HYDROLOGY

• Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence, distribution and
disposal of water on the planet earth; it is the science which deals with the
various phases of the hydrologic cycle.

• Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer cycle, which occurs continuously in

nature; the three important phases of the hydrologic cycle are: (a)
Evaporation and evapotranspiration (b) precipitation and (c) runoff and is
shown in Fig. 1.7.
The globe has one-third land and two thirds ocean. Evaporation from the surfaces of ponds,
lakes, reservoirs. ocean surfaces, etc. and transpiration from surface vegetation i.e., from
plant leaves of cropped land and forests, etc. take place. These vapours rise to the sky and
are condensed at higher altitudes by condensation nuclei and form clouds, resulting in
droplet growth. The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in precipitation of different
forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew and frost. A part of this precipitation flows over
the land called runoff and part infilters into the soil which builds up the ground water table.
The surface runoff joins the streams and the water is stored in reservoirs. A portion of
surface runoff and ground water flows back to ocean. Again, evaporation starts from the
surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and ocean, and the cycle repeats. Of these three phases of the
hydrologic cycle, namely, evaporation, precipitation and runoff, it is the ‘runoff phase’, which
is important to a civil engineer since he is concerned with the storage of surface runoff in
tanks and reservoirs for the purposes of irrigation, municipal water supply hydroelectric
power etc.
SIMPLY PUT HYDROLOGIC CYCLE composes of

• Evaporation

Evaporation is the change of state in a substance from a liquid to a gas. In meteorology, the substance we are
concerned about the most is water. For evaporation to take place, energy is required. The energy can come
from any source: the sun, the atmosphere, the Earth, or objects on the Earth such as humans.

Everyone has experienced evaporation personally. When the body heats up due to the air temperature or
through exercise, the body sweats, secreting water onto the skin. The purpose is to cause the body to use its
own heat to evaporate the liquid, thereby removing heat and cooling the body. The same effect can be seen
when you step out of a shower or swimming pool. The coolness you feel is the removal of body heat through
evaporation of the water on your skin.

• Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants through stomata. Stomata are small openings found on
the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues. In most plants, transpiration is a passive
process largely controlled by the humidity of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the soil. Of the
transpired water passing through a plant only 1% is used in the growth process of the plant. The remaining 99%
is passed into the atmosphere.
• Condensation
Condensation is the process whereby water vapor is changed into a liquid state.
In the atmosphere, condensation may appear as clouds or dew. This is also the
process whereby water appears on the side of an uninsulated cold drink can or
bottle.

• Precipitation

Precipitation results when tiny condensation particles, through collision and coalescence, grow too large for
the rising air to support, and thus fall to the Earth. Precipitation can be in the form of rain, hail, snow, or sleet.

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/hail-sleet-kimberly-fisher
• Runoff
Runoff occurs when there is excessive precipitation and the ground is saturated
(cannot absorb any more water). Rivers and lakes are results of runoff. Some
runoff evaporates into the atmosphere, but most water in rivers and lakes
returns to the oceans.

If runoff water flows into a lake only with no outlet for water to flow out, then
evaporation is the only means for water to return to the atmosphere. As water
evaporates, impurities or salts are left behind. As a result, the lake becomes salty,
as in the case of the Great Salt Lake in Utah or Dead Sea in Israel.

Evaporation of this runoff into the atmosphere begins the hydrologic cycle over
again. Some of the water percolates into the soil and into the ground water only
to be drawn into plants again for transpiration to take place.

IMG: WIKIPEDIA
References
• https://mgebrekiros.github.io/books/Hydrology_Principles.pdf
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=al-do-HGuIk
 Precipitation
Group 1:
1. Aprilyn Mae Datiles 5. John Cris Dizon
2. Elyanna Maree Garcia 6. Jonnah Mae Gargoles
3. Emherielle Rioros Daniel 7. Kessah Marie Lim
4. Irish Lavinia Laude 8. Trisha Alliyah Roxas
What is Precipitation?
Is the water that falls from the atmosphere in either
liquid or solid form. It results from the condensation of
moisture in the atmosphere due to the cooling of a
parcel of air. The most common cause of cooling is
dynamic or adiabatic lifting of the air.
Formation of Precipitation
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation occurs in various forms. Rain is precipitation that is in the liquid

state when it reaches the earth. Snow is frozen water in a crystalline state,
while hail is frozen water in a 'massive' state. Sleet is melted snow that is an
intermixture of rain and snow.

There are three conditions that need to be met prior to precipitation forming:
1. Cooling of the atmosphere
2. Condensation onto nuclei
3. Growth of the water/ice droplets.
01 Atmospheric
cooling 02 Condensation
nuclei 03 Water droplet
growth 04 Dewfall

Cooling of the atmosphere may Cooling of the atmosphere may Water or ice droplets formed The same process of
take place through several take place through several condensation occurs in dewfall,
around condensation nuclei are
only in this case the water
different mechanisms occurring different mechanisms occurring normally too small to fall vapour condenses into liquid
independently or simultaneously. independently or simultaneously. directly to the ground; that is, water after coming into contact
The most common form of The most common form of the forces from the upward with a cold surface. In
cooling is from the uplift of air cooling is from the uplift of air draught within a cloud are humid-temperate countries dew
through the atmosphere. As air through the atmosphere. As air is a common occurrence in
greater than the gravitational
autumn when the air at night is
rises the pressure decreases; rises the pressure decreases; forces pulling the microscopic still warm but vegetation and
Boyle’s Law states that this will Boyle’s Law states that this will droplet downwards. other surfaces have cooled to the
lead to a corresponding cooling lead to a corresponding cooling point where water vapour
in temperature. in temperature. coming into contact with them
condenses onto the leaves and
forms dew.
PRECIPITATION DISTRIBUTION

The amount of precipitation falling over a location varies

both spatially and temporally (with time). The different
influences on the precipitation can be divided into static
and dynamic influences.
Static influences on
precipitation distribution
Altitude
It has already been explained that temperature is a critical factor in
controlling the amount of water vapour that can be held by air. The cooler the
air is, the less water vapour can be held.

Aspect
The influence of aspect is less important than altitude but it may still play
an important part in the distribution of precipitation throughout a catchment.
Static influences on
precipitation distribution
Slope
The influence of slope is only relevant at a very small scale. Unfortunately
the measurement of rainfall occurs at a very small scale (i.e. a rain gauge). The
difference between a level rain gauge on a hillslope, compared to one parallel
to the slope, may be significant.
 Forms of
Precipitation
 Types of
Precipitation
Types of Precipitation
There are mainly three types of precipitation:

1. Convective Precipitation

1. Orographic Precipitation

1. Cyclonic Precipitation
Convective Precipitation
Convective Precipitation is caused
by rising the ring of warmer, lighter
air in colder, dense surroundings. as
the air warms, Air molecules begin
to move further apart. With
Increased Distance between
molecules, the molecules are less
densely packed. Thus, the aor
becomes “lighter” and rises rapidly
into the atmosphere. As the air rises,
it cools.
Orographic Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
results from a mechanical
lifting over mountain barriers.
Orographic precipitation
results when warm moist air
moving across the ocean is
forced to rise by large
mountains. As the air rises, it
cools.
Cyclonic Precipitation
It results to from the lifting of air
converging into low-pressure area, or
cyclone. A cyclonic storm is a large,
low pressure system that forms when
a warm air mass and a cold air mass
collide. This collision often occurs
under the polar-front jet stream
which spreads cold, dry arctic air near
warm, moist tropical air. The rotation
of the earth causes the air to circulate
in a counterclockwise direction
around an area of low pressure.
Two Kinds of Cyclonic Precipitation
(i) Frontal Precipitation :
If the line of demarcation between cold and warm air is sharp. It is
called a front in case of temperature contrast heavy precipitation is
usually located near fronts. The precipitation along and associated
with the front is known as frontal precipitation.
(ii) Non frontal Precipitation :
In the case of the non-frontal precipitation. The moist warm air
mass is stationary and the moving cold air mass meets it. Thus
due to the lightness of warm air, there is the passive ascent of
warm over cold air owing to the active undercooling. When the
warm air cools down at a higher altitudes Precipitation occurs.
Rainfall Characteristics
Rainfall Characteristics

Depth: Rainfall depth refers to the amount of rain that has fallen over a
specific area during a specific period of time. It is typically measured in
millimeters or inches and is an important factor in understanding and
predicting weather patterns, water availability, and the impact of precipitation
on the environment.

Duration: The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high
intensity rainfall for a short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not
likely have much effect on soil erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration
can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion processes.
Rainfall Characteristics

Intensity Rainfall: intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain
(rainfall depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the period it is
expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h)

However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces
larger size raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher
intensity storms can damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity
storms can literally displace soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the
soil erosion process. High Intensity storms may also overwhelm the soils
ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate, causing infiltration-excess
runoff.
Hyetograph
is a graphical representation of the relationship between the rainfall intensity and time. It
is the plot of the rainfall intensity drawn on the ordinate axis against time on the abscissa
axis. The hyetograph is a bar diagram. The area under the hyetograph gives the total
rainfall occurred in that period. This chart is very useful in representing the
characteristics of storm, and is particularly important in developing the design storm to
predict extreme floods.
Point Rainfall
Measurement
Different type
of Rain Gauges
 Introduction on Rain Gauge
A rain gauge is a type of instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists
to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of
time.

History of Rain Gauge

● The first known rainfall records were kept by the Ancient Greeks,about 500
B.C. this was followed 100 years later by people in India using bowl to
record the rainfall.
● While some sources state that the much later cheugugi of Korea was the
world’s first gauge, other sources say that Jang Yeong-sil developed or
refined an existing gauge. In 1661, Christopher Wren created the first
tipping-bucket rain gauge in Britain.
 Principles of Rain Gauges
● Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimeters. The
level of rainfall sometimes reported as inches or centimeters.
● Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by automatic weather
station (AWS). The frequency of readings will depend on the requirements
of the collection agency.
● In most cases the precipitation is not retained, however some stations do
submit rainfall (and snowfall) for testing, which is done to obtain levels of
pollutants.
● Another problem encountered when the temperature is close to or below
freezing. Rain may fall on the funnel and ice or snow may collect in the
gauge and not permit any subsequent rain to pass through.
 01 Standard rain gauge
The standard NOAA rain gauge, developed around the
start of the 20th century , consists of a funnel attached to a
graduated cylinder (2 cm in diameter) that fits inside a larger
TYPES outside container (20 cm in diameter and 50 cm tall).

OF
RAIN
GAUGES 02 Weighing precipitation gauge
A weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage
bin,which is weighed to record the mass.
 03 Tipping bucket rain gauge
The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that
collects and channels the precipitation into a small
see-sawlike container. After a pre-set amount of precipitation
TYPES falls,the lever tips, dumping the collected water and sending
an electrical signal.
OF
RAIN
GAUGES 04 Optical rain gauge
These have a row of collection funnels. In an enclosed space
below each is a laser diode and a phototransistor
detector.When enough water is collected to make a single
drop, it drips from the bottom, falling into the laser beam
path.
 05 Acoustic rain gauge
The acoustic disdrometer developed by Stijn de Jong is an
acoustic rain gauge. The big advantage of this design is that
it is lot less costly
TYPES
OF
RAIN
GAUGES
ESTIMATION OF
MISSING
RAINFALL
DATA
ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA
• The point observation from a precipitation gage
may have a short break in the record because of
instrument failure, absence of the observer or any
other reasons.
• Thus, it is often necessary to estimate the missing
record using data from the neighboring station.
• The station whose data is missing is called
interpolation station and gauging stations whose
data are used to calculate the missing station data
are called index stations.

The following methods are most commonly used for estimating the missing
records.
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
2. Normal Ratio Method
1. Arithmetic Mean Method

Where:
Px = Precipitation at the missing location “X”
P₁ to Pn = precipitation at the n surrounding rain gauge stations
N = Number of rain gauges Stations
EXAMPLE:
A watershed has four rain gauge stations, A, B, C, and D. During a
storm rain gauge station A was inoperative, while stations B, C, and D
surrounding station A. recorded rainfall of 48mm, 51mm and 45mm
respectively. Estimate the missing location precipitation of Station A,
using arithmetic mean method.

Let, Station A as Px
Given: Find: Solution:
(P₁) Station B = 48mm (Px) Station A = ? 1/N [P₁+P₂+P₃]
(P₂) Station C = 51mm ⅓[48+51+45]
(P₃) Station D = 45mm Px = 48mm
N=3
2. Normal Ratio Method

Where:
Px = Precipitation at the missing location “X”
P₁ to Pn = precipitation at the n surrounding rain gauge stations
Nx = normal annual rain at gauges station “X”
N₁ to Nn = Normal annual rainfall at n surrounding rain gauge stations
N = Number of rain gauges Stations
 EXAMPLE:
A precipitation station X was inoperative for some time during which
a storm occurred. The storm totals at three stations A, B and C
surrounding D, were respectively 6.60, 4.80, and 3.70 cm. The normal
annual precipitation amounts at stations A, B, C and D are
respectively 72.6 51.8, 38.2, and 65.6 cm. Estimate the Precipitation
at the missing location “D” using Normal Ratio method.
GIVEN: Let, Station D (Precipitation) as Px
N=3 Station D (Normal Annual precipitation) as Nx SOLUTION:
STATION A B C D
Precipitation (P₁) = (P₂) = (P₃)=3.70 Find: Px = ?
(cm) 6.60 4.80
Normal Annual (N₁) = (N₂) = (N₃) = 38.2 Nx = 65.6
precipitation 72.6 51.8
(cm)
Conversion of Point Rainfall to
Areal Rainfall
Conversion of Point Rainfall to
Areal Rainfall

The representative precipitation over a defined area is required in engineering

applications, whereas the gaged observation pertains to point precipitation. The
areal precipitation is computed from the record of a group of rain gages within
the area by the following methods.

1. Arithmetic or station average method

2. Weighted average method
2.b. Thiessen polygon method
2.b. Isohyetal method
Arithmetic Average Method

The arithmetic-mean method is the simplest method of determining areal average

rainfall. It involves averaging the rainfall depths recorded at a number of gages. This
method is satisfactory if the gages are uniformly distributed over the area and the
individual gage measurements do not vary greatly about the mean.
 2. Thiessen Polygon Method

If some gauges are considered more representative of the area in question than others, then relative weights may be assigned to the gauges
in computing the areal average. The Thiessen method assumes that at any point in the watershed the rainfall is the same as that at the
nearest gauge so the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in any direction.

The relative weights for each gauge are determined from the corresponding areas of application in a Thiessen polygon network, the
boundaries of the polygons being formed by the perpendicular bisectors of the lines joining adjacent gauges.

These polygons are formed as follows:

1. The stations are plotted on a map of the area drawn to a scale.

2. The adjoining stations are connected by dashed lines.
3. Perpendicular bisectors are constructed on each of these dashed lines, as shown by the solid lines. 4. These bisectors form polygons
around each station. Each polygon is representative of the effective area for the station within the polygon. For stations close to the
boundary, the boundary forms the closing limit of the polygons.
5. The area of each polygon is determined* and then multiplied by the rainfall value for the station within the polygon.
6. The sum of item 5 divided by the total drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.
2.a Thiessen Polygon Method

* This is done by a graphic tool like AutoCAD or a planimeter or, alternatively, by drawing the figure to a
scale on graph paper, counting the total number of squares covered by the polygon, and multiplying by the
square of the map scale

The Thiessen method is generally more accurate than the arithmetic mean method, but it is inflexible,
because a new Thiessen network must be constructed each time there is a change in the gauge network,
such as when data is missing from one of the gauges. Also, the Thiessen method does not directly account
for orographic influences on rainfall.
2. b. Isohyetal Method

The isohyetal method overcomes some of these difficulties by constructing isohyets, using observed depths at rain gages
and interpolation between adjacent gages. Where there is a dense network of rain gauges, isohyetal maps can be
constructed using computer programs for automated contouring.
This is the most accurate of the three methods and provides a means of considering the orographic (mountains) effect.
The procedure is as follows:

1. The stations and rainfall values are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.
2. The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn. The accuracy depends on the construction of the isohyets and
their intervals.
3. The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the numerical average of the two contour
(isohyets) values.
4. The sum of item 3 divided by the drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.
The average precipitation is then computed using the formula:
 2. b. Isohyetal Method

The isohyetal method overcomes some of these difficulties by constructing isohyets, using observed depths at rain gages and
interpolation between adjacent gages. Where there is a dense network of rain gauges, isohyetal maps can be constructed using
computer programs for automated contouring.This is the most accurate of the three methods and provides a means of
considering the orographic (mountains) effect. The procedure is as follows:

1. The stations and rainfall values are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.
2. The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn. The accuracy depends on the construction of the isohyets and their
intervals.
3. The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the numerical average of the two contour (isohyets)
values.
4. The sum of item 3 divided by the drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.

The average precipitation is then computed using the formula:

Double Mass Analysis
DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS
It is a technique used in hydrology and climatology to assess the consistency between observed and recorded
precipitation data. It involves plotting the cumulative distribution of observed precipitation against the cumulative
distribution of a reference dataset, often a long-term climatological record. The comparison helps identify trends,
patterns, or shifts in precipitation behavior over time, aiding in the understanding of regional climate variations
and potential impacts on water resources.

Furthermore, Changes in the location or exposure of a rain gage may have a significant effect on the amount of
precipitation it measures, leading to inconsistent data (data of different nature within the same record).
INFILTRATION
Abandeño, Joshua
Arroyo, Mark Bryan
Balgos, Kristine
Banes, Daniel
Basito, Christian Paul
Blanco, Liezel
Castillo, Syra Mea
Condes, Novy
Hurtal, Patricia
INFILTRATION

CONTENTS

0 1. DEFINITION OF INFILTRATION 0 GREEN – AMPT MODEL

4.
02 FACTORS AFFECTING
INFILTRATION & INFILTRATION 0 PONDING TIME
MEASUREMENTS

. 5.
0 HORTON’S MODEL & PHILLIP’S
EQUATION
0 FITTING INFILTRATION MODELS
TO INFILTRATION DATA USING
EXCEL

3. 6.
 INTRODUCTION

LIEZEL BLANCO
 Definition of Infiltration
Infiltration is the process of water entry into a soil from rainfall, or
irrigation.
Infiltration is also defined as a downward entry of water into the soil. The
velocity at which water enters the soil is called infiltration rate.

• Infiltration Rate
It is the rate at which the water actually infiltrates through the soil during a
storm and it must be equal the infiltration capacities or rainfall rate, which
ever is lesser.

• Infiltration Capacity
The maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition is capable of
absorbing water.
Definition of Infiltration

Difference between Infiltration and Percolation

Infiltration - The entry of water into the soil through the

soil surface

Percolation - The process of downward movement of water

into soil once water enters into the soil.

NOTE: When Percolation Stop, Infiltration also stop. When Infiltration Stop,
Percolation is continuing.
 FACTORS
AFFECTING
INFILTRATION
LIEZEL BLANCO
Factors Affecting Infiltration
Infiltration rates vary widely. It is dependent on the
condition of the land surface (cracked, crusted, compacted
etc), land vegetation cover, surface soil characteristics (grain
size & gradation), storm characteristics (intensity, duration
& magnitude), surface soil and water temperature, chemical
properties of the water and soil.
 Factors Affecting Infiltration
Precipitation
The greatest factor controlling
infiltration is the amount and
characteristics (intensity, duration,
etc.) of precipitation that falls as
rain or snow.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Soil Characteristics
Some soil, such as clays, absorb
less water at a slower rate than
sandy soils. Soils absorbing less
water result in more runoff
overland into streams.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Vegetative Cover

Some land covers have a great

impact on infiltration and rainfall
runoff. Vegetation can slow the
movement of runoff, allowing more
time for it to seep into the ground.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Slope of the Land

Water falling on a
sleepy-sloped land runs off more
quickly and infiltrates less than
water falling on flat land.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Soil Saturation

Like a wet sponge, soils already

saturated from previous rainfall
can't absorb much more, thus more
rainfall will become surface- runoff.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Evapotranspiration Level
Evapotranspiration is the sum of
all processes by which water moves
from the land surface to the
atmosphere via evaporation and
transpiration.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

Human Activities

If the soil surface gets compacted

due to construction of roads,
operation of tractors and other farm
implements and machinery the
porosity of the soil is decreased.
 INFILTRATION
MEASUREMENTS

DANIEL BANES
 Infiltration Measurements

Infiltration is a very complex process, which can vary temporally

and spatially. Selection of measurement techniques and data
analysis techniques should consider these effects, and their
spatial dimensions can categorize infiltration measurement are
described below.
Areal
Measurement
Hyetograph Hydrograph
Point Infiltration
Measurement
Point infiltration measurement are normally made by applying water at a
specific site to a finite area and measuring the intake of the soil. Infiltrometer
is a device used to measure the rate of water infiltration into soil. There are
types of infiltrometer:

1. Rainfall Infiltrometer
2. Flooding Infiltrometer
A. Basin Infiltrometer
B. Ring– Type Infiltrometer
b. Single & Double Ring
Rainfall
Infiltrometer
Basically a rainfall infiltrometer
simulates rainfall with the use of special
spray nozzles set a certain distance
(usually 2 to 3 m) above the soil surface.
The soil surface tested is usually enclosed
so that once runoff commences it can be
collected at an opening and the volume
measured with time. The difference
between the application rate and the
runoff rate is taken to be the infiltration.
Rainfall Infiltrometer

With the help of rain simulator, water is

sprinkled at a uniform rate in excess of the
infiltration capacity, over a certain experimental
area. The resultant runoff R is observed, and
from that the infiltration f using f= (P-R)/t.
where:
P= Rain Sprinkled
R= Runoff Collected
t= Duration of rainfall
Flooding
Infiltrometer
Flooding infiltrometers enclose an area
and pond water to a specified depth. The
infiltration rate is calculated from the drop
in water level per unit time or the amount
of water required to maintain the
•Basin infiltrometer
specified depth or head of water per unit
which uses earth retaining walls; and
time. Flooding infiltrometers measure the
maximum rate of entry of water into the • Ring infiltrometer which uses metal rings
soil. They do not simulate raindrop inserted into the ground to retain the water.
activity; they measure water penetration
rather than rainfall infiltration. Basically
there are two types of flooding
infiltrometers;
Types of Ring
Infiltrometer:

•Single Ring Infiltrometer •Double Ring Infiltrometer

Example 1. A USGS rain-simulator infiltrometer experiment was conducted on a
sandy loam soil. Rainfall was simulated at the rate of 20 cm/hr. The rainfall and
runoff data are given in the table.
a.) Find and Plot the mass- infiltration curve from the experimental data
b.) Plot an infiltration rate curve.
Table EX.1. Rain- simulator Infiltrometer Data and infiltration capacity
calculation
Solution. The measured data are given in column 1, 3, 4. Cumulative
infiltration F is calculated by subtracting the cumulative runoff from the
cumulative rainfall. Infiltration rate is determined by driving the F by the total
duration of infiltration. The result is placed in figure below.
 HORTON
INFILTRATION
MODEL
SYRA MEA D. CASTILLO
Horton Infiltration Concept

In general, for a given

constant storm, infiltration
rates tend to decrease with
time. The initial infiltration
rate is the rate prevailing at
the beginning of the storm
and is maximum. Infiltration
rates gradually decrease in
time and reach a constant
value.
 Horton observed the above facts and concluded that infiltration
begins at some rate fO and exponentially decreases until it reaches
a constant fc. He proposed the following infiltration equation
where rainfall intensity i greater than fp at all time.

where:

f infiltration capacity (mm/hr)

f0
is the initial infiltration rate (mm/hr)
fc
is the final (limiting) infiltration rate (mm/hr)
k is the coefficient of the exponential term (hr-1)
CUMULATIVE INFILTRATION VOLUME (Ft) :

The cumulative infiltration equation F(t) for the Horton method is found from the
relationship d(F(t) / dt) = f(t) = fp

Indicative values for fo, fc, and K are given in Table 2-3
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

The initial infiltration capacity fo of a watershed is estimated as 1.5 in./hr,

and the time constant is taken to be 0.35 hr¹. The equilibrium capacity fc is 0.2
in./hr. Use Horton's equation to find;

(a) the values of f at t = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 6 hr, and
(b) the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hr period.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

The initial infiltration capacity fo of a watershed is estimated as 1.5 in./hr, and the time constant is taken to be 0.35 hr¹. The equilibrium capacity fc is
0.2 in./hr. Use Horton's equation to find;
(a) the values of f at t = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 6 hr, and
(b) the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hr period.
t (hr) f (in/hr)
1/6 1.43
½ 1.29
GIVEN: 1 1.12
SOLUTION:
fo = 1.5 in/hr 2 0.85
k = 0.35 hr¹ (A)
6 0.36
fc = 0.2 in/hr
T1 = 10 min or 1/6 hr f = 0.2 in/hr + (1.5 in/hr - 0.2 in/hr) e - 0.35 hr -1 t GRAPH:
T2 = 30 min or 1/2 hr
T3 = 1 hr
At t = 1/6 hr
T4 = 2 hr
f = 0.2 in/hr + (1.5 in/hr - 0.2 in/hr) e - 0.35 hr -1 (1/6hr)
T5 = 6 hr

f = 1.43 in/hr
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

The initial infiltration capacity fo of a watershed is estimated as 1.5 in./hr, and the time constant is taken to be 0.35 hr¹. The equilibrium capacity fc is
0.2 in./hr. Use Horton's equation to find;
(a) the values of f at t = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 6 hr, and
(b) the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hr period.

GIVEN: SOLUTION:
fo = 1.5 in/hr (B)
k = 0.35 hr¹
fc = 0.2 in/hr
t = 6 hr
 PHILLIP’S
EQUATION

CHRISTIAN PAUL BASITO

Philip Equation (1957, 1969)
Philips Solution for Horizontal and Vertical Infiltration

John R. Philips (1957,1969) presented the first analytical

solution to Richards’ equation. It is based on a time expansion
method considering infiltration as a sorption process with a
perturbation generated by the presence of gravity.
Horizontal
Infiltration
For Horizontal infiltration Philip showed that the cumulative and instantaneous
infiltration rates are given by:

Cumulative: Rate:
Horizontal Infiltration
When a sharp wetting front exists, the sorptivity may be approximated by:
Vertical Infiltration
Vertical Infiltration

For practical purpose, the series in the previous equation is commonly

truncated and only the first two terms are retained:

Cumulative: Rate:
 GREEN – AMPT
MODEL

PATRICIA HURTAL & NOVY CONDES

The Green-Ampt method
The Green-Ampt model is
an approximate model utilizing
Darcy’s law. The model is
developed with the assumption
that water is ponded on the
ground surface. Consider a
vertical column of soil of unit
horizontal cross-sectional area
and let a control volume be
defined around the wet soil
between the surface and
depth L.
o
Parameters in the Green-Ampt model
Table 2. USDA Soil Texture Green- Ampt
Infiltration Parameters (Maidment, 1993)
Note: that for bare ground cover conditions K = Ks/2, for the area which is bare under canopy the
effective hydraulic conductivity can be assumed to be equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity
Ks of the soil.

The area which has ground cover is assumed to contain macroporosity, and the effective
hydraulic conductivity is equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks times a macroporosity
factor A. For areas which don not undergo mechanical disturbance like range land macroporosity
factor A is determined from:

A = exp(2.82 - 0.099S [Eq. 9]

+1.94BD)
And for undisturbed agricultural areas A can be determined from

A = exp(0.96 - 0.032S + 0.04C - 0.032BD) [Eq. 10]

where;
S = Percent sand
C = percent clay
BD = bulk density of the soil (< 2 mm), g/cc, and A > 1.0.
 PONDING TIME

MARK BRYAN ARROYO

 Ponding Time
• Elapsed time between the time rainfall begins and the time water begins
to pond on the soil surface (tp)
• Up to the time of ponding, all rainfall has infiltrated (i = rainfall rate)
FORMULA:
Example

Solution:
Example

Solution:
 FITTING INFILTRATION
MODELS TO INFILTRATION
DATA USING EXCEL

JOSHUA ABENDANO & KRISTINE BALGOS

Thank
you very
much!