Thermal Energy Reservoir
Heat Source: It is a thermal energy reservoir which supplies thermal energy
without undergoing any temperature change.
Heat Sink: It is a thermal energy reservoir which absorbs thermal energy without
undergoing any temperature change.
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Heat Engine
A heat engine is a system that converts heat to usable energy (work)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
=
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑄2
= 1-
𝑄1
Refrigerator
Performance of a refrigerator
(Coefficient of performance (COP))
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
COP =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑄2
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
Heat Pump
Performance of a refrigerator T1
(Coefficient of performance (COP))
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
COP =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Q1
W
𝑄1 H.P
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄1 Q2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
T2
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for any system to operate in a thermodynamic cycle and deliver
a net amount of energy by work to its surroundings while receiving energy by
heat transfer from a single thermal reservoir.
Note:
PMM-II is impossible because its efficiency is 100%.
PMM-II violates 2nd law of Thermodynamics.
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to higher-
temperature body without any external work input.
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1-2: Reversible isothermal heat supply
2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion
3-4: Reversible isothermal heat rejection
4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression
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1-2: Reversible isothermal heat supply
2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion
3-4: Reversible isothermal heat rejection
4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression
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Carnot Theorem
• For a given temperature limit, efficiency of all reversible heat engine
cycle is always greater than efficiency of irreversible heat engine cycle.
• For a given temperature limits, efficiency of all reversible heat engine is
same.
• Efficiency of reversible heat engine depends only on temperature limits
and independent of working substance used.
𝑄2 𝑇2
𝜂= 1- =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑄2 𝑇2 Valid only for reversible cycle
=
𝑄1 𝑇1
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Performance of reversible cycle
1. Reversible heat engine
𝑄2 𝑇2
𝜂 = 1- =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1
2. Reversible refrigerator
𝑄2 𝑇2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 = =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
3. Reversible heat pump
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 = =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
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Two reversible heat engine in series
Case 1: 𝜂1 = 𝜂2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 𝑇3
Case 2: 𝑊1 = 𝑊2
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇2 =
2
𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 − 𝑛1 𝜂2
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Two reversible heat engine in series
Case 1: 𝐶𝑂𝑃1 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 𝑇3
Case 2: 𝑊1 = 𝑊2
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇2 =
2
𝐶𝑂𝑃1 × 𝐶𝑂𝑃2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑜 =
1+𝐶𝑂𝑃1 +𝐶𝑂𝑃2
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Numerical problems
Q1: A typical new household refrigerator consumes about 680kWh
of electricity per year and has a coefficient of performance of 1.4.
The amount of heat removed by this refrigerator from the
refrigerated space per year is ______ ?
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Numerical problems
Q2: The drinking water needs of an office met by cooling tab
water in a refrigerated water fountain from 23 to 6°C at an average
rate of 10 kg/h. if the COP of this refrigerator is 3.1, the required
power input to this refrigerator is
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Numerical problems
Q3: We wish to produce refrigeration at -30°C and ambient
temperature. The work output of engine operating between 200°C
and 30°C ambient is used to operate the refrigerator. Determine the
ratio of heat transferred from 200°C reservoir to the heat
transferred from the-30°C reservoir?
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Numerical problems
Q4: A heat engine operating between two reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K is used to
drive a heat pump which extracts heat from the reservoir at 300 K at a rate twice that
at which the engine rejects heat to it. If the efficiency of the engine is 40% of the
maximum possible and the COP of the heat pump is 50% of the maximum possible,
what is the temperature of the reservoir to which the heat pump rejects heat? What is
the rate of heat rejection from the heat pump if the rate of heat supply to the engine is
50 kW ?
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Numerical problems
Q5: A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers from the heat
engine and from the heat pump are used to heat the water circulating through the
radiators of a building. The efficiency of the heat engine is 27% and the COP of the
heat pump is 4. Evaluate the ratio of the heat transfer to the circulating water to the
heat transfer to the heat engine.
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Entropy
Clausius Inequality:
𝑑𝑄
ර ≤0
𝑇
𝑑𝑄
ර = 0 → Reversible cycle
𝑇
𝑑𝑄
ර < 0 → Ireversible cycle
𝑇
𝑑𝑄
ර > 0 → Impossible cycle
𝑇
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Entropy
• The amount of heat contained in a substance and the degree to which it is
ordered are described by the property of a state known as entropy.
• The higher the disorder, the greater is the entropy.
𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 < 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 < 𝑆𝑔𝑎𝑠
Entropy is denoted by “S” and change in entropy by “ds”
𝑑𝑄
ර =0
𝑇
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑠 =
𝑇 𝑅𝑒𝑣
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Temperature-entropy diagram (T-S diagram)
Note:
• The area under the curve on T-S diagram represents the heat transfer in reversible process.
• In reversible process, entropy may increase, decrease or may be constant depending upon the heat transfer.
• Reversible adiabatic is isentropic.
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Entropy in irreversible process
𝑑𝑄
ර < 0 → Ireversible cycle
𝑇
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑇 𝐼𝑟𝑟
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 is the entropy generated during a process due to internal irreversibility.
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Internal Irreversibility
Irreversibility
External Irreversibility
• A process in the absence of internal irreversibility is called Internal reversible process.
• A process in the absence of external irreversibility is called externally reversible process.
• A process in which both the internal and external irreversibility are not present then it is called
totally reversible process or reversible process.
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Tds Equation
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑉𝑑𝑝
• Tds equations are also called as property relations.
• Tds equations are valid for any process i.e., reversible and also irreversible.
• Tds equations are applicable for both closed and open system.
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Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at
a temperature of zero Kelvin (absolute zero) is equal to zero.
The third law of thermodynamics implies that it is not possible for a process to
bring the entropy of a given system to zero in a finite number of operations.
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