g. Challenges:
i. Prone to metastability.
ii. Requires careful design to ensure reliable operation.
h. Techniques:
i. Synchronizer: A series of flip-flops used to synchronize an
asynchronous signal to a synchronous clock domain.
ii. FIFO (First-In-First-Out) Buffer: A buffer that stores data and
releases it in the same order it was received.
iii. Handshaking Protocol: A communication protocol that uses
signals to coordinate data transfer between asynchronous
components.

Opens in a new window www.youtube.com

synchronizer circuit

Synchronization Techniques:

1. Clock Synchronization:
 a. Clock Skew: Differences in arrival times of the clock signal at different
parts of the circuit.
b. Clock Jitter: Variations in the clock period.
c. Techniques:
i. Clock buffering: Using buffers to distribute the clock signal
evenly.
ii. Clock tree synthesis: Optimizing the clock distribution network.
iii. Clock skew calibration: Adjusting the clock phase to compensate
for skew.
2. Data Synchronization:
a. Synchronization Flip-Flops: Used to synchronize asynchronous
signals to a synchronous clock domain.
b. FIFO Buffers: Used to buffer data between asynchronous clock
domains.
c. Handshaking Protocols: Used to coordinate data transfer between
asynchronous components.

Example: Synchronizing an Asynchronous Input to a Synchronous Circuit

synchronizer circuit to synchronize an asynchronous input

In this example, an asynchronous input signal is synchronized to a synchronous

clock domain using a two-stage synchronizer. The first flip-flop captures the input
signal, and the second flip-flop synchronizes it to the clock domain. This reduces the
probability of metastability.By understanding the principles of synchronization and
applying appropriate techniques, engineers can design reliable and high-
performance digital circuits.
FSM Issues:

Common Issues in FSM Design and Implementation

Finite State Machines (FSMs) are powerful tools for designing sequential logic
circuits, but they can also introduce several potential issues if not designed and
implemented carefully. Here are some of the common problems and their solutions:

1. State Encoding:

• Gray Code Encoding: This encoding scheme minimizes the number of bits
that change between adjacent states, reducing the risk of glitches and
metastable states.
• One-Hot Encoding: Each state is represented by a single bit, simplifying the
state transition logic but increasing the number of flip-flops required.

2. State Explosion:

• As the number of states and inputs increases, the state table and
implementation complexity can grow exponentially.
• State Minimization Techniques:
o State equivalence partitioning: Grouping equivalent states to reduce the
number of states.
o Implication chart method: A systematic approach to identify equivalent
states.

3. Timing Issues:

• Clock Skew: Differences in clock arrival times at different parts of the circuit
can lead to timing violations.
• Setup and Hold Time Violations: If the input signal does not stabilize before
the clock edge or changes too soon after, the flip-flop may enter a metastable
state.
• Solutions:
o Careful clock distribution design.
o Using synchronizers to synchronize asynchronous signals.
o Optimizing the circuit for timing performance.
4. Design Errors and Verification:

• Formal Verification: Using formal verification tools to prove the correctness

of the FSM design.
• Simulation: Simulating the FSM with various input combinations to identify
potential errors.
• Testing: Rigorous testing to ensure the FSM behaves as expected under
different conditions.

5. Power Consumption:

• Low-Power Design Techniques:

o Clock gating: Disabling clock signals to inactive parts of the circuit.
o Power-gating: Powering down unused parts of the circuit.
o Voltage scaling: Reducing the supply voltage to lower power
consumption.

6. Testability:

• Design for Testability (DFT): Incorporating techniques like scan chains and
test points to improve testability.
• Built-In Self-Test (BIST): Using built-in logic to generate test patterns and
analyze the circuit's response.

7. Security Vulnerabilities:

• Side-Channel Attacks: Protecting against attacks that exploit timing

information or power consumption to extract sensitive information.
• Fault Injection Attacks: Designing the FSM to be resilient to faults and
malicious attacks.

By understanding and addressing these issues, designers can create efficient, reliable,
and secure FSM-based systems.

**THIS IS CHATGPT ANSWER:

Pipelining Resource Sharing in Sequential Circuits

Pipelining is a technique used to improve the performance of sequential circuits by

dividing a complex operation into smaller stages and processing multiple data items
simultaneously. Resource sharing is a strategy to optimize the hardware utilization
in a pipelined design by sharing functional units among different pipeline stages.
This approach can significantly reduce the overall hardware cost and power
consumption.

Types of Resource Sharing:

1. Time Multiplexing:
a. A single functional unit is shared among multiple pipeline stages by
time-division multiplexing.
b. The unit is used by different stages in different clock cycles.
c. Advantages:
i. Reduces hardware cost.
ii. Improves resource utilization.
d. Disadvantages:
i. Can increase latency due to the sequential use of the shared
resource.
ii. Requires careful timing analysis to avoid conflicts.
2. Space Multiplexing:
a. Multiple functional units are used to implement the same functionality.
b. Each unit can be used by different pipeline stages simultaneously.
c. Advantages:
i. Can improve performance by reducing latency.
ii. Can handle higher throughput.
d. Disadvantages:
i. Increases hardware cost.
ii. Requires more complex control logic.

Example: Pipelined 4-Stage Integer Multiplier

Let's consider a 4-stage pipelined integer multiplier:

 1. Instruction Fetch (IF): Fetches the instruction from memory.
2. Instruction Decode (ID): Decodes the instruction and reads operands from
the register file.
3. Execute (EX): Performs the multiplication operation.
4. Write Back (WB): Writes the result back to the register file.

Without Resource Sharing:

4stage pipelined multiplier without resource sharing

In this case, each stage has its own dedicated multiplier unit. This approach is simple
but inefficient as the multiplier is idle in three out of four stages.

With Time Multiplexing:

4stage
pipelined multiplier with timemultiplexed multiplier

A single multiplier unit is shared among the EX and WB stages. In each clock cycle,
the multiplier is used by one of these stages. This reduces hardware cost but increases
latency.

With Space Multiplexing:

 4stage
pipelined multiplier with spacemultiplexed multipliers

Two multiplier units are used, one for the EX stage and another for the WB stage.
This allows both stages to perform multiplication simultaneously, improving
performance but increasing hardware cost.

Considerations for Resource Sharing:

• Timing Constraints: Ensure that the shared resources can be accessed and
used by different stages within the clock cycle time.
• Control Logic Complexity: The control logic for resource sharing can be
more complex than for dedicated resources.
• Power Consumption: Resource sharing can reduce power consumption, but
careful design is needed to avoid unnecessary power dissipation.

By carefully considering the trade-offs between hardware cost, performance, and

power consumption, designers can effectively use resource sharing techniques to
optimize pipelined designs.

Pipelining resources sharing:

Pipelining is a technique used in digital system design to increase the
throughput of a system by dividing a complex operation into multiple stages,
allowing multiple operations to be processed concurrently.
However, pipelining can also lead to increased resource utilization, as each
stage requires its own set of hardware resources.
 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are a crucial technology in
embedded systems, offering a high degree of parallelism, configurability,
and performance for custom hardware implementations. One of the most
powerful design techniques to leverage FPGAs’ strengths is pipelining,
which allows for increased throughput by breaking a task into smaller
stages, each executed in parallel by dedicated hardware blocks. This article
explores key considerations for implementing efficient pipelines in FPGA
designs, helping engineers achieve optimal performance in real-world
applications.
• What is Pipelining in FPGA Design?
• Pipelining is a design technique where an operation is divided into multiple
stages, with each stage performing a part of the overall task. Instead of
executing one operation sequentially, pipelining allows multiple operations
to be processed simultaneously, with each stage in the pipeline working on a
different task at the same time.
• In FPGA designs, pipelining is often used to accelerate data processing
tasks, such as filtering, encoding, or signal processing. By spreading the
workload across multiple stages, FPGAs can achieve significantly higher
throughput compared to traditional sequential execution. However,
designing an efficient pipeline on an FPGA requires careful consideration of
various factors, including timing, resource allocation, latency, and data
dependencies.
• 1. Understanding Latency vs. Throughput in Pipelining
• One of the fundamental trade-offs in FPGA pipelining is
between latency and throughput. Latency refers to the total time it takes for
an input to propagate through the entire pipeline and produce an output. In
contrast, throughput is the number of outputs the system can produce per
unit of time.
• In a deeply pipelined design, each stage is relatively simple, leading to high
throughput. However, this can increase latency because a piece of data must
pass through all stages before being completely processed. This trade-off is
acceptable in applications where continuous, high-speed data processing is
required (e.g., real-time video processing or signal filtering).
• Key Considerations:
 • Maximize throughput when high data processing rates are required, but
ensure latency remains within acceptable limits for the specific application.
• Balance latency and throughput according to the performance goals of
your system. In some cases, hybrid designs that combine both pipelined and
non-pipelined paths can be effective.
• 2. Data Dependencies and Hazard Handling
• Data dependencies, or hazards, arise when one pipeline stage depends on the
output of another stage. These hazards can lead to incorrect data processing
or require additional hardware to manage them. The three main types of
hazards are:
• Structural hazards, where multiple pipeline stages need the same hardware
resource.
• Data hazards, where an instruction depends on the result of a previous
instruction.
• Techniques for Managing Hazards:
• Interlocks: Insert wait states in the pipeline to handle data dependencies.
While this can ensure correct results, it introduces pipeline stalls that reduce
throughp
• Forwarding (bypassing): Use hardware to forward the result from a later
pipeline stage to an earlier stage that needs it. This technique reduces stalls
and improves performance but requires additional routing and complexity.

3. Clock Speed and Pipeline Depth

The speed at which data flows through the pipeline is determined by the clock
frequency, and the depth of the pipeline influences the number of clock cycles
required to process a single data element. One of the major challenges in FPGA
design is finding the right balance between clock speed and pipeline depth.
Key Considerations:
• Critical path analysis: Identify the longest path through the circuit that
limits the maximum clock frequency. Optimizing the pipeline stages to
shorten this critical path can improve the overall performance.
 • Balancing stage complexity: Avoid stages that are either too complex
(slowing down the pipeline) or too simple (resulting in under-utilized
hardware). Finding the right level of granularity for each pipeline stage is
critical.
4. Managing Memory in Pipelined Designs
Efficient memory management is critical in FPGA pipelines, especially when
dealing with large datasets or frequent memory accesses. Poorly designed memory
architectures can lead to bottlenecks that degrade the performance of an otherwise
well-optimized pipeline.
Memory Considerations:
• On-chip vs. Off-chip Memory: On-chip memory, such as block RAM
(BRAM), is faster and can be accessed more efficiently than off-chip
memory (e.g., DRAM). Use on-chip memory for frequently accessed data or
intermediate results that require low-latency access. Off-chip memory
should be reserved for larger datasets that don’t fit within the FPGA’s
BRAM.
• FIFO Buffers: First-in, first-out (FIFO) buffers are often used between
pipeline stages to handle variable data rates or to decouple stages. Proper
sizing and placement of FIFO buffers are essential to prevent data loss or
pipeline stalls.

5. Power Consumption in Pipelined Designs

Power consumption is an increasingly important consideration in FPGA design,

particularly for applications in portable devices, edge computing, or other power-
constrained environments. Pipelining can influence power consumption in several
ways.
Power Optimization Techniques:
 Clock Gating: Disable the clock to certain pipeline stages when they are not
in use to save power.
 Example: Pipelined Processor
• In a pipelined processor, the instruction fetch, decode, execute, and write-
back stages can share resources like the instruction memory, register file,
and ALU. By carefully
• scheduling the use of these resources, the processor can achieve higher
performance without significant hardware overhead.

Fig-a: Example of pipelined processor(ARM)

➢ 6.Resource Sharing in Digital System Design

Resource sharing involves using the same hardware components to perform

multiple functions or operations at different times. This reduces the overall
hardware area and cost, especially in designs with limited resources.

Key Concepts

1. Multiplexing:
  Shared resources (e.g., ALUs, multipliers, memory units) are
connected to multiple data paths via multiplexers.
2. Time Division:
 Resources are allocated to different tasks in sequential clock cycles.
3. Functional Units:
 Complex functional blocks, such as adders or multipliers, are reused
for multiple operations.
➢ Combining Pipelining and Resource Sharing

In modern digital system design, pipelining and resource sharing are often
combined to achieve both high throughput and efficient resource utilization.

Key Interaction

1. Pipeline Stages with Shared Resources:

 A shared resource (e.g., a multiplier) can be used in different pipeline
stages or by different data streams.
2. Interleaved Pipelining:
 Multiple operations are pipelined with overlapping stages that share
functional units.
3. Control and Arbitration:
 Shared resources require arbitration logic to manage access between
pipeline stages or multiple data paths.

Advantages of Combining

• Achieves a balance between high throughput (from pipelining) and low area
cost (from resource sharing).
• Reduces hardware redundancy while maintaining performance.

Challenges of Combining

• Pipeline Hazard Management:

 Shared resources may introduce structural hazards, requiring careful
scheduling or pipeline stall mechanisms.
• Synchronization Overheads:
 Ensuring that shared resources are correctly synchronized with the
pipeline clock cycles.
• Complex Design:
 Integrating pipelining and resource sharing increases control
complexity.
Practical Applications:

1. DSP Systems:
 Multipliers and adders are often shared among pipeline stages in
digital signal processing applications.
2. Microprocessors:
 Instruction pipelines with shared execution units (e.g., ALUs or
floating-point units).
3. Image and Video Processing:
 Common operations like convolution reuse shared functional blocks
in a pipelined architecture.
4. ASIC/FPGA Designs:
 Custom hardware designs optimize for both area and speed by
leveraging pipelining and resource sharing.

IX. Sequential circuit design using FPGAs.

1.Simplified block diagram for a Xilinx Vertex or a Spartan T CLB:

▪ sequential circuit design using FPGA. FPGA stands for field
programmable gate arrays
▪ An FPGA usually consists of an array of configurable logic blocks, which
were called as CLBs. That is this one, which was surrounded by a ring of
input output blocks.
▪ So the FPGA may also contain other components such as memory blocks,
clock generators, tri state buffers, etc. So typical CLB will contain two or
more function generators often referred to as the lookup tables or LUTs.
▪ Then you also have the programmable multiplexes, DC flip flops, and the IO
blocks usually contain additional flip flops for storing the inputs or outputs
and tri state buffers for driving the input output pins. So here is a simplified
block diagram for a Xilinx Vertex or a Spartan T CLB. And this CLB is
divided into nearly identical slices as you can clearly see.
▪ Each slice contains four variable function generators or LUTs. So along with
that, we have two DC flip flop and an additional logic for carry and control.
▪ This additional logic usually includes the muxes for selecting the flip flop
inputs and for multiplexing the LUT outputs to form functions of five or
more variables.

Implementation of the Mealy Machine:

▪ Next, we have the FPGA implementation of the Mealy machine.
▪ So this Mealy sequential machine that you see here has two inputs which are
denoted here, two outputs Z1, Z2 and two flip flops
▪ and these two flip flops can be implemented by the FPGA. The four inputs
LUTs that is FGs or function generators are required. So you can see there
are four function generators and two will generate the D inputs to the flip
flop and the two will generate the Z outputs. The flip flop output is fed back
to the CLB inputs via the interconnection external to the CLB.
▪ The entire circuit will fit into one vertex CLB and this implementation
works because each d and z is a function of only four variables that is x1, x2,
q1

▪
▪ and q2. If more flip flops or inputs are needed the d and the z or D or Z
functions may have to be decomposed to use additional function generators.

3.Implementaion of a Shift Register:

▪ So next we have the implementation of the shift register. In this case we will
consider the FPGA implementation of the parallel in parallel out shift
register. So kindly refer to the tutorial on parallel in parallel out shift register
because you need to understand how that functions and how that
implementation has been used here.
▪ So Here we will make use of 4 LUTs or function generators to generate the d
inputs to the flip flops and you have a 5th LUT or a 5th function generator
that is being used to generate the ce input. If we had implemented the
equations of the parallel LUTs. in parallel out shift register directly without
making use of CE input we would need to implement four five variable
functions.
▪ So this would require eight LUTs because each five variable function
requires two four variable function generators. However if we set [CE to be
equal to LD plus SH then we can say CE is equal to 0 when LD equal to
SH is equal to 0] and the flip flops will hold their current values. Therefore
we need not use the first term in the equations of the shift register.
 ▪ And the flip flop d input equations will fit into the four variable function
generators. Now, if we are to rewrite the equations of the shift register, that
is parallel in, parallel out shift register, then we can write the equations as

▪ So this particular term that you see here, D three F, this

▪ which is a three variable function. So we can determine the other three flip
flop d inputs in a similar way. So what we have basically done is the original
equations of the parallel in parallel out shift register which have been
specified here have been deduced in such a way that we can obtain the
equation Q3 plus of this particular form so that it can be easily implemented
using the FPGA.

4. Three bit parallel adder with accumulator implementation using the FPGA:
• moving on to the three bit parallel adder with accumulator implementation
using the FPGA.
• So each bit of the adder can be implemented with three variable function
generators.
• one for the sum and one for the adder.
• The add signal(Ad) that is present here can be connected to the CE input of
each flip flop so that the sum is loaded by the rising clock edge
when[Ad=1]. So this particular arrangement of generating the carries is
rather a slow process because the carry signal must propagate through the
function generator and its input.
• So because adders are frequently used in the FPGA, most FPGAs have built
in fast carry logic in addition to the function generators. So if the fast carry
logic is used, the bottom row This entire bottom row of function generators
can be eliminated and a parallel adder with an accumulator can be
implemented using only one function generator for each bit instead of
making use of a total of six function generators for the implementation of
three bit parallel adder with accumulator.
X. Simulation and testing of Sequential circuits

2.Testing Mealy sequential Circuit Simulator(J K F/F):

Fig-j k Flip Flop(F/F) Truth Table:
 Fig-Timing diagram

3.Generated Synchronized Inputs using Shift Register:

4. Synchronizer with Two D Flip flops
Fig-D Flip Flop with Truth Table

XI. Overview of computer Aided Design

Functions and Performance of CAD Tools in Digital System Design

CAD tools are indispensable in modern digital system design, automating various
complex tasks and significantly improving design efficiency and accuracy. Let's
delve into the key functions and their performance implications:

1. Generation and Minimization of Logic Equations:

• Function: Translates high-level design descriptions (e.g., Verilog, VHDL)

into Boolean equations.
• Performance:
 Minimization Algorithms: Efficient algorithms like Karnaugh maps,
Quine-McCluskey, or more advanced techniques reduce the number
of literals and gates, leading to smaller and faster circuits.
 Logic Synthesis Tools: Tools like Synopsys Design Compiler
optimize logic equations for area, power, and timing.

2. Generation of Bit Patterns for Programming PLDs:

• Function: Converts optimized logic equations into bit patterns that can be
programmed into Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs).
• Performance:
 Place and Route Tools: Efficient algorithms for placing and routing
logic cells within the PLD architecture minimize delays and resource
utilization.
 Timing Analysis: Accurate timing analysis ensures that the design
meets timing constraints and avoids timing violations.

3. Schematic Capture:

• Function: Allows designers to create and edit schematic diagrams of digital

circuits.
• Performance:
 Hierarchical Design: Supports hierarchical design methodologies,
enabling the creation of complex systems by breaking them down into
smaller, manageable modules.
 Design Rule Checking (DRC): Automatically checks for design rule
violations, such as incorrect wire connections or overlapping
components.

4. Simulation:
 • Function: Simulates the behavior of a digital design to verify its
functionality.
• Performance:
 Event-Driven Simulation: Efficiently simulates digital circuits by
focusing on events that trigger changes in the circuit's state.
 Timing Simulation: Accurately models the timing behavior of the
circuit, including delays and propagation times.
 Formal Verification: Mathematically proves the correctness of a
design, ensuring that it meets its specifications.

5. Synthesis Tools:

• Function: Translates high-level design descriptions into low-level

implementation details, such as gate-level netlists.
• Performance:
 Optimization Techniques: Employs various optimization techniques,
including logic minimization, technology mapping, and timing
optimization, to improve design quality.
 Library Mapping: Maps logic functions to physical library cells,
considering factors like area, power, and timing.

6. IC Design and Layout:

• Function: Designs and lays out integrated circuits (ICs), including the
placement and routing of transistors and other components.
• Performance:
 Physical Design Tools: Efficiently places and routes millions of
transistors and interconnects.
 Timing-Driven Layout: Ensures that the layout meets timing
constraints, minimizing delays and maximizing performance.

7. Test Generation:

• Function: Generates test patterns to identify faults in digital circuits.

• Performance:
 Automatic Test Pattern Generation (ATPG): Automatically
generates test patterns that can detect a high percentage of faults.
 Fault Simulation: Simulates the behavior of a circuit under different
fault conditions to assess the effectiveness of test patterns.
8. PC Board Layout:

• Function: Designs the physical layout of printed circuit boards (PCBs).

• Performance:
 Placement and Routing Tools: Efficiently places and routes
electronic components on the PCB, minimizing signal delays and
maximizing signal integrity.
 Design Rule Checking (DRC): Ensures that the PCB layout adheres
to design rules and manufacturing constraints.