Chapter 6

Second law of
thermodynamics

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 Overview
• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.
• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible
processes, heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law
of thermodynamics.
• Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines,
refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients
of performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and
refrigerators.

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INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW
A cup of hot coffee Transferring
does not get hotter in heat to a wire
a cooler room. will not
generate
electricity.

These processes cannot occur even though

they are not in violation of the first law.

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 Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.

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Heat Engine:
A thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to
which net heat is transferred and from which net work is delivered.
The devices that convert heat to
work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to
work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft.)
3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
devices usually involve a fluid to
and from which heat is
transferred while undergoing a
cycle. This fluid is called the
working fluid.
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 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A source
supplies
energy in the
Bodies with relatively large thermal form of heat,
masses can be modeled as thermal and a sink
energy reservoirs. absorbs it.

• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x

specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.
• In practice, oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air can be
modeled accurately as thermal energy reservoirs

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The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement

It is impossible for any device

that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a A heat engine that violates the
power plant to operate, the working fluid Kelvin–Planck statement of the
must exchange heat with the second law.
environment as well as the furnace.

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Work can always
be converted to
heat directly and
completely, but the
reverse is not true.

Part of the heat

received by a heat
engine is
converted to work,
while the rest is
rejected to a sink. 8
A steam power plant

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A steam power plant

A portion of the work output

of a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

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 Thermal efficiency

Schematic of a heat
engine.
Some heat engines perform better
than others (convert more of the
heat they receive to work).

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Example

A steam power plant produces 50 MW of net work while burning fuel to

produce 150 MW of heat energy at the high temperature. Determine the
cycle thermal efficiency and the heat rejected by the cycle to the
surroundings.
Wnet , out
 th 
QH
50 MW
  0.333 or 33.3%
150 MW

Wnet , out  QH  QL
QL  QH  Wnet , out
 150 MW  50 MW
 100 MW

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Example
Heat is transferred to a heat engine from a furnace at a rate of 80
MW. If the rate of waste heat rejection to a nearby river is 50 MW,
determine the net power output and the thermal efficiency for this
heat engine.

Solution

Note: The heat engine converts 37.5 percent of the heat it receives to
work. 13
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clasius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.

To date, no experiment has been conducted that

contradicts the second law, and this should be
taken as sufficient proof of its validity.
A refrigerator that
violates the Clausius
statement of the second
law.

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REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
• The transfer of heat from a low-
temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,
are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.

Refrigeration system. Heat Pump system.

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REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

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 Coefficient of Performance
The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed
in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

The objective of a refrigerator is to

remove QL from the cooled space.

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Heat Pumps
The objective of a heat pump is to
supply heat QH into the warmer space.

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
What does COPHP=1
represent?

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Example
The food compartment of a refrigerator, shown in the Figure, is
maintained at 4°C by removing heat from it at a rate of 360 kJ/min. If
the required power input to the refrigerator is 2 kW, determine (a) the
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and (b) the rate of heat
rejection to the room that houses the refrigerator

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Example
A heat pump is used to meet the heating requirements of a house and
maintain it at 20°C. On a day when the outdoor air temperature drops to -2°C,
the house is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. If the heat
pump under these conditions has a COP of 2.5, determine (a) the power
consumed by the heat pump and (b) the rate at which heat is absorbed from
the cold outdoor air.
Solution:
(a) The power consumed by this heat
pump, is determined from the definition of
the coefficient of performance:

(b) 80,000 kJ/h. If the house is to be

maintained at a constant temperature of
20°C, the heat pump must deliver heat to
the house at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h.

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PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES


W net ,out


Q out

A perpetual-motion machine that

violates the first law (PMM1).
Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second
law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.

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PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

Q in


W net ,out

A perpetual-motion machine that

violates the second law of
thermodynamics (PMM2).

A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.

Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked.

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 EXAMPLE
Refrigerant 134a enters the condenser of a residential heat pump at 800kPa and
350C at a rate of 0.018 kg/s and leaves at 800 kPa as a saturated liquid. If the
compressor consumes 1.2 kW of power, determine (a) the COP of the heat pump
and (b) the rate of heat absorption from the outside air.
Assumptions
1 The heat pump operates steadily.
2 The kinetic and potential energy changes are
zero.
(a)

Properties The enthalpies of R-134a at the

condenser inlet and exit are
Using superheat table Using saturated table

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24
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
• The maximum efficiency will correspond to a cycle
consisting of a series of idealized reversible processes

• A reversible process is one which the system and its

surroundings can be returned to their respective original
states at the end of the reverse process without leaving
any trace on the surroundings

• If the system and surroundings cannot be returned to their

respective original states without leaving any trace on the
surroundings, the process is termed irreversible

• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.

• Why are we interested in reversible processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
Two familiar idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
reversible processes. processes can be compared.

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Irreversibilities • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
Friction temperature difference, electric resistance,
renders a inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
process reactions.
irreversible.
• The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is
irreversible. Irreversible
compression
and
expansion
processes. 26
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible or simply reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities
within the system or its surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

A reversible process involves no

internal and external irreversibilities.
Totally reversible heat Internally reversible heat
transfer processes. transfer processes.
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 THE CARNOT CYCLE
The best known reversible cycle
First proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot
Carnot heat engine for closed system such as piston cylinder device
consist of four reversible processes:

1-2: Reversible isothermal expansion

2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion
3-4: Reversible isothermal compression
4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression

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 Carnot showed that the efficiency of a reversible cycle
THE CARNOT CYCLE is always greater than that of an irreversible cycle
operating between the same two thermal reservoirs.

1-2: Reversible isothermal expansion

2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion
3-4: Reversible isothermal compression
4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression

Reversible isothermal
P
Reversible isothermal expansion
( process 1-2, TH= constant compression( process 3-4, TL=
constant 1
QH
2 TH = Const.

W net,out

QL
3
4
TL = Const.

Reversible adiabatic expansion Reversible adiabatic

compression( process 4-1, TL to v
( process 2-3, TH to TL
TH constant

Carnot cycle in a closed system. 29

P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. P-V diagram of the reversed
Carnot cycle.
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle. 30
 THE CARNOT
PRINCIPLES

The Carnot principles.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same. 31
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low- No heat engine can have a higher
temperature efficiency than a reversible heat engine
reservoirs. operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.
Any heat Carnot heat
engine engine

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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
AND HEAT PUMP Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

How do you increase the

No refrigerator can have a higher COP COP of a Carnot
than a reversible refrigerator operating refrigerator or heat pump?
between the same temperature limits. How about for actual ones?

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Example

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Summary
• Introduction to the second law
• Thermal energy reservoirs
• Heat engines
 Thermal efficiency
 The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
 Coefficient of performance (COP)
 The 2nd law: Clasius statement
• Perpetual motion machines
• Reversible and irreversible processes
 Irreversibilities, Internally and externally reversible processes
• The Carnot cycle
 The reversed Carnot cycle
• The Carnot principles
• The Carnot heat engine
• The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump

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