Engineering Hydrology

1.0 Engineering Hydrology by K. Subramanya,

2.0 Engineering Hydrology by K. N. Dulal and S. Baral

Suraj Lamichhane (Ph. D.)

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
“Hydro” means Water Introduction
“Logy” means Science
Hence, Hydrology means the science of water
Definition:- Hydrology is the applied science which deals about
occurrence, distribution, and movement of water of the earth.
Practical applications of hydrology are found in such tasks as the
design and operation of hydraulic structures, water supply,
wastewater treatment and disposal, irrigation, drainage, hydropower
generation, flood control, navigation, erosion and sediment control,
salinity control, pollution reduction, recreational use of water, and
fish and wildlife protection.

The role of applied hydrology is to help analyze the problems involved

in these tasks and to provide guidance for the planning and
management of water resources”.
Hydrological Cycle
Global water balance (mm/yr)
Precipitation Atmospheric moisture flow 316 Precipitation Evaporation
800 1270 1586

Evaporation
484
Outflow
316

Land (148.7 M km2) Ocean (361.3 M km2)

(29% of earth area) (71% of earth area)
Global Water Resources
105,000 km3 or
0.0076% of total
water
Global Water Availability
500

1350
3850

10000
37500
325000
Watershed system
 Water Balance
The water balance defines the conservation of mass across the different
compartments of the hydrological cycle (atmosphere, water bodies, soil
and ground, vegetation, snowpack and ice, …)
The concept of conservation of mass implies the identification of an
incoming and an outgoing flux, and of a storage variation over a given
unit of time.

S
Water Budget Equation

P-(R+G+E+T)=∆S
Q. A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm
in 90 minutes due to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the
stream draining the catchment was dry before the storm and
experience a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average discharge
value of 2 m3 /s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event.(a)
what is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to
combined effect of infiltration, evaporation, transpiration? (b) what
is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
Q. The Catchment area of a reservoir is 10.5 km2. A uniform
precipitation of 0.5 cm/hr for 2h was observed on a particular day.
50% of the rainfall reached the reservoir. A canal carrying a flow of
1 m3/s is taken from the reservoir. The rate of evaporation was
0.7mm/h/m2. Assuming seepage loss to be 50% of evaporation loss,
find the change in reservoir level for 8 hours in the next, if the water
spread of the reservoir was 0.45 km2
Development of hydro-meteorological study in Nepal

1940s Hydrological study in Nepalese river started with initiation of Koshi

project
1947 Establishment of hydrological station at Barahachhetra, Kampughat
(sunkoshi), and mulghat(Tamor)
1956 Meteorological observation stations were established with the help of
the Government of India
1962 Started hydrological and meteorological study of Karnali basin under
Department of Electricity
1966 Establishment of Department of Hydrology and Meteorology and
starting of publication of Hydro-meteorological data
1988
1993 Started nationwide hydro-meteorological data management was started

2002 Water Resources Strategy was prepared

2005 National Water Plan was published

Thank you
Chapter : Two

Precipitation
Structure of Presentation
–Definition, Causes, forms and types of precipitation
–Measurement of rainfall (types and adequacy of rain gauges)
– Snow fall and its measurements
–Estimation of missing rainfall data
–Test for inconsistencies of rainfall data (Double Mass Curve)
–Presentation of rainfall data
–(Mass curve, Hyetograph, Average curve of annual rainfall)
–Estimation of mean rainfall over an area
–Development of Intensity - Duration - Frequency (IDF) curve
and equation
– Depth - Area - Duration (DAD) curve
 Definition of Precipitation
The various forms of water that reaches to the surface of
the earth is known as precipitation. The various forms of
precipitation are rain, snow, hail, frost, dew etc.

• However, major
parts of ppt are rain
& snow.
• Other forms of ppt
are all very small &
generally ignored in
the design of most
hydrological
structures &
therefore they are
not much importance
Definition of Precipitation
The magnitude of ppt varies with time & space. In Nepal,
75% of annual rainfall falls in 3 months (June-August)
 Mechanism of Precipitation
Evaporation/ Transfer of moisture from the earth surface to
Transpiration atmosphere

Precipitation occur, only when water vapor reach higher

Upliftment in altitude which is achieve by convection, downward
and cooling movement of cold front, upward movement of warm front
etc.

Cooling of water vapor occurs in high altitude. In

condensation presence of microscopic dust particles, smoke etc.
condensation stats around them. Condensed water
molecules are so small that they remain suspended in air

Aggregation Small tiny water drops combine each other to form

larger diameter rain drop

When droplets are heavy enough the fall in the earth

Precipitation surface due to gravity as a precipitation
 Causes of Precipitation

• Water evaporates from water surfaces like streams, rivers,

oceans, ponds etc & also from the land & plants in the form of
water vapors.

• These water vapors get collected in the atmosphere & behave

like a gas. As the evaporation continues, the amount of
atmospheric vapor goes on increasing.

• Space can hold only a fixed amount of water vapor in the

presence of a solid or a liquid surface, a stage is reached when
further addition of vapor will get condensed & falls in the earth
surface as rain, snow, hail or mist
Some of the common forms of pptn: Dew, mist, fog, rain, hail & snow
Forms of Precipitation
 Forms of precipitation
Snow
 Forms of precipitation
Mist/Drizzle : fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of
size less than 0.5mm & intensity less than 1mm/hr
• The drops are so small that they appear to float in the air
 Forms of precipitation
Glaze : When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground
at around 0⁰ C, the water drops freeze to form an ice coating
called glaze or freezing
 Forms of precipitation

Hail : These are the lumps of ice of size ≥ 8mm & falls along
with rains
 Forms of precipitation
Sleet
It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which
forms when rain falls through air at subfreezing
temperature
 Forms of precipitation
Dew
It is the result of atmospheric vapor condensing on
the surface in the colder night air
Dew point is the temperature in which condensation
starts to take place or when dew is created
 Lifting mechanism to cool the air

Lifting mechanism gives 3 main types of precipitation

• Cyclonic Precipitation
• Convective precipitation
• Orographic Precipitation
Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation
Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge front of a warm
air mass meets a cool air mass. The warmer air mass is forced up
over the cool air. As it rises the warm air cools, moisture in the air
condenses, clouds & precipitation results
Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation
This is also caused by lifting of an air mass due to the pressure
difference. If low pressure occurs in an area, air will flow
horizontally from the surrounding area, causing the air in the
low pressure area to lift. The precipitation that results is called
cyclonic ppt
 Convective Precipitation

This type of precipitation results from the heating of the earth surface
that causes air to rise rapidly. As the air rises, it cools & moisture
condenses into clouds & precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
The moist air masses may get lifted up to higher altitudes, due
to the presence of mountain barriers and continuously cooling,
condensation and precipitation.
precipitation results on the windward side of the mountain
have heavy while the leeward side receives very little rainfall.
 Measurement of precipitation Measurement methods of precipitation
• Amount of precipitation • Rain gauges
• Duration of precipitation • Snow gauges
• Intensity of precipitation • Radars
• Areal extent of ppt • Satellites
• Scratching of snow packs
• Water equivalent in snow packs
Criteria for Rain gauge
• Should be Accessible
• The land surface should be horizontal
• Should be fenced with minimum 5.5 m to 5.5 m
• Should be free from vertical obstacles
• Should be place above the ground level
 Measurement methods of precipitation
Types of Rain gauges
Mainly 2 types of rain gauges
• Non recording type & recording type
• Non recording rain gauges (Symon’s Type of Raingauge) measures
only the total amount of rainfall & not the intensity of rainfall from
time to time
Measurement methods of precipitation

• Water enters into the receiver & goes into the

measuring tube through the funnel
• To measure the ppt, the funnel is removed & the
ppt measured with a measuring stick
• The overflow can is 10 times the size of the
measuring tube so as to collect excess water when
it is required

•It does not provide the distribution of precipitation

over the time
• it has disadvantage over recording rain-gauge as it
does not provide information regarding time,
intensity, and duration of rainfall.
 Recording type rain gauges
Tipping Bucket type rain gauges :
• The rain water is caught in a collector then
passed through a funnel.
• The funnel discharges the water into a
two-compartment bucket.
• When 0.25mm of rain water gets filled up in
one compartment, the bucket tips, emptying
into a reservoir & moving the 2nd compartment
into place beneath the funnel.
• The tipping of the bucket actuates an
electrically driven pen to mark on a revolving
drum.
• The water collected in the reservoir is
measured at regular intervals to provide total
rainfall. The tipping bucket gives the data of
intensity of rainfall
 Recording type rain gauges
Weighing Bucket type rain gauges :
• Rain failing on the receiving
area is collected by the funnel to
the storage bucket lies above the
weighing platform.
• The weighing platform
contentiously records the
amount of rainfall falling into
the bucket using a pen on a
rotating drum.
• The records shows
accumulation rainfall over the
time period.
• This type of recoding gauge
gives more accurate results then
tipping bucket rain gauge
 Recording type rain gauges
Float recording gauges (siphon
type rain gauge) :
• Rainwater is collected in a
rectangular float chamber via
funnel
• A float is provided at the bottom
of the chamber and it rises up as
the water level rises in the
container.
• The movement of float is recorded
by a pen moving on a recording
drum.
• After water level rises up to a
certain level the siphon
mechanism is activated to empty
the rainwater collected in the float
chamber
Precipitation measurement using radar
 Area Rain-gauge density
2 Rain gauge density
plains 1 in 520km
Elevated regions 1 in 260-390 km2 Based on world meteorological
organization(WMO) guidelines, the
Hilly and very heavy 1 in 130 km2 number of rain gauges require for
rainfall areas (of which 10% self the different terrains are presented in
recording RGS
following table.
 Measurement of snow
In case of snow fall,
following two properties of
more interest are measured
1. Depth of snow at a
particular place in
mm/inches
2. Equivalent amount of
Depth
water in of
mmsnow
Depth of snow at a
particular place can be
measured by the
following methods
a. Standard rain gauges
without collectors Snow gauges
b. Snow gauges
A snow gauge is a type of instrument used
c. By scratching snow
packs to measure the solid form of precipitation.
Measurement of equivalent amount of water in a snow pack
The equivalent amount of water in a snow pack can be measured by
1. Heating
The equivalent amount in mm of water can be obtained by heating
the cylinder. It will melt the snow and the depth of the liquid water
can be measured with a measuring stick This approach is adjustable
because some water may get evaporated during the heating
2. Weighing
3. Adding measured amount
of hot water
4. By using weight relationship

Ww = Ws
rw*A*h = rs*A*H
h = rs*H
Rain gauge Network
• To get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment area, the
number of rain gauge should be as large as possible
• Catchment area per gauge should be small
• On the other hand economic considerations, topography &
accessibility also restrict the number of gauges to be maintained
• The minimum rain gauge density required for different types of
catchments as per the guideline of WMO.
Adequacy of Rain gauge stations (Optimum no. of stations)
• Statistics has been used in determining the optimum number of rain
gauges required to be installed in a given catchment.
• The basis behind such statistical calculations is that certain no. of
rain gauge stations are necessary to give average rainfall with a
certain % of error.
•The optimum number of rain gauge (N) can be
obtained by the following equation
 Adequacy of Rain gauge stations (Optimum no. of stations)

Cv : Coefficient of variation of the rainfall values at the

existing m stations (in %)
E : Allowable % error in the estimate of mean rainfall
If there are m stations in the catchment each recording
rainfall values P1, P2, ……Pm in a known time

where = std. deviation

Pi = precipitation magnitude in the ith station

= = mean precipitation
Q. For a basin, the normal annual rainfall depths recorded are shown in
table below. Determine the optimum number of rain gauge stations to
be established in the basin if it is desired to limit the error in the mean
value of rainfall to 10%. What is the percentage accuracy of the
existing network in the estimation of the average depth of rainfall over
the basin?

Station A B C D E
Normal annual rainfall(cm) 88 104 138 78 56
Q. For a basin, the normal annual rainfall depths recorded are shown in
table below. Determine the optimum number of rain gauge stations to
be established in the basin if it is desired to limit the error in the mean
value of rainfall to 10%. What is the percentage accuracy of the
existing network in the estimation of the average depth of rainfall over
the basin? Station A B C D E
Normal
annual
rainfall(c
m) 88 104 138 78 56
Station Normal annual rainfall,x(cm) x-x ̅ (x-x ̅)^2
Normal annual
Station x-x ̅ (x-x ̅)^2 A 88 -4.8 23.04
rainfall, x(cm) B 104 11.2 125.44
A 88 ? ? C 138 45.2 2043.04

B 104 ? ? D 78 -14.8 219.04

E 56 -36.8 1354.24
C 138 ? ?
n=5 Σx= 464 ∑ 3764.8
D 78 ? ? x ̅= 92.8 σ= 30.67898
E 56 ? ? Cv 33.05925%

n=5
N= 10.92914= 11
Σx= ? ∑?
x ̅= ? σ=? b. =?
Cv? %
N=? ∴the percentage accuracy=85.2%
Presentation of rainfall data
a. Mass curve
• The mass curve of rainfall is a
plot of the accumulated
precipitation against time,
plotted in chronological order.
• Records of float type and
weighing-bucket type gauges
are of this form.
• Mass curves of rainfall are
very useful in extracting the
information on the duration
and magnitude of a storm.
• Also, intensities at various
time intervals in a storm can
be obtained by the slope of the
curve.
b. hyetograph
• A hyetograph is a graphical
representation of the distribution
of rainfall intensity over time.
• The hyetograph is usually
represented as a bar chart
• It is a very convenient way to
represent characteristics of a
storm and is particularly
important in the development of
a design storms to predict
extreme floods.
• The area under a hyetograph
represents the total precipitation
received in that period.
c. Point rainfall
Interpretation of precipitation data
1. Estimate missing precipitation data at a station
2. Checking inconsistency in a particular data at a station
3. Average precipitation over an area
Estimating missing precipitation data at a station
• Due to several reasons such as absence of the observer, instrument
failure etc
• Given the annual precipitation values P1, P2, P3…Pm at neighboring
m stations 1, 2, 3…m respectively, it is required to find the missing
annual precipitation Px at a station x not included in the above m
stations. Given the normal annual precipitations (30 years) N1,
N2, ….Ni at each of the above (m+1) stations, including station x
are known.
• Missing precipitation data is estimated by two commonly used
methods
• Arithmetic mean method &
• Normal ratio method (NRM)
Arithmetic mean method
If the normal annual precipitation at various stations are within
about 10% of the normal annual precipitation at station X, then a
simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to estimate Px thus

Normal ratio method

If the normal annual precipitation at various stations exceeds 10%
, then Px is estimated by weighing the precipitation at various stations
by the ratio of normal annual precipitation. This method is known as
normal ratio method
Q. The normal annual precipitation of five raingauge stations
P,Q,R,S,T are respectively 125, 102, 76, 113, and 137 cm. During a
particular storm the precipitation recorded by stations P,Q,R and S are
13.2, 9.2 , 6.8, and 10.2 cm respectively. The instrument at station T
was inoperative during that storm. Estimate the rainfall at station T
during that storm by both method.
Q. The normal annual precipitation of five raingauge stations
P,Q,R,S,T are respectively 125, 102, 76, 113, and 137 cm. During a
particular storm the precipitation recorded by stations P,Q,R and S are
13.2, 9.2 , 6.8, and 10.2 cm respectively. The instrument at station T
was inoperative during that storm. Estimate the rainfall at station T
during that storm by both method.

Arithmetic mean method = 9.85 cm

Normal ratio method = 12.86 cm

 Test for consistency of record
Common causes for inconsistency of rainfall records
• Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location
• The neighborhood of the station under going a marked change
• Change in the ecosystem due to calamities, such as forest fires, land
slides etc
• Occurrence of observational error from a certain date
• The checking for inconsistency of a record is done by the
double-mass curve technique
The technique is based on the principle that when each recorded data
comes from the same parent population, they are consistent
 Test for consistency of record (Double mass curve techniques)

• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighborhood of the

problem station X is selected
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the
neighboring stations in reverse chronological order (from recent to
old record)
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X and the average
values of the group base stations starting from the latest
record.
• Plot the a against
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed that
indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e
inconsistency.
• Therefore, it should be corrected by a factor
 c a

Correction
Factor = c/a
 P7

P2
P6

P8
P1
P5

P3 P4
Mean Precipitation over an area
• Rain gauges represent only point sampling of the areal distribution of a
storm
• The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is a rainfall over an area,
such as over the catchment
• As the rainfall over a large area is not uniform, the average depth of
rainfall over the area is determined by one of the following three
methods.
– Arithmetic mean method
– Thiessen Polygon method
– Isohyets method
Arithmetic Mean Method

• When the area is physically and climatically homogenous and the

required accuracy is small, the average rainfall ( ) for a basin
can be obtained as the arithmetic mean of the station values
recorded at various stations. If P1, P2, Pi …..Pn are the rainfall
values in a given period in N stations within catchment, then the
mean precipitation is given by

• This method is fast and simple and yields good results in flat
country where rain gauge stations are uniformly distributed
• Applicable rarely for practical purpose
Thiessen polygons method

• This method consists of attributing to each station an influence

zone in which it is considered that the rainfall is equivalent to that
of the station.
• The influence zones are represented by polygons.
• These polygons are obtained using the mediators of the segments
which link each station to the closest neighboring stations
 Thiessen polygons ……….
P7
P6

A7

A6
P2

A2
A1

A8 A5
P1

P8 P5

A4
A3

P3

P4
 Thiessen polygons ……….

Generally for M station

The ratio is called the weightage factor of station i

Q. Figure below shows a typical layout of a catchment area
ABCD. Fix rain gauge stations are established at A,B,C,and D
as shown in figure. The precipitation observed at these four
stations are as follows:
stations A B C D
Rainfall(cm) 10 12 15 11

10 km
A B

D 5 km
C

Determine the mean precipitation by Thiessen polygon method.

Q. Figure below shows a typical layout of a catchment area
ABCDF. Fix rain gauge stations are established at A,B,C,D,E
and F as shown in figure. The precipitation observed at these six
stations are as follows:
stations A B C D E F
Rainfall(cm) 10 12 13 18 12.5 15

Determine the mean precipitation by Thiessen polygon method.

Isohyetal Method
• An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude. 10.0

D
a5
6 C
12
9.2
12
a4
a3
7.0
B
4
7.2

A
E
a2 10.0
9.1
4.0 a1

6
4
Isohyetal Method

• P1, P2, P3, …. , Pn – the values of the isohytes

• a1, a2, a3, …., a4 – are the inter isohytes area respectively
• A – the total catchment area
• - the mean precipitation over the catchment

NOTE

The isohyet method is superior to the other

two methods especially when the stations are
large in number.
Q. Estimate the average depth of precipitation over the drainage
basin with following data.

Isohyetals (intervals, cm) 15-12 12-9 9-6 6-3 3-1

Inter-isohyetals area km2 92 128 120 175 85
 P7

P2
P6

P8
P1
P5

P3 P4
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve
An intensity-duration-frequency curve (IDF curve) is a
mathematical function or graph that relates the rainfall intensity with
its duration and frequency of occurrence.
In IDF curve, Duration plotted as abscissa, intensity as ordinate and
series of curves one for each return period
These curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood
forecasting and civil engineering for urban drainage design, design
of hydraulic structure.
IDF curves can be expressed as
equation in the exponential form
given by:

Where, i=intensity
T=return period or frequency
D=Duration
K,x,a,n=constants
 RUNOFF ESTIMATION
• Value of rainfall intensity is calculated
by comparing time of concentration
(Tc) and rainfall duration (t)
– If Tc ≥ t i =(total rainfall amount)/t.
– If Tc < t i = (total rainfall until Tc)/Tc.

Time of concentration (Tc) can be

estimated using Kirpich Equation; Tc
= 0.01947 * L0.77 * S – 0.385; where, Tc
(minutes), L is the longest flow path
(meters), S is slope of the catchment
= ΔH/L, in which, ΔH is elev.
difference between the most remote
point on the catchment and outlet.
 RUNOFF ESTIMATION
• We usually get 24-hr accumulated rainfall data from DHM, which
provide no indication on rainfall intensity or the
duration-frequency characteristics of intense rainfall
– But, they are key information for hydraulic design.
• In the absence of sub-daily or hourly data, disaggregate 24-hr (or
daily) into hourly data &then calculate rainfall intensity;
A) Shakya (2002) model;

Where; t is the duration [hrs]; Pt is the accumulated rainfall

amount [mm] in t hours (T is taken as Tc); P24 is the accumulated
rainfall [mm] in 24 hours.
B) Monobe equation, IT (mm/hr)=(P24/24)*[24/Tc] 2/3;
Where P24 is daily rainfall (mm), IT is mean rainfall intensity
(mm/hr) in a period of time Tc. Tc is time of concentration (hrs),
RUNOFF ESTIMATION
 RUNOFF ESTIMATION
• Steps for developing Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF)
curve
– Identify the most suitable rainfall station for the study area
– Disaggregate 24-hr rainfall into different durations (e.g., 5 mins,
10 mins, 15 mins, 30 mins, 1 hr, 2 hr, 6 hr, 12 hr, & 24 hr) using
appropriate model (e.g., Shakya, 2002 model)
– Calculate frequency factor for different return period (KT) using

– Calculate rainfall of return period T, PT (mm) = Pmean + KT * SD,

where SD is standard deviation. Repeat this for rainfall of other
durations (5 min – 24 hr)
– Calculate rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for each return period and
each period
– Plot IDF curve based on above data
Depth-Area-Duration(DAD) curve
Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over a large area
Variations in intensity and total depth of rainfall from the centers to
peripheries of storm causes average depth of rainfall decreases from
the maximum as the area considered increases.
If we plot depth of precipitation and area of its coverage for different
duration of storm the curve thus obtained is called DAD curve.
It is useful to analyze areal distribution of rainfall
Chapter : Four

Surface Run off

Structure of Presentation
• Drainage basins and its quantitative characteristics
• Factors affecting runoff from a catchment
• Rainfall - Runoff relationship
• Stream gauging (selection of sites, types of gauges and
measurement)
• Stream flow measurement by velocity area method (current
meters, floats & velocity rods)
• Stream flow computation by slope area method
• Development of Rating curve & its uses
• Estimation of monthly flows from rainfall
 Runoff
• It is defined as the portion of the ppt that makes its way towards
rivers or oceans as surface or sub-surface flow.
• The discharge flowing in a river is the run off from its catchment
area drained by that river
• Discharge, Runoff & stream flow are same

Type of runoff:

Surface runoff Sub Surface runoff Base-flow

Total runoff=surface runoff + subsurface runoff + Base flow

 Run off process
• The water which percolates without joining the WT & than joins the
stream as sub surface flow, is considered as a part of surface flow.
• On the other hand, the water that percolates to the ground water
table & after a long time, joins the river stream is known as ground
water flow

Thus run off consist of 3 portions

• Surface Run off
• Ground water flow (Base flow)
• Direct ppt over the river stream
• 1st factor is important for maxm flow of river & 2nd factor is
important for minimum flow of the river
• For the peak flow we are concerned with surface run off
 Drainage basin

A drainage is any area of land where precipitation collects and

drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, lake. The
drainage basin includes all the surface water from rain runoff,
snowmelts, and nearby streams that run downslope towards the
shared outlet.
 Quantitative characteristics of Basin
Stream order
measure of amount of branching within a stream.
Shape of the basin
Shape of the basin governs the rate at which water
enters the stream. The shape of basin is expressed by
-Form factor(Ff) = average width of basin
(B)/axial length of basin (L) = B/L=A/L2
-Shape factor (Sf): ratio of square of basin length
(L) to its area (A), Sf=L2/A
Slope of the Channel
Slope of channel affects the velocity and flow carrying capacity at any
given location at its course.
Slope = elevation difference between 2 points of a
channel(h)/horizontal length between points (L)
Compactness coefficient
it is the ratio of perimeter of the basin to square root of the area (if the
catchment is circular area) Cc = K*P/√(A)
Centroid of basin
Location of point of weighted center
Hydraulic geometry
It includes the character of channel, longitudinal variation of mean
depth, width and velocity at a particular cross-section.
Stream pattern
a) Meandering types - Formation of successive bends of reverse
order leading to the formation of a complete S curve called meander.
b) Braided - Formation of branches separated by islands
c) Straight - Straight and single channel.
Flood plains
The flood plains of a river are the valley floor adjacent to the
channel, which may be inundated during high stage of river. Flood
plains are formed due to the deposition of sediment in the river
channel and deposition of fine sediments on the flood plains on
flooding.
 Factors affecting runoff from a catchment
(1) Morphologic - These factors depend only on the topography of the
land forms of which the drainage-basin is composed and on the
form and extent of the stream-system or drainage-net within It.
(2) Soil factors - This group includes factors descriptive of the
materials forming the groundwork of the drainage-basin, including
all those physical properties involved in the soil -moisture-relations.
(3) Geologic structural factors - These factors relate to the depths and
characteristics of the underlying rocks and the nature of the
geologic structures in so far as they are related to ground-water
conditions or otherwise to the hydrology of the drainage-basin.
(4) Vegetation factors - These are factors which depend wholly or in
part on the vegetation, natural or cultivated, growing within the
drainage-basin.
(5) Climatic factors - Climatic factors include: Temperature, humidity,
rainfall, and evaporation relate specially to conditions dependent on
the operation of the hydrologic cycle, particularly with reference to
runoff and ground-water.
 Factors affecting run off
• The various factors affecting run off can be divided into 2 groups

1) Characteristics of precipitation
2) Characteristics of drainage basin
Characteristics of precipitation
• Type of pptn:
• Rain intensity:
• Duration of rainfall:
• Rainfall Distribution:
• Soil moisture deficiency :
• Direction of prevailing storm:
• Other climatic conditions:

Characteristics of Drainage Basin

• Size & shape of the drainage basin :
• Usually intense rainfall over a small catchment area Or larger the catchment
area, smaller is the intensity of rainfall.
 Factors affecting run off
Characteristics of the Drainage Basin…
• Size & shape of the drainage basin
• Fan shaped catchments give greater run off because tributaries are
nearly of same size & hence time of concentration of run off is nearly
same.
• Discharge over fern shaped arrangement is distributed over a long
period
• Topography
• The inclination of the surface & degree of inclination
• Character of the area whether smooth or rough
• More rains on the catchments on windward side of mountains
Rainfall Runoff Correlation
 Rainfall Runoff Correlation
• It is complex relationship, influenced by different factors.
• Rainfall (P), Runoff (R) and Number of Observation (N),
best fit line of the relation
• R = a*P+ b
a = {N(∑PR)- (∑P)*(∑R)}/{N (∑P2)-(∑P)2}
b = {∑R- a∑P}/N
Coefficient of Correlation (r) =
{N(∑PR)- (∑P)*(∑R)} / √[{N (∑P2)-(∑P)2}*{N (∑R2)-(∑R)2)]
r lies between 0 to 1. 0.6 to 1.0 shows the good correlation
For Large Catchment
R = a *P b
Log R = b log*P + Log a
Q. The data shown in table below are rainfall(cm) and runoff(cm)
of a basin in Nepal. Model rainfall runoff relationship using
regression analysis method . Also determine the runoff
corresponding to the precipitation of 5cm.
Stream gauging (selection of sites, types of gauges & measurement)
Definitions : stream gauging
• The run off from the catchment is determined by measuring a
discharge of the stream at the outlet of the catchment.
• The process of measuring discharge of a stream is called stream
gauging.

• Stage or gauge height

• The elevation of water surface at a location in any water body above
a reference datum is called stage or gauge height

• Stream gauging station

• It is the location at which the river discharges are recorded & the
discharge measurements are carried out. The main purpose of steam
gauging is to provide systematic records of stage & discharge of the
stream
 Selection of Stream gauging site
Essential requirements for stream gauging stations are as follows
• The stream should have well defined & regular x-section, which does
not change in different seasons
• It should not be as sensitive as possible. In other words, it should not
be located where great fluctuation in the stage occurs
• It should be u/s of the desired site
• It should be easily accessible
• The site should be in straight, stable reach of about 100m u/s & d/s
• Channel bed should be stable & regular
• The site should be free from backwater effects in the channel
• Velocities neither too high nor too low (from 0.1 to 5m/s)
• No excessive turbulence & eddies
• No excessive vegetal & aquatic growth
Measurement of stream stage

The stage of a river is the elevation of water surface in a stream with

reference to a fixed datum where the fixed datum could be the msl
or any other arbitrary datum line & is expressed in meter

• 2 types of stream gauges

• Manual or non recording gauge : eg staff gauge & wire gauge

• Recording gauge: eg Float gauge recorder & Bubble gauge

non recording stream gauge
This type of gauge is read & recorded by observer/gauge reader
once, twice, thrice, daily or more. It does not provide continuous
record of stage. It is cheaper & easier to install

• Staff gauge

• It is most common & simplest form which consist of a

graduated plate fixed in the stream or on the bank of river

• The level of water surface in contact with gauge is measured

by matching the reading of the staff & adding with reference
datum level
non recording stream gauge

• Staff gauge: it may be vertical, sectional (more than one

gauge at different locations & inclined gauge)
non recording stream gauge

• Staff gauge: more than one gauges at different locations

 non recording stream gauge
Wire gauge
It consist of a weight attached to a rope which is lowered from a fixed
reference point (from the slab bridge or culvert)
Recording type stream gauge:
• This type of gauge can record the stream stage automatically
so it is not necessary to read the measurement frequently.
Recording gauge records continuous stage of a river over
time
2 types of recording stream gauge
• float gauge recorder & Bubble gauge recorder
Float gauge recorder
In this type, a float is connected to one end of a wire which passes
through a recorder.
• other end of the rope is balanced by a suitable counter weight

• Displacement of
float due to rising
or lowering of water
level causes an angular
displacement of pulley
& also the input shaft of
recorder.
• Mechanical linkages convert this angular displacement to linear
displacement of a pen to record over a drum.
• The float gauge is protected by installing a stilling well
Bubble gauge recorder
It consist of a small tube placed at the lowest water level through
which compressed air (CO2 & N2 gas) is continuously bubbled out

• The pressure required to push the gas stream out beneath the
water surface is a measure of depth of water over the nozzle
of the bubble stream.

• The pressure is measured

by a manometer in the
recorder house.
Stream Flow measurement
Stream flow can be measured by one or combination of the
following methods

1) Direct determination of stream discharge

• Hydrometric Techniques (Area- velocity method)
• Dilution techniques
• Electromagnetic method
• Ultrasonic method

2) Indirect determination of stream flow

• Slope area method
• Hydraulic structures such as weirs, flumes
 Hydrometric Techniques (Area - velocity method)
It is based on the continuity equation Q= V * A

• Velocity of flow is generally measured by 2 types of

instruments a) floats & b) current meter

• The x section of the stream is measured by dividing it into sub

sections & then determining the area of each sub-section
 Guidelines to select the number of segments
• The segment width should not be greater than 1/15 to 1/20 of the
width of the river.
• The discharge in each segment should be less than 10% of the total
discharge.
• The difference of velocity in adjacent segments should not be more
than 20%.
Area- velocity method
W

yi
W = (W1 + W2 / 2)
A = ½(W * yi)
yi/ / y1 = (W1 + W2 / 2) / W1
For first segment and last segment

Ai=yi*(Wi+W(i+1))/2 for other than first and last segment (assuming

rectangular section)

∆Qi=Ai*vi Where ∆Qi=Discharge of each segment

 Hydrometric Techniques (Area- velocity method)
Floats
• Very popular due to low cost & convenience in operation
• Any floating objects can be used as floats
• Normally the leak proof & easily identifiable floats are used

• Floats are 3 types: a) surface floats b)double canister floats &

c) Rod floats
Equation for float V s = s/t

• A simple float moving on a stream surface is called a surface

float
Mean velocity =observed surface velocity *Reduction coefficient

Vmean =Vs x k where k= 0.75 to 0.95, however, surface

floats are affected by surface wind
Hydrometric Techniques (Area- velocity method)
Floats …

• Partly submerged rod floats are made of hollow cylinder

• A part of rod floats above the surface of water & remaining
part stays submerged inside the water

• For higher accuracy, more than one float is used for

measurement of flow velocity.
• A large no. of easily identifiable floats are released at fairly
uniform spacing on the width of the stream at an u/s section

• 2 sections on a fairly straight reach are selected & the time to

cross this reach by each float is noted & the surface velocity is
calculated
 Current meters

Most commonly used instrument for measuring stream velocity.

• It consist of a rotating element which when hit by the stream

current revolves with an angular velocity proportional to the
stream velocity.

• V = a N + b where a & b are constants of the instrument &

typical value for a = 0.65 b = 0.03
V = velocity in m/s N = Revolution per second

2 types of current meters are in used

a) vertical axis meters & b) horizontal axis meters

 Vertical axis Current meters (also called cup type)
• It consist of a series of conical cups mounted around a
vertical axis
• The cups rotates in a horizontal plane
• A cam is attached to the axle of the cups which actuates a
mechanism for recording the revolutions of the cup
• The instrument is suitable for a velocity range of 0.15 to
4.0m/s
 Horizontal axis Current meters (also called propeller type)
• It consist of a propeller mounted at the end of a horizontal
shaft
• The revolutions of propeller for a certain time is recorded &
converted to stream velocity
• The accuracy of this instrument is about 1% at the threshold
value
Discharge Depth No. of Time No. of Rev Average Velocity Area(A) Discharge
from left (y) Rev (s) per sec (Rev/s) m/s W (m) W (ave) = (W*y) (Q)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 1.4 12 50 0.24 0.24 0.60 3 3.38 4.73 2.84
6 3.3 38 52 0.73 0.57 1.37 3 3 9.9 13.58
23 55 0.42
9 5 40 58 0.69 0.62 1.48 3 3 15 22.23
30 54 0.56
12 9 48 60 0.80 0.69 1.64 3 3 27 44.39
34 58 0.59
15 5.4 34 52 0.65 0.63 1.49 3 3 16.2 24.17
30 50 0.60
18 3.8 35 52 0.67 0.61 1.46 3 3.38 12.83 18.76
30 54 0.56
21 0 18 50 0.36 0.36 0.88 3 0 0 0
Total Discharge 125.97
Moving boat method
 Moving boat method
This method is very suitable to measure the discharge of deep and
large river. Let
Vb = velocity of boat at right angle to the stream
Ɵ = angle made by resultant velocity with the direction of boat
Vf = flow velocity
Vr = Resultant velocity
Δt = time of transit
between two verticals
1st,
convert surface velocity
to average velocity
(resultant velocity)
VR = 0.85 x V surface
Vb = VR CosƟ & Vf = VR SinƟ
• Discharge in each segment = ΔQi =
Where Wi = Vb Δt
Total discharge = ΣΔQ
 Stream flow computation by slope Area method
Slope Area method is used to measure discharge indirectly when direct
flow measurement is not possible due to floods, excess velocity, or
inaccessible due to depth or width of flow
Such measurement are required
• Physical characteristics, geometry of channel in both section
• Bed and water surface elevation of the two section
• Hydraulic factors like (n) in both section
Let us consider 2
longitudinal sections
1-1 & 2-2 of a
flowing
river.
Knowing the
Water surface
elevations at 2 section
It is required to
estimate the discharge
 Applying the energy equation at section 1-1 & 2-2
(Z1 + Y1 ) + V12 /2g = ( Z2 + Y2) + V22/2g + hf+ he
• h1+v12/2g = h2 + v22/2g + (he + hf)
• hf = (h1-h2) + (v12/2g-v22/2g)-he……..(1)
Also, hf/L = Sf = energy line = Q2/k2 ……(2)

Where Q = 1/n(R^2/3 * s^1/2 * A)

Q = K * S^1/2
K = 1/n(R^2/3 * A)
= Conveyance constant

he = Ke * (v12/2g-v22/2g)

Ke=0.3 for expansion

Ke=0.1 for contraction
Steps for calculation
• Find Cross-sectional area, perimeter, hydraulic radius, K1 and K2
and find the Kaverage = √(K1 * K2 )
• for first iteration assume v1 = v2 and hf = (h1-h2)
• Q = Kaverage √(sf) = Kaverage √(hf /L)
• Compute v1 and v2 (Q/ A1)
• Refine hf by energy equation
hf = (h1-h2) + (v12/2g-v22/2g)-he
During a high water surface elevation of a small stream were noted at
two section (10 km apart). The properties of the section as below.
Section Water surface Cross-sectional Hydraulic
elevation (m) Area (m2) Radius (m)
A 104.77 73.293 2.733
B 104.5 93.375 3.089
Eddy loss coefficient of expansion and contraction is 0.3 and 0.1
respectively. n = 0.02, Estimate the flood discharge of the stream.
Rating curve
Stage – Discharge relationship (Rating curve)
• If the measured discharge (Q) is plotted against the
corresponding stage (G), the curve obtained is known as
rating curve. This curve represents the integrated effect of a
wide range of channel and flow parameters

• If the G-Q relationship for a

gauging section is constant &
does not change with time, the stage
the control is said to be
permanent control Discharge

• If it changes with time, it is called shifting control

 Stage – Discharge relationship : Permanent Control
• Non-alluvial type of rivers shows permanent control.
• For such case, the relationship between G-Q is a single
valued relation which is expressed as
• where

• Q= stream discharge , G = gauge height

• a= a constant or gauge reading when Q=0
• & ß = Rating curve constant
This relationship can be expressed graphically by
• i) by plotting the observed stage v/s corresponding
discharge values in an arithmetic scale or
• Ii) logarithmic plot: this is advantageous, as equation
gives a st line in log scale
 Stage – Discharge relationship : Permanent Control

taking log both side

For the best fit straight lines of N observations of X & Y by regressing

 Stage – Discharge relationship : Permanent Control
The coeff of correlation r is given by

For a perfect correlation r =1

If r = 0.6 to 1.0 it is considered as good correlation
 Shifting Control
If the rating curve changes with time, it is called shifting control
It is due to

• growth of weeds
• channel encroachment
• aggradations or degradation phenomena in alluvial
channel &
• variable back water effects affecting the
gauging section
Finding Stage corresponding to zero discharge
a. Method-1 Step i)
In this method, plot of stage vs
discharge is best fitted to obtain
a stage discharge curve.
The curve is than extrapolated
backward by judgment. It
intersects Y-axis at a point(a)
corresponding to zero discharge.
ii)
For ‘a ‘obtain from step 1,
plot a graph of log Q vs
log(G-a)
If the graph is straight line the
value of a is acceptable
If graph is not straight line
repeat above process.
Method:2 Graphical method

In graphical method, Discharge vs

stage data are plotted to an
arithmetic scale.
A smooth curve is fitted by
plotting given data.
Three points A,B,C on the curve
are selected such that their
discharge are in geometric
progression

Point D and E are the intersection of horizontal line drawn at C

and B and Vertical line drawn at B and A respectively
Two straight lines joining point A and B, D and E are intersected at
point F, whose ordinate is the required value of a.
 Method 3:
Plot Q vs G to an arithmetic scale and draw a smooth good fitting
curve.
Select three discharges Q1,Q2,Q3 such that Q1/Q2=Q2/Q3 and note
from the curve the corresponding values of gauge reading G1,G2
and G3

23.41
 Flow estimation method
Based on the possible combinations of hydrological &
meteorological data available at proposed site & at hydrological
similar catchment (HSC), river basins shall be classified into 2
categories
• 1. gauged river basin
• 2. ungauged river basins

For ungauged basins, the mean monthly flows & flow duration
curve shall be determined from following 3 methods
1. Medium irrigation project (MIP) method
2. WECS/DHM method
3. Catchment area ratio method (CAR)
 Flow estimation method
Medium irrigation project method
• It gives a technique for estimating the distribution of monthly
flows throughout a year for ungauged location
• In this method, Nepal is divided into 7 hydrological zones.
• To find the average monthly flow of a catchment area 3
parameters are required
1. catchment area
2. one time flow measurement in the dry month period
3. hydrological zone.
• Hydrological zone can be identified based on the location in
the hydrological map of Nepal
• MIP method is best for catchment area less than 100km2
Flow estimation method (MIP method)
Hydrological regions of Nepal
If 27 June discharge of the river is 10 m3/s having lies in the MIP
zone 3. Find the monthly discharge of the river,

15 June discharge is 3.13

15 July discharge is 13.54
27 June coefficient discharge = (13.54-3.13)/30*12 +3.13= 7.294
10 m3/s discharge is equivalent to 7.294 non dimensional hydrograph

Unit value of non-dimensional represents = 10/7.294 = 1.37 m3/s

April (april 15) Discharge of the river = 1.37 m3/s

May-15 = 1.37*1.88 = 2.576 m3/s
June = 1.37 * 3.13 =
July = 1.37 * 13.54 =
 WECS/DHM method
• Suitable for predicting river flows for catchment areas˃100km2

• Average monthly flows can be calculated by the equation

Q mean,(month) = C x (basin area)A1 x (area below 5000m+1)A2

x (mean monsoon precipitation) A3
Where
Q mean,(month) =Mean flow for a particular month in m3/s,
• C, A1, A2&A3 are coeff of the different months (see table)
• The catchment area can be calculated from the
topographical maps once the intake location is identified.
Value of Coefficients
 Catchment Area Ratio (CAR) method
• Suitable If 2 catchments are hydrologically similar

• Discharge for proposed site

• = discharge of HSC x ratio of catchment area

• Qb / Ab = (Qi /Ai) ^r where

Qb = discharge for base station

(proposed site under study)
r = catchment coefficient
A= drainage area in km2
with corresponding sites
Q= Discharge in m3/s
Qi = discharge for index station
5 Hydrograph Analysis

5.1 Components of a hydrograph

5.2 Separation of base flow

5.3 Unit hydrographs, their uses and limitations

5.4 Derivation of unit hydrographs from isolated and complex

storms

5.5 Derivation of unit hydrographs of different durations

 D hr

i cm/h Dh-hydrograph

Dh-UH

Discharge
Time
 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
HYDROGRAPH
• is a graph showing the rate of
flow (discharge) versus time past a
specific point in a river, or other
channel or conduit carrying flow.
• It can also refer to a graph
showing the volume of water
reaching a particular outfall.
• Hydrograph analysis is the most
widely used method of analyzing
surface runoff.

Hydrograph determines the peak flood magnitude of flood for the

design of hydraulic structures i.e. a dam, spillway, bridge, culvert,
etc.
Hydrographs are also described in 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
terms of the following time
characteristics

Time to Peak, (tp):

• Time from the beginning of the

rising limb to the occurrence of the
peak discharge.
• The time to peak is largely
determined by drainage
characteristics such as drainage
density, slope, channel roughness,
and soil infiltration characteristics.
• Rainfall distribution in space also
affects the time to peak.
Hydrographs are also described in 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
terms of the following time
characteristics
Time of Concentration, (tc):
Time required for water to travel from
the most hydraulically remote point in
the basin to the basin outlet.

The drainage characteristics of length

and slope, together with the hydraulic
characteristics of the flow paths,
determine the time of concentration.
Hydrographs are also described in 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
terms of the following time
characteristics
Lag Time, (tl):
Time between the center of mass of
the effective rainfall hyetograph and
the center of mass of the direct runoff
hydrograph.
The basin lag is an important concept
in linear modeling of basin response.
However, it is sometimes difficult to measure in real world situations.
Many empirical equations have been proposed in the literature.
The simplest of these equations computes the basin lag as a power
function of the basin area.
Time Base, (tb = N+Tc): N = 0.83 * A0.2
Duration of the direct runoff hydrograph. A= Area (km2)
N = Number of days
Rising limb: 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
The rising limb is the
ascending portion of the
hydrograph corresponding to
the increase of discharge due
to gradual accumulation of
storage in the channels
existing in the area and also
over the watershed surface.
The rising limb is also known
as the concentration curve.
The peak or crest
The peak or crest segment includes the part of the hydrograph from
the inflection point on the rising limb to an inflection point on the
recession limb.
The peak segment is the most important part of the hydrograph
because it indicates the peak flow rate. The peak represents the arrival
of flow at the outlet from all parts of the basin.
The recession limb:- 5.1 Components of a hydrograph
After the inflection point,
there is no rainfall to the
stream due to surface runoff.
The recession limb extends
from the inflection point, to
the point of recommencement
of the natural base flow or
ground water flow.
The recession limb represents
the withdrawal of water from
the storage already built up in
the catchment during the
earlier phase of the
hydrograph when surface
runoff was occurring.
 5.2 Separation of base flow
The surface hydrograph is obtained from the
total storm hydrograph by separating the
quick-response flow from the slow response
runoff.
• The base flow is to be deducted from the total
storm hydrograph to obtain the surface flow
hydrograph in three methods
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL Some definition
Figure below shows, the hyetograph of a storm. The initial loss and
infiltration losses are subtracted from it. The resulting hyetograph is
known' as effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH).
Both DRH and ERH represent the same volume of water
The area multiplied by the catchment area gives the total volume of
the direct runoff ( total area of DRH)
 Some definition
Direct runoff
hydrograph resulting from the
depth of excess rainfall occurring
uniformly on a watershed at a
constant rate for a specified
duration. DRH obtained after
separating base flow
Flood hydrograph
It is the total runoff of the basin
including the base flow
Unit hydrograph.
hydrograph resulting from a unit
depth of excess rainfall ( 1cm)
occurring uniformly on a watershed
at a constant rate for a specified
duration..
Flood hydrograph = UH * ER + Base flow
Flood hydrograph (1000) = DRH (900) + Base flow (100)
 Unit hydrographs, their uses and limitations
It is a typical hydrograph of direct runoff which gets generated from one cm of
ER falling at a uniform rate over the entire drainage basin uniformly during a
specific duration.
Uses of UH
i. The development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall magnitudes
(for use in the design of hydraulic structures)
ii. Extension of flood flow records based on rainfall records
iii. Development of flood forecasting and warning systems based on
rainfall
Basic Assumptions of UH
1. The ER is uniformly distributed within its duration and whole
drainage basin
2. The base duration of direct runoff hydrograph due to an ER of unit
duration is constant.
3. The ordinates of DRH are directly proportional to the total
amount of ER of each hydrograph
4. For a given basin, the runoff hydrograph due to a given period of
rainfall reflects all the combined physical characteristics of basin
(time-invariant)
LIMITATIONS OF A UNIT HYDROGRAPH:
i) Unit hydrograph method is not applicable to areas with a major
portion of storm precipitation being on form of snow.
ii) Principle of time in-variance sometimes does not hold as the
basin characteristics will change with man made adjustments as
well as seasons.
iii) The linearity principle is strictly valid since unit hydrographs
derived from small rainfall events generally has lower peaks than
those derived from more larger storms.
iv) The storms that are selected should always be of short duration
due to uniform rainfall intensity over long duration.
v) Another limitation is that unit hydrographs can only be applied
to drainage basins with small areas only and not of the larger areas.
 Derivation of unit hydrographs from isolated and complex storms
Steps for analysis Flood hydrograph = UH * ER + Base flow
Flood hydrograph = DRH + Base flow
Identify the problem
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
Ordinates 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 5 0
(m3/s)
Area = 503 km2
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
Ordinates 5 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 10 5
(m3/s)
Area = 941 km2
Derive 4h UH of 11 km2 basin which
create the triangular hydrograph having 30
m3/s peak discharge at 12 hour from the
beginning of rainfall.
 Derivation of unit hydrographs and DRH from isolated and complex
storms
Derive 4h direct runoff and flood hydrograph from the given storm of
ER (0-4)2cm, (4-8)3cm and (8-12)4cm of each 4h successive
duration with 5 m3/s base-flow

Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
4h-UH 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 10 0
(m3/s)
4h
 4-h

0.25 cm/h

12-h 12-h- DRH ER = 3 cm

12-h- UH = 12-h DRH/3 cm
4-h- UH

12-h- UH
 Derivation of unit hydrographs with different duration
Change 4h-UH to 8h-UH
Method of superposition Change 8h-UH to 4h-UH
S-curve method
Change 3h-UH to 6h-UH
Change 6h-UH to 3h-UH
 D-h_UH
4-h

1/D cm/h

6-h

T-h_U
H

6-h

1/D cm/h T-h DRH_ ER Depth = T/D

cm
T-h_UH = T-h DRH/(T/D)
 Derivation of unit hydrographs with different duration
S-curve method Change 3h-UH to 4h-UH
Time (hr) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
4-UH 0 20 80 130 150 130 90 52 27 15 10 0
(m3/s)
1/t1 intensity of rainfall
t2 is the duration of rainfall for (SA-SB)
hydrograph
t2/t1 is depth of rainfall

T-UH is (SA-SB)/(T/D)
= D/T * (SA-SB)
 Dh

1/D cm/h

1/D cm/h
Th
 Dh D h- UH

1/D cm/h
Th 1/D cm/h

Depth of rainfall
T/D cm
1/D cm/h
Th

T h DRH for T/D cm ER

T h-UH = DRH /(T/D)

 Dh

1/D cm/h
Th 1/D cm/h

1/D cm/h
Th
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#0_1: Course Introduction

 About Prof. Vishnu Pandey
2012 2014
• Education
– PhD (IWRM – focused on Groundwater), 2010, University of Yamanashi,
JAPAN
– M. Eng. (Water Resources), 2007, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT),
THAILAND
– B.Eng. (Civil), 2004, Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, TU, NEPAL
• Experience
– Professor (Civil Engineering, Water Resources) (Dec 2020 – todate),
Institute of Engineering, TU, NEPAL
– Researcher (Nov 2016 – Dec 2020), International Water Management
Institute (IWMI), NEPAL
– Research Fellow & Affiliated Faculty (2015-2016), AIT, THAILAND
– Research Faculty (2013-2015), Asian Institute of Technology &
Management (AITM), NEPAL
– Postdoc Researcher (2010-2013), University of Yamanashi, JAPAN
2016 2017
• > 100 publications (incl. ~70 journal articles): hydrological modelling, climate change, etc.
Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 2
About Prof. Vishnu Pandey

March 2021
• Editors: Vishnu Pandey,
Sangam Shrestha &
David Wiberg
• Publisher: Wiley

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 3
Contents

• Course Rationale & Objectives

• Course Outline
• Tutorial & Practical sessions
• Course Delivery Plan
• Text Books (s) & References
• Evaluation/Marking System

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 4
Rationale & Objectives
• Hydrological knowledge are important for engineering application, e.g.
– Designing dams, hydropower/irrigation projects, water supply projects, bridge/culvert, etc.
• Many water infrastructure or water resources management projects are to be designed
based on hydrological facts/figures, such as;
– Water discharge or water availability, & its spatial and temporal distribution
 Long-term average annual, monthly/season distribution, average daily flows, flow duration
curve, downstream water requirements (e.g. environmental flows), etc.
 Linkage of rainfall and runoff
– Water balance (P = evapotranspiration + runoff + change in storage)
– Design floods of different return periods for designing water infrastructure projects
• Course objectives
– To provide concept of Hydrology and computational analysis for the design and
management of water resources projects using practical approach with the emphasis on the
application of hydrological knowledge to solve engineering problems.

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 5
Course Outline
1. Introduction [2 hrs] [SL]
– Applications of Engineering Hydrology; Hydrological Cycle; Hydro-met stations
2. Precipitation [8 hrs] [SL]
– Rainfall and snowfall measurements; data quality assessment; presentation of rainfall data;
estimation of mean rainfall; intensity-duration-frequency curve; depth-area-duration (DAD) curve
3. Hydrological Losses [8 hrs] [VP]
– Initial losses; evaporation process; Evapotranspiration; Infiltration
4. Surface Runoff [8 hrs] [SL]
– Drainage basin characteristics; rainfall-runoff relationship; streamflow measurements; rating curve
5. Hydrograph Analysis [7 hrs] [SL]
– Computation of hydrograph; baseflow separation; unit hydrographs
6. Flood Hydrology [7 hrs] [VP]
– Design flood and its frequency; methods for flood frequency analysis (statistical, rational, empirical)
7. Flood Routing [5 hrs] [VP]
– Linear reservoir routing; time area method; Clark unit hydrograph

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 6
Course Outline – Tutorials & Practical Sessions
1. Estimation of missing rainfall data PRACTICALS
2. Test for inconsistencies of rainfall data 1. Rainfall runoff
3. Estimation of mean rainfall over an area by 3 methods simulation
4. Estimation of Potential evapo-transpiration by Penman’s equation [VP]
2. Field visit at a
5. Use of Horton’s equation and problems related to infiltration indices [VP] meteorological
6. Discharge computation by velocity area and slope area methods station
7. Determination of stage at zero discharge and preparation of rating curve
3. Streamflow
8. Derivation of unit hydrographs from isolated and complex storms measurement by
9. Derivation of unit hydrographs of different durations current meter &
10. Drainage basin Characteristics [VP] floats
11. Estimation of design frequency of a design flood [VP]
4. Streamflow
12. Estimation of floods by plotting positions and distributions [VP] measurement by
13. Estimation of floods by Rational and Empirical methods [VP] dilution technique
14. Flow routing and Clark UH [VP]
5. Construction of
• These tutorials are embedded with Lecture classes with appropriate examples as far unit hydrograph
as possible. We will also provide some tutorials as Assignments
Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 7
Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1
(partly)
3.2 (partly),Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3 3.4 Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices; infiltrometers L#3_3
6.1, 6.2 Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6 L#6_1
(partly) distribution; return period; frequency, and risk
Plotting positions, frequency factors, log Pearson III method;
6 6.2 (partly) L#6_2
Gumbel’s Extreme value Type I method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 8
Text Book & References

• Engineering Hydrology by K. Subramanya, Tata-McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi

• Applied Hydrology by V.T. Chow, D.R. Midment and L.W. Mays, McGraw Hill
International
• Engineering Hydrology by R. S. Varshney, Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee
• Hydrology for Engineers by Linsley, Kohler and Paulhus, McGraw Hill International Co.
• Engineering Hydrology by B. L. Gupta, Standard Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi
• K.N. Dulal, S, Baral (2012) Engineering hydrology, Apex Educational Academy

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 9
Evaluation System

• Internal Exam: 20 points, based on

– Assignments (if any)
– Class attendance
– Written exam

• Final Exam: 80 points

– Written exam

• Course Instructor(s):
– Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD (Chapters 3, 5 (partly, as required), 6, 7)
– Assoc. Prof. Dr. Surj Lamichhane (Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5)

Prof. Vishnu Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L0_1 10
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#3_1: Hydrological Losses (1)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3
infiltrometers
6.1, 6.2 Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6 L#6_1
(partly) distribution; return period; frequency, and risk
Plotting positions, frequency factors, log Pearson III method;
6 6.2 (partly) L#6_2
Gumbel’s Extreme value Type I method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 2
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 3
Losses in Hydrological Cycle
• Losses in Hydrological
Cycle is the change
from one component
of Hydrological Cycle
to another – BUT not
really a loss
• Evaporation is a key
component of the
Hydrological Cycle. It
takes place from
– Oceans
– Lakes
– Streams
– Land/soil (soil
moisture)

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 4
Initial Losses

• Hydrological Losses = difference between precipitation & runoff

• Various types of hydrological losses are
– Initial losses, Evaporation, Transpiration, and Infiltration
• Initial losses in hydrology are the
– amount of rainfall required to moist the surface before runoff begins.
– Examples: Interception, & Depression storage
– Estimated as 15-20% of Precipitation, in general
• Interception loss
– a part of precipitation which is caught and held by the vegetation or
obstruction/structures
– A significant amount of rainfall is lost to interception
– Most of the intercepted water is evaporated back to the atmosphere whereas
some small portion is dripped off the ground surface.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 5
Initial Losses

• Depression storage:
– Some of the rainfall reaching to the ground is stored in
depressions on the ground surface, which is eventually
 lost through processes of evaporation to the atmosphere
and infiltration to the ground
• Depression storage depends upon
– Soil type – clayey soil has less loss
– Condition of the surface reflecting the amount, size &
nature of the depression
– Slope of the catchment – steeper slope has less loss
– Antecedent precipitation, as a measure of soil moisture
• There is no specific equations to estimate depression
losses.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 6
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 7
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters
• Evaporation – It is the process by which liquid is converted to varpor. Evaporation occurs
from water bodies as well as from soil surface
• Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the
water cycle as atmospheric water vapour.
• The rate of evaporation is dependent upon various factors, which are;
– Vapor pressure at the water surface and air above: higher vapour pressure  higher
evaporation
– Air and water temperatures  increase in Temperature increase Evaporation, in general
– Radiation, Humidity, Wind speed; Atmospheric pressure (decrease in barometric pressure
increases Evaporation if all other factors remain the same!)
– Quality of water – when a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the solution is
less than that of pure water, and hence causes reduction in evaporation rate.
 % reduction in evaporation is approximately % increase in specific gravity. Example: under
identical conditions, evaporation sea water is about 2-3% less than that from freshwater.
– Size of the water body (larger the surface area, higher the evaporation)

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 8
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Radiation)
• Radiation – it is the direct transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves.
– Radiation obtained from the sun is called “Solar Radiation”
• Hydrological cycle is driven by solar radiation, and it is responsible for the weather and
climate of the earth.
• Solar radiation is measured in the form of
– Average sunshine duration in a day (unit: hrs)  DHM collects this parameter at Climatic Stations.
– Solar radiation in the unit of MJ/m2/day  some hydrological models need this
• Sunshine hours can be converted into solar radiation using
– Angström-Prescott’s formula: H/H0 = (a + b*n/N’); where, H0 is the monthly average daily sunshine
radiation (MJ/m2/day); H is the solar radiation (MJ/m2/day) at the surface of the earth; H/H0 is
called as Clearness Index; n is actual sunshine duration in a day (hrs); N’ average maximum possible
bright sunshine duration in a day (hrs); a is a constant that depends on latitude, (a = 0.29 cosφ; φ is
latitude); b is an empirical coefficient with an average value of 0.52; n/N’ is called as Cloudiness
index.
• Link to evaporation  Other factors remaining the same, higher the radiation, higher will be
evaporative water demand, and more hydrological loss as Evaporation.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 9
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Radiation)
• Short wave radiation: Solar radiation from the sun.
• Long wave radiation: The radiation from the earth
• Albedo: When radiation strikes a surface, it is either reflected or absorbed.
– Ratio of amount of solar radiation reflected to incoming radiation is called Albedo.
• Net radiation at the Earth’s surface (Rn) = Long wave radiation (RL) + Shortwave
radiation (RS). If “r” is albedo and Re is the radiation emitted by the earth,
– Net radiation of the Earth’s surface (Rn) is given by; Rn = (RL + RS) (1 – r) – Re.
• Intensity of solar radiation depends upon;
– Scattering in the atmosphere
– Absorption by Clouds
– Obliqueness of the Earth’s surface to the incoming radiation
• Radiation Measurement  Actinometers and Radiometers measure intensity of radiant
energy. The data are used in the studies of evaporation & snowmelt.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 10
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Temperature)

• Temperature  The degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object (or a

measure of hotness or coldness), expressed according to a comparative scale
– Unit: Degree Celsius (°C);
– Measured by a thermometer or perceived by touch.
• Terminologies for expressing temperature
– Mean Daily Temperature: Average of sub-daily temperatures (e.g. hourly, or two times in a
day, or any other interval)
– Maximum daily: Maximum temperature of a day
– Minimum Daily: Minimum temperature of a day
– Average Temperature: Average of daily max and daily min temperatures.
– Mean Monthly Temperature: average of the mean monthly Maximum & Minimum
Temperatures
– Mean Annual Temperature: Average of Monthly Means for the year
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 11
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Temperature)
• Temperature at a locality is a complex function of several variables
– Latitude, Altitude
 Laps rate: rate at which temperature decreases with increase in altitude. It’s about 6°C per
1,000m within the Troposphere (the lowest level of the Earth’s Atmosphere); varies with location.
– Distance from sea, Ocean currents – farther from sea is likely to have higher Tem.
– Winds, Cloud Cover
– Aspect (land slope and its orientation) – south-facing slopes generally have higher soil
temperature than north facing slopes.
• Water temperature is lower than Air temperature, because Evaporation takes heat from
water and lowers the temperature.
• Link to Evaporation  Other factors remaining the same, the rate of Evaporation
increases with an increase in the water temperature. However a high correlation
between evaporation rate & air temperature does not exist.
– Q#: For same mean monthly temperature, is it possible to have different evaporation rates
in a lake in different months?
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 12
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Humidity)

• Humidity is the amount or concentration of water vapor present in the air.

– Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog to be present.

• Commonly used measures of Humidity are;

– Vapor pressure: partial pressure exerted by water vapor in air on the earth’s surface due
to its own weight
– Relative Humidity: Ratio of actual water vapor pressure (e) to saturation vapor pressure (es)
at a given Temperature (= e/es*100%)
 If Temperature changes, Relative Humidity also changes
– Absolute Humidity: Actual amount of water vapor present in a given volume of air (kg/m3)
– Specific Humidity: a ratio of water vapor mass to the total (including dry air) mass

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 13
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Humidity)

• Measurement of Humidity
– By using Psychometer: it contains wet bulb Thermometer (continuous moisture supply by
wrapping with wick and submerging the other end in distilled water) and dry bulb
thermometer (recording ambient air Temperature)
– By using hygrograph: Automatic recording of humidity.

• Linkage of Humidity to Evaporation

– The amount of water vapor in water effectively controls the weather condition by controlling
evaporation from land and water surfaces
– The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturated vapor
pressure at water surface (ew) and the actual water vapor (ea);
 E = C (ew – ea); where E is evaporation (mm/day), C is Dalton’s constant. This equation is known
as Dalton’s law of Evaporation.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 14
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Vapor Pressure)

• Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by

a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system.
– The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate.

• In other words, vapor pressure is the pressure caused by the evaporation of liquids

• Factors affecting vapor pressure are

– Surface area: There is no effect of size of surface area on vapor pressure.
– Intermolecular forces: liquid with weak intermolecular forces evaporates easily that liquid
with strong intermolecular forces
– Temperature: Increase in temperature  increases kinetic energy of its molecules 
increases the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor  vapor pressure increases

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 15
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Vapor Pressure)
• Saturation Vapor Pressure (es): pressure at which air is
saturated with water is called saturation vapor pressure. It is
the maximum moisture content that air can hold for given
Temperature (T). Increase in T increases saturation vapor
pressure.
17.27𝑇
– 𝑒𝑠 = 611 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ; where: es is saturation vapour pressure
237.3+𝑇
(N/m2) and T (°C). If dew point temperature (Td) is provided, T is
replaced with Td.
• Saturation vapor pressure gradient (∆): It is the gradient/slope
of saturation vapor pressure (es) curve; and found by
differentiating es with respect to Temperature (T, °C);
𝑑𝑒𝑠 4098𝑒𝑠
∆= = ; where es has the unit of N/m2.
𝑑𝑇 237.3+𝑇 2 17.27𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 4.584 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ; where: es
• Dew point temperature 237.3+𝑇
is saturation vapour pressure (mm of
– The temperature at which air just becomes saturated when Hg) and T (°C).
cooled at constant pressure and moisture content is called dew
point temperature.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 16
Evaporation Process – Meteorological Parameters (Wind Speed)

• Wind is a moving air, which has both speed and direction.

– Wind speed varies with height above the ground due to ground friction, trees, buildings,
and other obstacles.
• Wind measurement
– Unit: m/s or km/hr or knots (1 knot = 1.852 km/hr)
– Instrument to measure wind: Anemometers. All anemometers are generally installed at 2m
above the ground surface.
– Wind speed at a certain height is computed by power law as;
𝑉 𝑍 1/7
= ; where: v is velocity at any height Z, V0 is observed velocity at height Z0.
𝑉0 𝑍0

• Link of Wind Speed to Evaporation

– Rate of evaporation increases with the wind speed up to a critical speed, beyond which
any further increase in the wind speed has no influence on the evaporation rate.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_1 17
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#3_2: Hydrological Losses (2)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
6.1, 6.2 Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6 L#6_1 2
(partly) distribution; return period; frequency, and risk
Plotting positions, frequency factors, log Pearson III method;
6 6.2 (partly) L#6_2 2
Gumbel’s Extreme value Type I method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 2
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 3
Estimating Evaporation

• Estimation of evaporation is very important in many hydrological problems associated

with planning and operations of reservoirs and irrigation system, because
– this loss should be incorporated in overall planning to have a reasonable estimate of water
resources available for various uses.

• The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by following

methods
– Using Evaporimeter
– Empirical equations (related to mass transfer methods)
– Analytical methods
 Water budget method (not covered in this course!)
 Energy-balance method
 Mass transfer method (or aerodynamic methods)

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 4
Evaporation – Energy Budget Method
• The energy budget method estimates Evaporation by applying
law of conservation of Energy. The energy available for
evaporation is determined by considering the incoming energy,
outgoing energy and energy stored in the water body over a
period of time.
• Hn= Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi; Where:
– Hn = net heat energy received by the water surface = Hc(1-r) -
Hb; in which,
 r = reflection coefficient called albedo; Hc(1-r) = incoming
solar radiation; Hb = back radiation from water body;
– He = Heat energy used up for evaporation (or heat transfer by
latent heat) = ρLEL; in which,
 ρ = density of water; L = latent heat of evaporation; EL =
evaporation in mm;
– Hg = heat flux into the ground; All energy terms in above equation
– Hs = heat stored into water body; have unit of calories per sq. mm
– Hi = net heat conducted out from the system due to water flow per day.
(called as advected energy).

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 5
Evaporation – Energy Budget Method
• If time periods are short, the terms Hg and Hi can be neglected as they are negligibly small. All
other terms except Ha can either be measured or estimated indirectly.
• The sensible heat term (or heat lost in air), Ha, which can’t be measured readily, is estimated
using Bowen’s ratio (β), given by the following expression;

Where, Pa= Atmospheric pressure

in mm Hg; Tw= Water
temperature (°C); Ta= Air
temperature (°C); ew= saturated
vapor pressure (mm Hg); ea=
actual vapor pressure (mm Hg)
𝑯𝒏 − 𝑯𝒈 − 𝑯𝒔 − 𝑯𝒊
From, Hn=Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi; 𝑬𝒂 =
𝟏 + 𝜷 𝝆𝑳 EL or Ea is the evaporation, mm

• For estimation of Evaporation from Lakes, energy balance method has been found to give
satisfactory results.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 6
Evaporation – Mass Transfer Method
• Two key factors controlling the evaporation rate from open water surface are;
– Supply (or availability) of heat energy
– Ability to transport vapour away from the surface
• Mass transfer (aerodynamic) method considers the second factor (i.e., ability to transport
vapour away from the surface).
– It is based on the theories of Turbulent mass transfer in boundary layer to calculate the mass water
vapour transfer from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere.
• The transport rate is governed by;
– Humidity gradient in the air near the surface
– Wind speed across the surface

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 7
Evaporation – Mass Transfer Method
• The methods based on mass transfer techniques use Dalton’s law to estimate
Evaporation; Ea = C (es – ea); where C is the constant that depends upon barometric
pressure, wind speed, etc.; es and ea are saturated and actual vapour pressures; and
Ea is evaporation (mm/day).
• Some of those methods that uses different approaches for estimating C are;
– Modified Dalton’s equation: It estimates C as, C = k * f(u); where,
 k is a constant and f(u) is wind speed correction factor.
– Meyer’s equation: it estimates C as, C = KM * (1 + U9/16); where,
 KM is a coefficient with a value of 0.36 for large lakes and 0.5 for shallow lakes; U9 is monthly
mean wind speed in km/hr measured at 9m above ground.
𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟐∗𝒌𝟐 ∗𝝆𝒂 ∗𝒖𝟐
– Thornthwaite-Holzman equation: 𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑩 = 𝟐 ; where,
𝒛𝟐
𝒑∗𝝆𝒘 𝐥𝐧 𝒛𝟎

 k is Relative Humidity (-), ρa is density of air (kg/m3); u2 is wind speed at 2m above water
surface (m/s); p is air pressure (Pa or N/m2), pw is density of water (kg/m3), z2 is 2m, z0 is
roughness height (m), generally taken as 0.03 cm; C (or B) has the unit of m/Pa.s.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 8
Evaporation – Mass Transfer Method
• Question#01: Calculate evaporation rate from an open water surface by using aerodynamic
(or mass transfer) method with air temperature of 25°C, relative humidity of 40%, air pressure
of 101.3 kPa, and wind speed of 3 m/s. All are measured at height 2m above the water
surface. Take density of air and water as 1.19 kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3, respectively. Assume a
roughness height (Z0) as 0.03 cm.
– Ea = B (es – ea)
𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟐∗𝒌𝟐 ∗𝝆𝒂 ∗𝒖𝟐
–B= 𝟐
𝒛𝟐
𝒑∗𝝆𝒘 𝐥𝐧 𝒛𝟎
𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟐∗𝟎.𝟒𝟐 ∗𝟏.𝟏𝟗∗𝟑
= 𝟐 𝟐 = 4.524*10-11 m/Pa.s
𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟑∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ∗𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝐥𝐧
𝟎.𝟎𝟑∗𝟏𝟎−𝟐
17.27𝑇
– 𝑒𝑠 = 611 𝑒𝑥𝑝
237.3+𝑇
17.27∗25
= 611 ∗ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 3,168.8 Pa (or N/m2)
237.3+25
– ea = RH * es
= 0.4* 3,168.8 = 1,267.5 Pa (or N/m2).
– Ea = B (es – ea) = 8.60* 10-08 m/s = 7.43 mm/day.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 9
Evaporation – Mass Transfer Method

• Question#02: A large reservoir (or lake) with a surface area of 2.5 km2 has following
average values of parameters for the 1st week of March: water temperature = 20oC,
relative humidity = 40%, wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground = 16km/h. Estimate the
average daily evaporation from the lake/reservoir and volume of water Evaporated
from the lake during that one week. Take saturated vapor pressure (es) = 17.54 mm of
Hg at 20oC.
– Here, we need to use Meyer’s equation.
– As es = 17.54 mm of Hg, ea = RH * es = 0.4*17.54 = 7.02 mm of Hg
– Wind speed at 9m height is given as; V9 = V1* (9/1)1/7 = 16 * (9)1/7 = 21.9 km/hr
– By using Meyer’s equation, Evaporation (mm/day) is; A large
volume of
 Ea = KM * (1 + U9/16) (es – ea); where KM for large reservoir can be taken as 0.36.
water from
– Therefore, Ea = 0.36* (1+21.9/16) * (17.54 – 7.02) = 8.97 mm/day reservoir is
– Evaporated volume in 7 days = 7 * 8.97/1000*2.5*106 = 157,000 m3. lost as
Evaporation
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 10
Evaporation – Reducing reservoir evaporation?

• Reduction in surface area

– Reservoir evaporation is directly proportional to surface area. Therefore, reduction of
surface area, where feasible, reduces evaporation losses.
 Having deep reservoir instead of large reservoir could be a strategy to reduce surface area
• Mechanical covers
– Permanent roofs over reservoir, temporary roofs and floating roofs such as rafts and light
weight floating particles (e.g. black balls) can be adopted where feasible.
 Such measures however are more feasible for small water bodies such as ponds.
• Chemical films
– Applying a thin chemical film in water surface to reduce evaporation.
 Some useful chemicals are – cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) and stearly alcohol (octadecanol),
which form monomolecular layers on the water surface to inhibit evaporation.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 11
 Reservoir
filled with
many
millions of
black balls
to reduce
evaporation

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 12
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 13
Evaporimeters

• Evaporimeter is a scientific instrument used for measuring

the rate of water evaporation from a wet surface to the
atmosphere
• Evaporimeters are water containing pans which are
exposed to atmosphere and the loss of water by
evaporation measured in them at regular interval.
• Various types of Evaporimeters are used. Some commonly
used Evaporimeters are;
– Class A evaporation pan
– ISI standard pan
– Colorado sunken pan

Fig.: Class A Evaporation Pan

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 14
Evaporimeters
• Class A Evaporation Pan:
– Dia. =1210mm; depth =255 mm; water depth maintained between 18-20 cm
– Made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet; Extensively used by US Weather Bureau
– Placed on a wooden platform of 15cm height above the ground to maintain free circulation
of air below the pan
• ISI Standard Pan (Specified by IS:5973, called as Modified Class A Pan)
– Dia. = 1220mm; Depth = 255mm; Made of a copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and
painted white outside
– Placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and 100mm height above ground
– The top of the pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of GI to protect water in the pan
from birds
– Water is added or removed from pan to maintain water level.
– A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water
– Evaporation from this pan is ~14% lower as compared to that from an Class A Pan

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 15
Evaporimeters
• Colorado sunken pan
– This is a 92 cm (3 ft) square and 46 cm (1.5 ft) deep pan
– Made of galvanized iron and set in the ground with a rim 50
mm above the ground surface.
– Water level is maintained at or slightly below the ground level
– Key advantage: radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are
similar to that of a lake.
• Evaporation stations – It’s usually installed at locations where • Arid zone: Dry, hot all the
year
other meteorological parameters are also observed.
Recommended density is; • Humid Temperate: located in
30 to 60 degrees N; cold
– Arid climatic zones: 1 station/30,000 km2.
winters and mild summers
– Humid and Temperature climate: 1 station/50,000 km2.
• Tropical zone: hot and wet
– Cold regions: 1 station/100,000 km2. all year

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 16
Evaporimeters
• Pan Coefficient –
– A ratio of the amount of evaporation from a large body of water to that measured in an
evaporation pan.
– Lake evaporation=Cp *pan evaporation
– Volume of water lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a day is estimated as; VE = A
* Ep * Cp; where A is average reservoir area; Ep is pan evaporation (m/day); Cp is
relevant pan coefficient.
• Value of pan coefficient (Cp) for different types of Pan are; Question#03: If a catchment with a
reservoir for a hydropower project
has average annual evaporation
rate of 2.1 mm/day measured by a
pan Evaporimeter. Assuming pan
coefficient of 0.8 and surface area
of reservoir as 6.1 km2, estimate
annual volume of Evaporation loss
from the Reservoir.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 17
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.3.1 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 18
Evapotranspiration – Actual evapotranspiration (AET)

• Transpiration: • Factors affecting Transpiration

– It is the process by which water vapor leaves the – Atmospheric vapour pressure,
living plant body and enters the atmosphere. temperature, wind, light intensity
– It involves continuous flow of water from soil into – Characteristics of the plant, e.g.,
plant and out through stomata (leaves) to the root and leaf systems
atmosphere.
• Evapotranspiration (ET, or Consumptive use):
– Quantity of water transpired by the plan during
their growth or retained in plant tissue, plus the
moisture evaporated from the surface of the soil
and the vegetation.
– It accounts for the movement of water to the air
from all the sources such as the plant canopy
interception, soil, water bodies, etc.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 19
Evapotranspiration – Actual evapotranspiration (AET)
• Actual evapotranspiration (AET):
– Actual amount of water lost due to evapotranspiration from the soil along with actively
growing plant or crop in a given set of atmospheric conditions.
– Factors affecting AET
 Plant and soil characteristics, and
 The amount of available water in the soil (for a given set of atmospheric conditions)
• Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
– Theoretical amount of moisture that could be lost from the surface, by both evaporation and
transpiration, to the atmosphere if it were available.
– Expressed in units of water depth.
• In which condition AET & PET will be equal?
– If water supply to the soil is adequate, soil moisture will be at the “Field Capacity”, and at
that condition, AET = PET. AET ~ PET in Humid Areas.
– PET is equivalent to “demand” and AET is equivalent to “supply”.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 20
Evapotranspiration – Actual evapotranspiration (AET)
• AET varies with soil type and availability of moisture as
shown in the Figure.
• AET/PET is aridity index 
– If AET/PET = 1 (or AET = PET)  water supply to plant is
adequate (100%); Energy is limiting factor (Humid area)
– If AET/PET < 1  water supply is less than PET, the soil
dries out. Water is limiting factor (case in Arid areas).
• The decrease in ratio of AET/PET depends upon
– Type of soil and rate of drying
• Two important terminologies (PWP & FC): ?
– PWP (Permanent Wilting Point): moisture content of a soil at
which moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to
sustain the plants
– FC (Field Capacity): Max. amount of water that soil can
hold against the gravity.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 21
Evapotranspiration – AET - Lysimeters
• Measurement of AET for a given vegetation type can be
carried out in two ways;
– i) Using Lysimeter; ii) Using field plots (using water budget)
• Lysimeter:
– It is a special water tight tank containing a block of soil
and a set in a field of growing plants for measuring amount
of AET released by plants (usually crops or trees).
 By recording amount of precipitation that an area receives
and the amount lost through the soil
– Amount of water required to maintain constant moisture
conditions within the tank is the measure of AET
– It should be so buried that the soil is at same level inside
and outside the container.
– Lysimeter studies are accurate, but time consuming &
expensive.
Fig.: Lysimeter
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 22
Evapotranspiration – AET - Lysimeters

• AET, using Lysimeter, is estimated as follows;

– AET = P + (I – D) + S; where,
 AET is actual evapotranspiration (mm)
 P is precipitation (mm)
 I is irrigation water (mm)
 D is excess water drained from bottom (mm)
 S is increase or decrease in storage of soil moisture

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 23
Evapotranspiration – Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

• PET, as defined earlier is the maximum amount of water that can be lost as
evapotranspiration for the given set of atmospheric conditions.

• There are two types of methods available for estimating PET

– Process-based (or backed by theoretical reasoning) methods
 Penman Equation [Only this will be covered in this course, as per Syllabus]
 Penamn-Montheit Equation
– Empirical methods
 Blaney Criddle Formula
 Thornthwaite Formula
 Other Temperature-only based methods (e.g Heargreves method, etc.) are also available

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 24
Evapotranspiration – PET – Penman Equation

• Penman equation is based on theoretical reasoning and it combines energy-balance (H)

and mass-transfer (Ea) approaches to estimate PET
– It was developed by Penman in 1948, but still widely used to estimate PET based on
meteorological data
• The Penman equation estimates PET using following equation;

where: PET = daily potential evapotranspiration (mm/day);

A = slope of the saturation vapor pressure vs temperature
curve at the mean air temperature (mm of Hg per oC); Hn =
net radiation (mm of evaporable water per day); Ea =
parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit; γ =
psychometric constant (=0.49 mm of Hg /oc)

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 25
Evapotranspiration – PET – Penman Equation

• The parameters in Penman equation are estimated as follows;

• Net radiation (Hn) is estimated as;

NOTE:

If Ha (upper terrestrial
radiation or incident solar
radiation outside the
atmosphere on a
horizontal surface) is given
in mm of Hg, we need to
convert mm of Hg value
into mm of Water value
 1 mm of Hg = 13.6
mm of Water

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 26
Evapotranspiration – PET – Penman Equation

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 27
Evapotranspiration – PET – Penman Equation

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 28
Evapotranspiration – PET – Penman Equation
• Question#04: Calculate PET • From Table 3.3, A = 1.00 mm/°C, ew (or es) = 16.50
from an area by Penman’s mm of Hg (for ew, we can use eqn in 2nd lecture too)
formula based on following
data: Latitude = 28°4’ N; • ea = RH * es = 0.75*16.50 = 12.38 mm of Hg
elevation = 230 masl; Mean
monthly temperature (T) =
• a = 0.29cos28°4’ = 0.29*cos(28.0667*pi/180) =
19°C; mean relative humidity 0.2559. [please convert degree to radian]
= 75%; Mean observed • b = 0.52 (fixed constant)
sunshine hours (n) = 9 h;
Mean monthly value of • Stefan Boltzman’s constant (σ) = 2.01*10-9 mm/day
possible (or maximum) • Now,
sunshine hours (N) = 10.716
h; wind velocity at 2m height = 1.990 mm of water/day
= 85 km/day; Nature of • Again,
surface cover: close-group
green crop (i.e. albedo = = 2.208 mm/day
0.25); Ha = 9.506 mm of • Therefore, = 2.06 mm/day.
water/day.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_2 29
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#3_3: Hydrological Losses (3)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 (partially) evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
6.1, 6.2 Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6 L#6_1 2
(partly) distribution; return period; frequency, and risk
Plotting positions, frequency factors, log Pearson III
6 6.2 (partly) L#6_2 2
method; Gumbel’s Extreme value Type I method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 2

3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 3

Infiltration
• Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface
enters into the soil. Therefore, it refers to,
– the movement of water through the soil surface
• Significance of Infiltration ?
– It increases soil moisture storage
– It contributes to the natural groundwater (GW) recharge, and
therefore to GW availability
– It plays a significant role in runoff process by affecting timing,
distribution & magnitude of the surface runoff
• If water is powered over a container covered with wire
gauge, only a part of water goes into container & the
container can hold only fixed quantity of water.
– Infiltration capacity: maximum rate at which the ground can
absorb water
– Field capacity – maximum volume of water that it can hold
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 4
Infiltration – Three terminologies
• Infiltration capacity (fc) (Unit: cm/hr)
– The maximum rate at which water can enter into the soil
at a particular point for a given soil under a given set of
conditions.
– It is high at the beginning of a storm when soil is dry.
Then decreases as the soil becomes saturated; &
▪ ultimately approaches a limiting constant value.
• Infiltration rate (f) (Unit: cm/hr)
– The actual rate of infiltration which is smaller than or
equal to infiltration capacity. [f ≤ fc)
• Infiltration volume or cumulative infiltration (F) (Unit: cm)
– The accumulated depth of water infiltrated during a
given time period. In the first case:
– If F is the amount of water infiltrated through at time • rainfall intensity < infiltration capacity →
period of T, then, infiltration rate is; all water is infiltrated
• field capacity is not yet reached → no
percolation
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 to GW flow 5
Infiltration – Factors affecting Infiltration

• Characteristics of soil (affects both infiltration rate & capacity)

– Type/texture of soil (i.e., sand, silt or clay):
▪ sandy soil (i.e., high proportion of sand) has a higher fc than a clayey soil
– Soil structure:
▪ loosely packed soil generally has higher fc than tightly packed soil
– Soil permeability:
▪ more permeable soil has higher fc than less permeable one
– Underdrainage:
▪ soil with good underdrainage (i.e., facility to transmit infiltrated water downward) has a higher
infiltration capacity.
– Soil saturation:
▪ dry soil has higher infiltration capacity than partially saturated one.
– A loose, permeable, sandy soil will have higher fc than a tight, clayey soil.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 6

Infiltration – Factors affecting Infiltration
• Surface of entry
– The surface covered with grass and other vegetation can reduce clogging of the pore
spaces in the upper layer when raindrop causes the fines in the soil to be displaced. It will
result in higher infiltration capacity.
– Similarly, dense vegetation increases infiltration compared to barren land and/or urban
area. Also barren land will have higher infiltration than urban area.
• Rainwater characteristics
– Turbidity → Turbidity in infiltrating water reduce infiltration capacity as suspended particles
in turbid water will block the fine pores in the soil
– Water temperature: Temperature of water affects viscosity → increase in temperature,
decreases viscosity and will increase infiltration
– Salinity: The infiltration rate generally increases with increase in salinity as it affects soil
structure and in turn can affect infiltration.
– Rainfall intensity: higher the rainfall intensity, higher will be mechanical compaction of soil,
which will in turn reduces infiltration.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 7

Infiltration Capacity Curve – Horton’s equation
• Infiltration capacity for a given soil is maximum in
the beginning & decreases with time from the start
of rainfall;
– it decreases with degree of saturation, and depends
upon type of soil
• Horton equation is an analytical solution that express
this decay in infiltration capacity with time;
– Horton Equation: f(t) = fc + (f0 - fc) e-kt; where,
▪ f(t) is infiltration capacity (depth/time) at Fig.: Infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration
sometime “t”; k is Horton’s coefficient, represents
the rate of decrease in capacity, & its value
depends upon soil characteristics and vegetation
cover; fc is final or equilibrium capacity; f0 is the
initial infiltration capacity (at t =0)

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 8

Infiltration Capacity Curve – Horton’s equation

• Since cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate are the function of time , the relation
f(t) = fc + (f0 - fc) e-kt can be written as;

• Cumulative infiltration using Horton’s equation is;

𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐
• Average infiltration in time t, F(t)/t = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑡 1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
• Cumulative infiltration or total infiltration depth in between time t1 and t2,
𝑡 𝑡 𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐
𝐹 𝑡 = ‫ 𝑡׬‬2 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫ 𝑡׬‬2 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1) + (𝑒 −𝑘𝑡2 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡1 )
1 1 −𝑘

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 9

Infiltration Capacity Curve – Horton’s equation

• Estimation of value of k;
– From Horton’s equation; f = fc + (f0-fc) e-Kt
– f - fc = (f0-fc) e-Kt
∞
– Integrating; ‫׬‬0 (𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
∞ −𝑘𝑡 𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐
– ‫׬‬0 (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 ) 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑘
𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐
– Equating above expressions, K can be determined by; 𝑘 = (if time is until ∞)
𝐹
– If time period is defined (i.e., not until infinity), then K can be estimated using this equation;
𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐
𝑘=
𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑓𝑐 𝑡

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 10

Rainfall-Runoff Mechanism – Hortonian Overland Flow
• Question#05: For a rainfall event with
duration of 25 hrs, if initial infiltration
capacity (f0) = 72 mm/hr, ultimate infiltration
capacity (fc) is 12 mm/hr, develop an
infiltration capacity versus time curve for
time constant or decay constant (k) =
0.30/hr. Also assess sensitivity of the curve
for different values of (k = 0.15, k = 0.45).
Finally, for the first 10 hours, estimate the
total volume of water infiltrated (in cm), with
k = 0.30/hr.
– 1st part & 2nd part: please refer the graph in
the right hand side → for given set of
conditions, infiltration capacity decreases
with increase in decay constant.
– For 3rd part: we can calculate using the For t = 10 hrs,
formula shown in Right hand side. F (10) = 12*10 + (((72-12)/0.30)*(1 – e-0.30*10))
= 310 mm = 31 cm.
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 11
Estimating Infiltration Capacity – Horton’s equation

• Question#06: The infiltration capacity of soil in a small watershed was found to be 6

cm/hr before a rainfall event. It was found to be 1.2 cm/hr at the end of 8 hours of
storm. If the total infiltration during the 8 hours period of storm was 15cm, estimate the
value of the decay coefficient K in Horton’s infiltration capacity equation.
• Solution
– Given: f0 = 6 cm/hr; fc = 1.2 cm/hr, duration of rainfall = 8 hrs; cumulative infiltration (F) =
15 cm.
– Decay coefficient (k) = ?

• Here,
𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐 6.0 −1.2
–𝑘=𝐹 = = 0.89
𝑡 −𝑓𝑐 𝑡 15 −1.2∗8

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 12

3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 13

Infiltration Indices (Φ & W)
• Infiltration index is an average infiltration rate (a constant
value) adopted for the duration of a storm event, for Φ-Index
Method
estimating overland flow or floods.
• Two types of infiltration indices are: Φ-Index & W-index
• Φ-Index (constant loss) method:
– average rainfall, above which rainfall volume = runoff volume. It
is derived from rainfall hyetograph with knowledge of resulting
runoff volume. Initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
Where, P = total storm
– It is an engineering method & ignores decrease in infiltration precipitation (cm); R = total
capacity over time. surface runoff (cm); Ia = initial
– If rainfall intensity < Φ, Φ = rainfall intensity losses (cm); & te = duration of
rainfall excess (i.e., the total
– If rainfall intensity > Φ, difference between rainfall & infiltration time in which the rainfall
at an interval of time represents runoff volume. intensity > Φ) (hours)
– Amount of rainfall in excess of Φ-index is called “rainfall
excess”
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 14
Infiltration Indices (Φ & W)
• W-Index (Initial Loss – Continuing Loss) method:
W-Index
– If initial losses are separated from the total abstractions in an attempt to Method
refined the Φ-index, the average value of infiltration rate is called as “W-
index”
– It is the rate of infiltration during which rainfall intensity > infiltration
capacity
– W-index also ignores decrease in infiltration capacity over time.
– W-index is more accurate than Φ-Index as it excludes Ia.
• Both Φ-index & W-index vary from storm to storm. Where, P = total storm
• Φ-index during a storm event for a catchment depends generally upon precipitation (cm); R = total
the following factors surface runoff (cm); Ia = initial
losses (cm); & te = duration of
– soil type, vegetation cover, initial moisture condition, storm duration & storm rainfall excess (i.e., the total
intensity time in which the rainfall
• Φ-index can also be calculated using following equation from CWC intensity > W) (hours)
(Central Water Commission of India; Φ = (I-R)/24; where, I (cm/day)
rainfall intensity; R is runoff (cm) from 24-hr rainfall
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 15
 Infiltration Indices (Φ & W)
• Question#07: Consider two (2)
storm events of 75 mm (total
rainfall) and 6-hrs duration each,
and both produce a total runoff
equivalent to 33mm
• Φ-Index would be different for
two cases as hyetograph
(representing rainfall intensity) are
not same Event#01 Φ-index Event#02
• Total rainfall = 75 mm • Total rainfall = 75 mm
• Total runoff = 33 mm • Total runoff = 33 mm
• Total infiltration in 6 hrs =75-33 =42 mm • Total infiltration in 6 hrs =75-33 =42 mm
• Rate of infiltration = 42/6 = 7 mm/hr • Rate of infiltration = 42/6 = 7 mm/hr
• Φ = (42-3-7)/4 = 8 mm/hr • Φ = (42-6)/4 = 9.0 mm/hr [6 = 5+1]
• CHECK: Average infiltration: (4* Φ) +3+7=42 mm • CHECK: Average infiltration: [4* Φ]+5+1 =42 mm

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 16

Infiltration Indices (Φ & W) – Steps for estimating Φ-index

Carry out Trial & Error method with effective time (te);
• 1) Consider the whole duration of rainfall as effective in the beginning.
– First trial: φ= (Total rainfall - Direct runoff)/te ; where te = total time of excess rainfall
contributing for direct runoff (effective duration)
• 2) Compute rainfall excess of each rainfall pulse and find total rainfall excess.
– Rainfall excess = (observed rainfall (R) - φ ∆t) where ∆t = interval of rainfall data for
rainfall intensity> φ, 0 otherwise
• 3) Compare total rainfall excess with direct runoff. If rainfall excess (Re) is not same as
direct runoff (Q), take another value of te.
– New te = (whole period – duration of ineffective rainfall).
– Second trial: φ= (Total rainfall - Direct Runoff-Ineffective rainfall)/te
• 4) Repeat steps 2 – 3 until Re = Q.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 17

Infiltration Indices (Φ & W)

• Question#08: A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm.
Given the time distribution of the storm as below, estimate the Φ-index of the storm.
Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Incremental rainfall in each hr (cm) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5

• Assume te (time of rainfall excess) = 8 hrs (i.e., entire duration Incremental

Rainfall excess (cm)
of rainfall) as the 1st Trial. Time from for Φ value of
rainfall in each
start (h)
– Then, Φ = (10.0 – 5.8)/8 = 0.525 cm/hr. This results rainfall hr (cm) 0.525 0.55
excess of 6.0 cm ≠ 5.8 cm. So, te ≠ 8 hrs, we need 2nd trail.
1 0.4 0.000 0.000
• As rainfall of 1st
& 8th
hr is less than 0.525 cm/hr, they may not 2 0.9 0.375 0.350
nd
contribute to rainfall excel. So, for 2 Trial, 3 1.5 0.975 0.950
– Φ = (10.0 – 5.8 – 0.4 – 0.5)/6 = 0.55 cm/hr. This results rainfall 4 2.3 1.775 1.750
excess of exactly 5.8 cm. So, te = 6 hrs is correct. 5 1.8 1.275 1.250
6 1.6 1.075 1.050
▪ Φ-index = 0.55 cm/hr. 7 1.0 0.475 0.450
• We need to continue the trails until we get satisfactory value of 8 0.5 0.000 0.000
Φ-index. Total 10.0 6.0 5.8
Evaluation < 5.8 OK
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 18
3. Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial losses (Interception and depression storage)
3.2 Evaporation process
3.2.1 Meteorological parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor pressure, Humidity, Wind)
3.2.2 Energy Budget methods and Mass transfer approach (Dalton’s law)
3.2.3 Evaporimeters
3.3 Evapotranspiration
3.31 Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (Penman’s equation)
3.4 Infiltration
3.4.1 Horton’s equation
3.4.2 Infiltration indices (Ф and W)
3.4.3 Infiltrometers

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 19

Infiltrometers
• Infiltometer is an experimental set-up, under controlled conditions in a small
area, for getting information on the infiltration characteristics of the soil
at a given location.
• Two types of infiltrometers are – single & double ring infiltrometers
• Single-ring infiltrometer (shown in Figure):
– It consists of a hollow metal cylinder of 30 cm dia. & 60 cm length, with both
ends open. It is driven into the soil at a level ground such that ~10 cm of cylinder
is above the ground
– Water is poured into the top part to a depth of 5 cm & pointer is set inside the
ring to indicate the water level to be maintained at a constant head.
– Maintaining a constant head means water supply is maintained at the rate that
corresponds to the infiltration capacity
– The operator records the amount of water added in different time interval (i.e.
water that goes into the soil) for a given time period. This data is used to
prepare cumulative infiltration curve, from which infiltration capacity as a
function of time may be calculated. Issue: infiltrated water spreads
– The experiment will be continued till a uniform rate of infiltration is obtained at the outlet from the tube
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 20
Infiltrometers

• Double-ring infiltrometer (shown in Figure):

– It consists of two concentric hollow rings driven, with diameter of
inner and outer rings as 30cm & 60cm, into soil uniformly without
disturbing the soil to at least to a depth of 15cm.
– Inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring
around that to help control the flow of water through the first ring
(i.e., prevent spreading of water from the inner one).
– Water is added to both rings to maintain the same height.
– The infiltration data from the inner cylinder is taken as infiltration
capacity of the soil.
– Infiltration is determined by measuring the amount of water that
enters into the soil through inner ring.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L3_3 21

 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#6_1: Flood Hydrology (1)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6.1, 6.2.1 –
6 distribution; return period; frequency, and risk; Plotting L#6_1 2
6.2.3
position and frequency factors.
Log Pearson III method; Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I
6 6.2.4, 6.2.5 L#6_2 2
method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 2
6. Flood Hydrology

6.1 Design flood and its frequency

6.2 Statistical methods of flood prediction
6.2.1 Continuous Probability distribution
6.2.2 Return period, Frequency and risk
6.2.3 Plotting positions, frequency factors
6.2.4 Log Pearson III Method
6.2.5 Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method
6.3 Flood prediction by Rational and Empirical methods

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 3
6. Flood Hydrology

6.1 Design flood and its frequency

6.2 Statistical methods of flood prediction
6.2.1 Continuous Probability distribution
6.2.2 Return period, Frequency and Risk
6.2.3 Plotting positions, Frequency factors
6.2.4 Log Pearson III Method
6.2.5 Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method
6.3 Flood prediction by Rational and Empirical methods

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 4
Flood, its Effects & Important Characteristics
• What is flood?
– Flood is an unusually high stage (or water level) in a river, in which, normally,
river overflows its banks and inundates the adjoining area.
• Effects/impacts of floods
– It causes losses of life, property, physical infrastructure, and economy
– It also costs significant amount of money for post-flood management activities
• Hydrologic design of water infrastructure projects ensures the structure can
survive for the floods less than or equal to design flood.
• What aspects of floods are important for hydrologic design?
– Hydrograph of extreme floods and corresponding stage data
– Flood peak is the most important & widely used characteristics of flood
hydrograph
– Flood peak at a location varies from year to year, its time-series is valuable
information.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 5
Design Flood & its Frequency
• A flood used for the design of structure on
considerations of its safety, economy, life
expectancy and probable damage considerations
is called as “design flood”.
• Small structures such as culverts and storm-
drainages can be designed for less severe floods
as the consequence of higher than design flood
will not be very serious.
• Larger structures such as dams demands greater
attention to the magnitude of floods used in the
design, because of failure of these structures
causes large loss of life and property on the
downstream of structures
• Choosing appropriate magnitude of flood as
“design flood” depends upon;
– Types of structure
– Importance of the structure
– Economic development in the surrounding area
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 6
Design Flood & its Frequency

• Different types of design floods are;

– Frequency-based flood (FBF): mostly used for designing spillways (also called as Spillway
design flood).
▪ design flood estimated using flood frequency analysis (e.g., 10 yr, 20 yr, 50 yr, 100 yr floods)
– Probable maximum flood (PMF):
▪ the extreme flood that is physically possible in a region as a severe-most combinations. It is
estimated based on unit hydrograph & PMP (probable maximum precipitation)
– Standard project flood (SPF):
▪ flood computed from standard project storm occurred over the project area or on the adjoining
areas with similar hydro-meteorological and basin characteristics
▪ Generally 40-60% of PMF for the same drainage basin.
• Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a variate (i.e., an individual
observation or the value of any variable)
– A plot of frequency against the variate is called as frequency distribution.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 7
Return Period, Frequency & Risk

• Frequency analysis of storm events provides information on probability of occurrence of

extreme events. And,
– Structures are built to be safe against the extreme events of certain return period.
• Frequency analysis is based on historical records of hydrological data
• For frequency analysis, the data of the given series is 1st arranged in descending order
of magnitude and then the probability of each event being equalled to or exceeded is
calculated by, m
P=
N +1
– Where, P is probability of each event, m = order (or rank) number of the event; N = total
number of events in the data series
• The return period (T) or recurrence interval is calculated by
– T = 1/P = (N + 1) / m.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 8
Return Period, Frequency & Risk
• Return period (or recurrence interval), T:
– It is defined as the average interval of time (T) within which an event of given magnitude will be
equalled or exceeded at least once.
– It is the average interval between the occurrence of flood equal to or greater than a given magnitude.
The return period is widely used in hydrologic frequency analysis.
• Risk (R): It represents probability of failure of a structure.
– It is the probability of occurrence of event (x ≥ xT, where T is the return period) at least once over a
𝟏 𝒏
period of n successive years (or design life of structure); 𝑹 = 𝟏 − 𝟏 −
𝑻
• Other relevant terminologies
1
– Probability of occurring an event in any year (P) with return period T is given by 𝑃 = .
𝑇
1
– Probability of non-occurrence of event = 1- P = 1 −
𝑇
1 𝑛
– Probability of non-occurrence in n years (Pn) = (1 –P)n = 1−
𝑇
1 𝑛
– Probability of occurrence of event at least once in n year (i.e., Risk!) = 1 – Pn = 1 − 1 −
𝑇

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 9
Return Period, Frequency & Risk
• Question#09: A flood of 4000 m3/s in a certain river has a return period of 40 years.
– (a) What is its probability of exceedance?
– (b) What is the probability that a flood of 4000 m3/s or greater magnitude may occur in
the next 20 years?
– (c) What is the probability of occurrence of a flood of magnitude less than 4000 m3/s?
• Solution;
– Here, Flood (X) = 4000 m3/s; Return period (T) = 40 years
– (a) Probability of exceedance, P Probability of
▪ (P) =
1
=
1
= 0.025 exceedance is for
𝑇 40
a specific value &
– (b) P(X>=4000) in next 20 years =? (n=20 years)
Risk is for a range
▪ P(X>4000) = 1−(1 − 𝑃)𝑛 = 1 − (1 − 0.025)20 = 0.397
of values
– (c) P(X<4000) = ?
▪ P(X<4000) = 1 – P = 1 – 0.025 = 0.975

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 10
Return Period, Frequency & Risk

• Question#10: Compute the probability of a flood equal to or greater than the 50-
year flood occurring next year, and the next 3 years.

• Solution;
– Return period (T) = 50 year;
– a) Probability (P) of a flood > = 50-year occurring next year (i.e., n =1) is;
1 𝑛 1 1
▪ 𝑃 =1− 1− =1− 1− = 0.02
𝑇 50

– B) Probability (P) of a flood > = 50-year occurring next 3 years (i.e., n =3) is;
1 𝑛 1 3
▪ 𝑃 =1− 1− =1− 1− = 0.0588
𝑇 50

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 11
Plotting Positions & Frequency Factors
• The purpose of frequency analysis of an annual series is,
– To obtain a relation between magnitude of the event & its probability of exceedance
• Probability analysis is made either by empirical or by analytical methods
• A simple empirical technique is Probability Plotting, using following steps;
– Arrange the given annual extreme series in descending order of magnitude and assign an
order number “m”.
▪ Thus for the first entry, m = 1, for the second entry, m = 2, and so on till the last event for which
m = N = number of years of record.
– Compute plotting position (i.e., probability (P) of an event equalled or exceeded), using
Weibull Formula; P = m and Return period, T = 1/P = (N+1)/m.
N +1
– When there are two or more magnitudes are same (but with different m), P is calculated for
the largest m value of the set.
– Plot given data versus P or T in semi-log or log-log paper; & Fit a straight line.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 12
Plotting Positions & Frequency Factors

• A sample of
Probability Plot for a
Flood time series

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 13
Plotting Positions & Frequency Factors
• Plotting position
– It refers to the probability value assigned to each piece of data to be plotted, most of
which are empirical
– There are several equations available for assigning plotting position. Among them,
Weibull’s one is widely used.
• Probability Plotting:
– Having calculated P (and hence T) for all the events in the time series, variation of flood
magnitudes is plotted against the corresponding T on a semi-log or log-log paper. The plot
is called as Probability Plotting.
– By suitable extrapolation of this curve, the flood magnitude of specific duration for any
recurrence interval can be estimated.
• Various analytical calculation procedures using frequency factors are available.
Examples, used in this course, include;
– Log Pearson Type III (LP III) Method
– Gumbel (or Extreme Value Type I) Method
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 14
6. Flood Hydrology

6.1 Design flood and its frequency

6.2 Statistical methods of flood prediction
6.2.1 Continuous Probability distribution
6.2.2 Return period, Frequency and risk
6.2.3 Plotting positions, frequency factors
6.2.4 Log Pearson III Method
6.2.5 Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method
6.3 Flood prediction by Rational and Empirical methods

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 15
Continuous Probability Distribution – Terminologies

• Frequency:
– Number of occurrence of a variate
• Relative frequency (or probability of a function!)
– Number of observations (ni) in interval “i” divided by total number of observations
• Cumulative frequency function
– Sum of values of relative frequencies up to a given point
• Cumulative distribution function (CDF): its value ranges between 0 & 1 (0 ≤ CDF ≤ 1)
– For a discrete random variable: CDF is the sum up of the probabilities
– For a continuous random variable: CDF is integral of its probability density function (PDF)
• Probability density function (PDF):
– PDF is derivate of the CDF.
– It’s representation of randomness of continuous random variable

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 16
Continuous Probability Distribution

• Continuous Probability Distributions commonly used in

Hydrology are;
– Normal (or Gaussian) distribution
– Lognormal distribution
– Exponential distribution
– Gamma distribution
– Pearson Type III (or three parameter gamma) distribution
– Gumbel (Extreme Value Type I) distribution
• The curves of each probability distribution are plotted using
PDF equation of each distribution.
– There are Excel functions too for different distributions (e.g.
NORMDIST for normal distribution).

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 17
Continuous Probability Distribution – Normal distribution

• The Normal Distribution arises from the central limit theorem, which states that if a
sequence of random variables “Xi” are independently & identically distributed with
mean µ and variance σ2 , then the distribution of the sum of n such random variables,
i =n
tends towards the Normal Distribution with mean nµ and variance nσ2 as
y =  Xi
i =1 n becomes large.
 ( x −  )2 
f (x ) =
• The PDF of normal distribution, 1 for
exp −  −  x  
 2  2 2

– Where: µ and σ are population mean & standard deviation, and are parameters of the
distribution.
• The parameters of the Normal Distribution are,  = x,  = S x , where x is sample
mean and Sx is sample standard deviation.
• If z = x −  and Z → N (0, 1), it is called standard normal distribution.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 18
Continuous Probability Distribution – Normal distribution

• Properties of Normal Distribution;

– Bell shaped
– Symmetric about mean
– Unbounded
• The curve in which mean, median and the model value coincide is the normal curve.
• The normal or Gaussian frequency distribution is the most important in statistical theory
• Most hydrological data are NOT normally distributed, but they can sometimes be
normalized by various methods like, using
– Logarithms of the sample data
– Cube root of the sample data
• Hydrological variables such as annual precipitation, calculated as the sum of effects of
many independent events tends to follow Normal Distribution.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 19
Continuous Probability Distribution – Lognormal distribution

• If a random variable Y = logX is normally distributed, then X is said to be Log-Normally

distributed.
 ( y −  y )2 
f (x ) =
• The PDF of Lognormal distribution is; 1 ; where: y= logX, X>0
exp − 
x 2 2 y
2
 

• The parameters of the distribution are,  = y,  = S x ; where: y is sample mean and

Sy is sample standard deviation.
• Properties of Lognormal distribution;
– X ranges from 0 to  (lower bound)
– X is positively skewed
– Distribution tends to be symmetric as σ decreases

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 20
Continuous Probability Distribution – Exponential distribution

• Exponential distribution is useful for instantaneously and independently occurring events,

e.g. occurrence of precipitation, occurrence of flood.
• The PDF of exponential distribution is given by; f ( x ) = e − x , for x ≥ 0.

1
• The parameter of the distribution  is given by, =
x

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 21
Continuous Probability Distribution – Gamma distribution

• Gamma distribution (symbol: 𝚪 ) is useful to find the time taken for a

particular event to occur in a Poisson process (instantaneously and
independently occurring event).
• The gamma distribution has a smoothly varying form and is useful for
describing skewed hydrological variables without log transformation.
– Example: distribution of depth of precipitation in storms.
• This distribution has lower bound as zero, which is disadvantage for
application to hydrological variables that have lower bound > 0.
𝜆𝛽 𝑥 𝛽−1 −𝛽𝑥
• PDF of Gamm Distribution is given by; 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 ; for x ≥ 0
Γ𝛽
• Parameters of Gamma Distribution are: 𝜆 and 𝛽 are parameters. They
𝑥ҧ 1
are given by; 𝜆 = 2, 𝛽 = 2 , Γ𝛽 = 𝛽 − 1 !
𝜎 𝐶𝑣

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 22
Continuous Probability Distribution – Log Pearson III distribution
• Pearson Type III distribution is also called 3-parameter gamma distribution, as it
includes one more parameters parameter 𝜺 in the gamma distribution.
• This distribution can be used to describe distribution of the annual maximum flood.

 ( x −  ) e −  ( x − )
 −1

• The PDF for Pearson Type III distribution is given by; f (x ) =
( )
– Where, x
• Parameters of Pearson Type III Distribution are; 𝝀, 𝜷 and 𝜺 ; which are given by;
2
Sx  2 
= ,  =   ,  = x − S x 
  Cs 

• By the method of moments, three sample moments (mean, standard deviation, &
coefficient of skewness) can be transferred to 𝜆, 𝛽, and 𝜀

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 23
Continuous Probability Distribution – Log Pearson III distribution

• If logX follows a Pearson Type III (LP III) distribution, then X is said to follow Log
Pearson Type III distribution.
• The log transformation reduces the skewness of the transformed data.
• It is widely used for frequency analysis of the annual maximum flood.
• The PDF of LP III distribution is given by;
 ( y −  ) e −  ( y − )
 −1

f (x ) =
x( )
– where: y = log X; logx  

• Parameters of LP III distribution are given by;

2
Sy  2 
= ,  =   ,  = y − S y 
  Cs ( y ) 

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 24
Continuous Probability Distribution – Gumbel (EV I) distribution

• Gumbel distribution is also called as Extreme Value Type I (EV I) distribution

• The PDF of Gumbel Distribution for −  x   is given by;

 x−u  x − u 
f (x ) =
1
exp − − exp − 
     

• Parameters of Gumbel Distribution are given by;

6S x
= , u = x − 0.5772


Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_1 25
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#6_1: Flood Hydrology (2)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6.1, 6.2.1 –
6 distribution; return period; frequency, and risk; Plotting L#6_1 2
6.2.3
position and frequency factors.
Log Pearson III method; Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I
6 6.2.4, 6.2.5 L#6_2 2
method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 2
6. Flood Hydrology

6.1 Design flood and its frequency

6.2 Statistical methods of flood prediction
6.2.1 Continuous Probability distribution
6.2.2 Return period, Frequency and risk
6.2.3 Plotting positions, frequency factors
6.2.4 Log Pearson III Method
6.2.5 Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method
6.3 Flood prediction by Rational and Empirical methods

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 3
Statistical Techniques for Flood Frequency Analysis
• What are hydrological extremes?
– Floods, Droughts, and Severe Storms (heavy rainfall)
– Their annual time series (e.g. annual maximum flood series) is used for frequency analysis
• Flood frequency analysis aims at
– Relating the magnitude of extreme events to their frequency of occurrence through the use
of probability distribution.
• Various applications of results of flood frequency analysis are;
– For the design of dams, bridge, culverts, and flood control structures
– To determine the economic value of flood control works
– To delineate flood plains
• Commonly used statistical techniques for flood frequency analysis are;
– Gumbel’s Method
– Log Pearson Type III (LP III) Method

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 4
Estimating Flood Peak – Various Methods

• Rational Method
• Empirical Methods, Selection of a suitable
– Dicken’s Method (1865) method depends upon;
– R. D. Richard’s Method
1) Desired objectives
– Fuller’s Method
2) Availability of data
– Horton’s Method 3) Importance of the
– WECS/DHM method (or HYDEST method) objectives
• Statistical Methods (or Flood Frequency Analysis)
– Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method;
– Log Pearson Type Methods – Type II (2 parameters), Type III (3 parameters)
– Log-Normal Distribution-based Method
• Unit-hydrograph method

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 5
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method

• Gumbel (1941)’s method is one of the most widely used method for extreme values in
Hydrological & Meteorological Studies for prediction of,
– Flood peaks;
– Maximum rainfalls;
– Maximum wind speed, etc.

• Gumbel defined a flood as the largest of the 365 daily flows and the annual series
of flood flows constitute a series of the largest values of flows.

• According to Gumbel’s theory of extreme events, the probability of occurrence of an

event equal to or larger than a value x0 is;
1 −𝑦
– 𝑃 𝑋 ≥ 𝑋0 = 𝑇 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑒 𝑇 ; Where: P is probability of occurrence; x is event of
hydrologic series; x0 is the desired value of the event; yT is reduced variate.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 6
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method
−𝑒 −𝑦𝑇 𝑥𝑇 − 𝑢
• From, 𝑃 𝑋 ≥ 𝑋0 = 1 − 𝑒 , where, 𝑦𝑇 is reduced variate, 𝑦𝑇 = 𝛼
– Where; 6S x
= = 0.78S x , u = x − 0.577 = x − 0.577 * 0.78S x = x − 0.45S x

– Taking natural log (ln) both sides; ln 1 − 𝑃 = − 𝑒 −𝑦𝑇
– Taking natural log (ln) again both sides; 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 1 − 𝑃 ) = − 𝑦𝑇
– Therefore, 𝑦𝑇 = − 𝑙𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 1 − 𝑃 ); or YT = - [0.834+2.303 log log T/(T-1)]
𝑇
– If we replace P with return period T (i.e., P = 1/T), then, 𝑦𝑇 = − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑇−1
• Value of variate x for return period T, 𝑥𝑇 can be estimated based on reduced variate
𝑦𝑇 − 𝑦𝑛 𝑦𝑇 −0.577
𝑦𝑇 with following relation; 𝒙𝑻 = 𝒙
ഥ + 𝒌𝝈𝒙 ; where, 𝑘 = ; k= For N → ∞
𝑠𝑛 1.2825
– Where: k is frequency factor; 𝑦𝑛 is reduced mean, a function of sample size N, for N → ∞ ,
𝑦𝑛 → 0.577; 𝑠𝑛 is reduced standard deviation, a function of sample size N, for N → ∞ ,
𝑠𝑛 → 1.2825. For other sample size, refer Tables in next slide.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 7
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method

• Values of reduced mean and reduced standard deviation for different sample size (N);

• for N → ∞ ,
𝑦𝑛 → 0.577

• for N → ∞ ,
𝑠𝑛 → 1.2825

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 8
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method

• Second method for computing K: from K-T relationship for large samples (N > 100). The
relation based on Chow’s formula is;
6 𝑇 𝑇
–𝐾=− 𝜋
0.5772 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑇−1 ; OR, 𝐾 = − 0.45 + 0.78𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑇−1
– This method can also be used if table or values of 𝑦𝑛 and Snis not given (assuming large
samples)
• Alternatively, as n →, 𝑦𝑛 → 0.577, Sn → 1.2825.
𝑦𝑇 −0.577
– So for n → , K can also be computed from; 𝐾 = 1.2825
• Procedures/Steps for estimating flood magnitude of given return period using Gumbel;
– Compute mean, 𝑥ҧ and standard deviation, σ of the given data or variate (x).
– Compute frequency factor (K) using formula in previous slide, for small size or second method
for large sample size
 n −1 =
 ( X − X )2
– Compute XT; 𝒙𝑻 = ഥ 𝒙 + 𝒌𝝈𝒙
N −1
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 9
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method

• How to verify whether given data follow the assumed Gumbel’s distribution?
– Plot value of xT for different values of return period in semi-log or log-log or Gumbel’s
probability paper and see whether the plot is straight line.
• Gumbel’s probability paper;
– It’s an aid for convenient graphical representation of Gumbel’s distribution
– It consists of Abscissa (X-axis) specially marked for various convenient values of the return
period (T) (e.g., 2, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 years).
– Find the value of yT using equation for yT. Then mark-off those positions on the abscissa.
– Then, plot discharge versus T (and yT).
• Gumbel’s distribution has the property which gives T = 2.33 yrs for the average of
annual series, when N is very large.
– Thus, the value of a flood with T = 2.33 years is called the mean annual flood (or normal
flood).

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 10
Estimating Flood Peak – Gumbel Extreme Value Type I Method

• Question#11: 10-years annual flood at a hydrological station is provided below. If

values of reduced mean and reduced standard deviation in Gumbel’s Extreme value
distribution as 0.4952 and 0.9496, respectively, find out the frequency of a flood of
magnitude 2000 m3/s.
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
QP (m3/s) 300 700 200 400 1000 900 800 500 100 600

• Here, after processing the annual flood time-series, we can get,

σ 𝑋𝑖 5500
– Mean (𝑥)ҧ = = = 550; &
𝑛 10
σ 𝑋𝑖 −𝑥ҧ 2 825000
– Standard deviation, 𝜎 = = = 302.765
𝑛−1 9
• For X = 2,000 m3/s, from 𝑋𝑇 = 𝑥ҧ + 𝐾𝑇 𝜎; we will get, KT = 4.789.
𝑦𝑇 −𝑦𝑛
• Again, from 𝐾𝑇 = ; YT = 5.043.
𝑆𝑛
𝑇
• And from 𝑦𝑇 = −𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ; T = 155.4 years.
𝑇−1
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 11
Log Pearson III Method

• This method is used for approximation of frequency characteristics of measured annual

flood peak data.
• In this method, the variate is transferred into logarithmic form (base 10, i.e. log) & then
transformed data is analysed.
• If X is a variate of a random hydrologic series them, Z = log (X)
• For this Z-series, for any return period T, ZT = log (XT).
• Then, 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍ҧ + 𝐾𝑍 𝜎 ; where: KZ is a frequency factor & is a function of return period
(T) and skewness coefficient (Cs).

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 12
Log Pearson III Method
• Steps for computing floods of various return periods using Log-Pearson III method,
– First, transform peak discharge (X) to logarithm of base 10 ( Z = log10 X)
– Compute mean (𝑍), ҧ standard deviation (𝜎), and coefficient of skewness (Cs) of Z
σ𝑧
▪ 𝑧ҧ =
𝑛

σ 𝑧𝑖 −𝑧ҧ 2
▪ 𝜎=
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑧𝑖 −𝑧ҧ 3
▪ 𝐶𝑠 =
𝑛−1 (𝑛−2) 𝜎 3

– Obtain the value of KT for Cs and selected/required return period (T) from the Table for
Log Pearson Type III distribution (slide#15) (or by using formulae, slide#14).
– Compute; 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍ҧ + 𝐾𝑍 𝜎
– Flood of return period T → XT = antilog (ZT).
• For Coefficient of Skewness (Cs) = 0, LP III method
– reduces to → Lognormal Distribution.
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 13
Log Pearson III Method

• Formula to compute KT;

1 1
– 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 1 𝑘 + 3 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 𝑘 2 − 𝑧 2 − 1 𝑘 3 + 𝑧𝑘 4 + 3 𝑘 5
– k = CS/6
2.515517+0.802853𝑤+0.010328𝑤 2
– 𝑧 = 𝑤 − 1+1.432788𝑤+0.189269𝑤2 +0.001308𝑤3
1/2
1
– 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑝2

– p = 1/T

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 14
Log Pearson III Method

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 15
Log Pearson III Method

• Question#12: A 20-year annual peak flow (m3/s) time series is transformed into log10.
The log10 transformed time-series has mean of 3.632, standard deviation of 0.202,
and coefficient of skewness of 1.2. Compute flood magnitude of 25 year return period
using Log-Pearson Type III method using two methods: i) Taking values from Table; and
ii) calculating values using formula.
• Solution:
• i) Taking values from Table –
– For T = 25 years and Cs = 1.20, from Table,
▪ KT = 2.087.
– 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍ҧ + 𝐾𝑇 𝜎 = 3.632+2.087x0.201
▪ ZT= 4.05
– And, flood of 25 year return period (X25) = Antilog (ZT)
▪ = 104.05 = 11,220 m3/s

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 16
Log Pearson III Method
• ii) Calculating values using Formula –
– p = 1/T
▪ = 1/25 = 0.04
1/2
1
– 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑝2
▪ = 2.537
2.515517+0.802853𝑤+0.010328𝑤 2
–𝑧=𝑤 −
1+1.432788𝑤+0.189269𝑤 2 +0.001308𝑤 3
▪ = 1.751
– k = CS/6 = 1.2/6 = 0.2
1 1
– 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 1 𝑘 + 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 𝑘 2 − 𝑧 2 − 1 𝑘 3 + 𝑧𝑘 4 + 𝑘 5
3 3
▪ = 2.08
– 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍ҧ + 𝐾𝑇 𝜎 = 3.632+2.09x0.201 = 4.05
– Flood of 25 year return period (X25) = Antilog (ZT) = 104.05 = 11,220 m3/s.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_2 17
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#6_1: Flood Hydrology (3)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6.1, 6.2.1 –
6 distribution; return period; frequency, and risk; Plotting L#6_1 2
6.2.3
position and frequency factors.
Log Pearson III method; Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I
6 6.2.4, 6.2.5 L#6_2 2
method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 2
6. Flood Hydrology

6.1 Design flood and its frequency

6.2 Statistical methods of flood prediction
6.2.1 Continuous Probability distribution
6.2.2 Return period, Frequency and risk
6.2.3 Plotting positions, frequency factors
6.2.4 Log Pearson III Method
6.2.5 Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I Method
6.3 Flood prediction by Rational and Empirical methods

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 3
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method
• It’s the most widely used method for the analysis of runoff response from small
catchments
• Though it’s simple, a reasonable care is necessary to apply it effectively.
• It’s particular application is in urban storm drainage → to estimate peak runoff rates
for the design of storm sewers and small drainage facilities.
• The hydrologic characteristics or processes that Rational method accounts for are;
– Rainfall intensity
– Rainfall duration
– Rainfall frequency
– Catchment area
– Hydrologic abstractions
– Runoff concentration,
– Runoff diffusion: a measure of the catchment’s ability to attenuate the flood peaks.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 4
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method
• If a rainfall of uniform intensity and very long duration is
occurring over a catchment, the runoff rate gradually increases
from zero to a constant value (see figure), then the peak value
of runoff at the outlet, a per Rational Method, is given by;
QP
– QP = C * i * A (for t ≥ tc) ; where, C is the coefficient of runoff (=
runoff/ rainfall), i = intensity of rainfall, A = catchment area; tc =
time of concentration. tc

– In SI unit, with Q in m3/s, “i” in mm/hr, and “A” in km2, the equation
is modified as; QP = 1/3.6 * C * i * A .
• Limitations of Rationale Method
– Applicable for small-sized catchments (< 50 km2)
– Rainfall intensity must be of constant over the entire basin during
tc. And, duration of rainfall intensity > tc
– Gives only peak, but not a complete hydrograph
– C assumed to be small for all storms
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 5
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method

• The rational method does NOT take into account these characteristics or processes;
– Spatial or temporal variations in either total or effective rainfall
– Time of concentration much greater than storm duration
– A significant portion of runoff occurring in the form of streamflow
• The Rational Method also does NOT explicitly account for the catchment’s antecedent
moisture content, however it may be implicitly accounted for by varying the runoff
coefficient.
• Limit of catchment area:
– Upper limit: There is no consensus on upper limit of catchment area to apply Rational
Method. However, current trend is to use area <=2.5 km2 as upper limit.
– Lower limit: There is no theoretical lower limit. Catchments as small as 1 ha or less can be
analysed using rational method.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 6
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method

• Time of Concentration (tc):

– Time required to a drop of water to flow from the farthest part of the catchment to reach
the outlet. If rainfall continues beyond tc, the runoff will be constant.

– Number of empirical equations are available for the estimation of tc.

– The most commonly used method is, Kirpich Equation (1940), tc = 0.01947 * L 0.77 * S –
0.385; where, t is the time of concentration (in minutes), L is the maximum length of travel of
c
water or the longest flow path (in meters), S is slope of the catchment = ΔH/L, in which, ΔH
is the difference in elevation between the most remote point on the catchment and the
outlet.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 7
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method

• Rainfall intensity (i):

– Rainfall intensity depends upon various factors. First determine time of concentration. Then
compare time of concentration (tc) and rainfall duration (t)
▪ If Tc ≥ t → i =(total rainfall amount)/t.
▪ If Tc < t → i = (total rainfall until Tc)/Tc.

– Rainfall intensify corresponding to duration tc and the desired probability of exceedance P

(i.e. return period, T = 1/P) can also be calculated from rainfall-frequency-duration
𝑲 ∗ 𝑻𝒙
relationship for a given catchment; 𝒊𝒕𝒄 ,𝒑 = 𝒕𝒄 + 𝒂 𝒎
; where: K, a, x and m are constants.
Values of those constants generally used in Nepal can be assumed same as in Northern
India, and they are, K = 5.92, x = 0.162, a = 0.5, n = 1.013.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 8
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method

• Runoff Coefficient (C):

– Value of C depends upon integrated effects of the catchment losses, therefore, depends on
▪ Nature of surface
▪ Surface slope
▪ Rainfall intensity
– Value of C ranges from 0.1 (heavy forest) to 1.0 (rocky and permeable soil). Please refer
Table 7.1 in K. Subramanya book for value of C for various types of areas
– If the catchment is non-homogenous (which is usually the case!), value of C for each sub-
basin can be calculated using weighted average C, where Ci, Ai are runoff coefficient and
catchment area of iTH sub-basin.

C=
 (C A +C 1 1 2 A2 + C3 A3 + ..)
A1 + A2 + A3 + ..

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 9
Rational Method

• Rainfall frequency versus Flood (Peak Q) frequency: Are they equivalent?

– Peak Discharge frequency (for different return periods) can be estimated based on flood
frequency analysis techniques (e.g., Gumbel) [Probabilistic Approach]
– Rainfall frequency can also be estimated using same approach. Then the rainfall of desired
frequency (T yrs) is fed to a Unit Hydrograph to estimate Flood Discharge of T yrs Return
Period [Deterministic Approach]

• In practice, frequencies of storms and floods are NOT necessarily the same, largely due
to factors like …;
– Antecedent moisture condition
– Variability in channel transmission losses
– Overbank storage, etc.
• In practice → take higher among the two (deterministic & probabilistic) estimates.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 10
Estimating Flood Peak – Rational Method

• Question#13: Distribution of rainfall storm for a period of 180 minutes is given below.
The catchment has area of 400 ha of land with a maximum length of travel of 1250 m.
The general slope of the catchment is 0.001 and its runoff coefficient is 0.4. Estimate
the peak flow by rational method.
Duration (min) 20 40 60 180
Rainfall (mm) 50 80 100 120
• Solution:
– A = 400 ha = 4 km2, C = 0.4, L = 1250 m, S = 0.001, Qp = ?
– Using Kirpich equation, Time of concentration 𝑡𝑐 = 0.01947𝐿0.77 𝑆 −0.385 = 67.45 mins.
– Rainfall at 67.45 min (i.e., time of concentration) from given data, by linear interpolation,
120−100
▪ Rainfall = 100 + 𝑥7.45 = 101.24mm
180−60
101.24
– Rainfall intensity (i) at tc = 𝑥60 = 90 mm/hr.
67.45
𝐶𝑖𝐴 0.4𝑥90𝑥4
– Peak flood (Qp), using rational method: 𝑄𝑝 = = = 40 m3/s.
3.6 3.6
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 11
Estimating Flood Peak – Empirical Methods
• Dicken’s Method (1865); 3
Q p = CD A 4

– Where, QP is maximum flood discharge (m3/s); A is catchment area (km2); CD is Dicken’s

constant with value of 6 to 30.
– The value of CD for Nepal can be adopted as in Northern India (6 for plains and 11-14 for
hilly regions)
• R. D. Richard’s Method;
– Q = 0.222 * A * I * F, where, A = basin area (km2), I is rainfall intensity corresponding to
the time of concentration; F is Aerial reduction factor ( = 1.09352 – 0.6628*ln (A)).
– This method is used in Mahakali Irrigation Project.
• Horton’s Method: T 0.25
qtr = 71.2 0.5
A
– where, qtr is the flood equalled or exceeded in T year return period (m3/s/km2); A is
drainage area (km2)

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 12
Estimating Flood Peak – Empirical Methods

• Fuller’s Method
– This method was developed in basins of USA and may be used to estimate flood discharges
in the ungauged basins of Nepal for comparison purpose
– The maximum instantaneous flood discharge as per Fuller’s Method is given by;
–   A   ; where, QT is the maximum 24 hr flood.
−0.3

Qmax = QT 1 + 2  
  2.59  
– With frequency once in T years in m3/s and A as basin area in km2, QT is given by
QT = Qav (1 + 0.8 log (T)),
▪ where Qav is yearly average 24 hour flood over a number of years, and given by,
▪ Qav = Cf * A 0.8, where Cf is Fuller’s Coefficient (= 0.18 to 1.88), with value of 1.03 in an
average for Nepal.

Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 13
Estimating Flood Peak – Empirical Methods

• WECS/DHM Method: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) & DHM has
developed empirical relationships for analysing flood of different return periods;

Q2 =1.8767( A3000 +1) 0.8783

Q100 =14.63( A3000 +1) 0.7342

Where: Q2 and Q100 are floods of 2 and 100 year return periods; A3000 is basin area
(km2) below 3,000 m elevation
T (Years) S
2 0
• For other return periods,
5 0.842
QT = exp (ln Q2 + S ) 10 1.282
25 1.645
Where: QT is flood of T year return period (m3/s),
S = standard normal variate, σ = 50 2.054
ln(Q100/Q2)/2.326 100 2.326
Prof. Vishnu Prasad Pandey | BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L6_3 14
 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#7_1: Flood Routing (1)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6.1, 6.2.1 –
6 distribution; return period; frequency, and risk; Plotting L#6_1 2
6.2.3
position and frequency factors.
Log Pearson III method; Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I
6 6.2.4, 6.2.5 L#6_2 2
method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 2
7. Flood Routing

7.1 Linear Reservoir Routing

7.2 Time Area Method

7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 3

What is Flood Routing?
• The technique of determining the flood hydrograph (time &
magnitude) at a section of a river by utilizing the data of flood
flow at one or more upstream sections is called as Flood
Routing.
• What factors modify hydrograph when it moves from upstream
to downstream?
– Channel storage • Why routing is important?
– Channel resistance – Flood routing are
– Lateral inflows included in hydrologic
– Withdrawal (or abstraction of flows) analysis problems, for
example –
• When a flood wave passes through a reservoir;
▪ Flood forecasting
– Its peak is attenuated
▪ Flood protection
– Its time base is enlarged
▪ Reservoir design
• When flood wave passes down a river & there is no lateral
inflows → Its peak is attenuated due to friction. ▪ Spillway design

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 4

Types of Flood Routing

• Two broad categories of flood routing are;

– Reservoir routing (Hydrologic Routing)
– Channel routing (Hydrologic Routing + Hydraulic Routing)

• Reservoir routing [S = f (O)] [S = f (I, O)]

– It studies the effect of a flood wave entering a S is storage; I is Inflows; O is Outflows

reservoir,
▪ By knowing the volume-elevation characteristics
of the reservoir and the outflow-elevation
relationship for the spillways & other outlet
structures in the reservoir.
▪ To predict design capacity of spillways & outlet
structures
– It helps to predict variation of reservoir
elevation and outflow discharge with time.
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 5
Types of Flood Routing

• Two broad categories of flood routing are;

– Reservoir routing (Hydrologic Routing)
– Channel routing (Hydrologic Routing + Hydraulic Routing)

• Channel routing [S = f (O)] [S = f (I, O)]

S is storage; I is Inflows; O is Outflows
– It studies the changes in the shape of a hydrograph as it
travels down a channel
▪ By considering a channel reach & an input hydrograph at
the upstream end
▪ To predict flood hydrograph at various sections of the
reach
– Channel routing information are useful for flood
forecasting operations

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 6

Linear Reservoir Routing

• In Channel Routing → storage is a function of

both outflow (O) & inflow (I) discharges
– The flow in a river during a flood belongs to the
category of gradually varied, unsteady flow; i.e.,
water surface in a channel reach is;
▪ NOT parallel to the channel bottom
▪ Varies with time (i.e., unsteady)
– Total volume in storage can be considered under
two categories
▪ Prism storage: volume of water that would exist
if uniform flow occurred; i.e. volume formed by an Fig.: Storage in a channel reach
imaginary plane parallel to channel bottom
▪ Wedge storage: wedge-like volume formed
between the actual water surface profile & the
top surface of the prism storage.
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 7
Linear Reservoir Routing
• At a fixed depth at a downstream section of a river reach, the prism storage is constant while the
wedge storage changes from
– a positive value at an advancing flood to a negative value during a receding flood.
• The prism storage (Sp) is similar to a reservoir and
– can be expressed as a function of the outflow discharge (Q); Sp = f (Q)
• The wedge storage (Sw) can be accounted for as a function of Inflow; Sw = f (I).
• Total storage in a channel reach can be expressed as;
– S = K [x * Im + (1 – x) * Qm]; where K and x are coefficients and m is a constant exponent.
▪ The value of m varies from 0.6 for rectangular channels to a value of about 1.0 for natural channels
• If we take m = 1, then total storage in a channel is reduced to a linear relationship for S in terms
of I & Q only: S = K [x*I + (1-x)*Q] → This is known as Muskingum Equation.
• The x is known as weighing factor, with for natural channel in a range of 0 to 0.3.
– When x = 0, storage is the function of discharge only; S = KQ (i.e., storage is directly proportional to
discharge) → Such a storage is known as linear storage or linear reservoir.
– When x = 0.5, both inflow & outflow are equally important in determining Storage.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 8

Linear Reservoir Routing

• The parameter “K” is known as storage-time constant. It has dimension of time.

– It is equal (approx.) to the time of travel of a flood wave through the channel reach.

• Muskingum Method of Routing is called Linear Reservoir Routing method.

• The continuity equation for the reach; I – O = dS/dt →
𝐼1 +𝐼2 𝑂 +𝑂
– 2
∆𝑡 − 1 2 2 ∆𝑡 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ; where I is inflow, O is outflow, S is storage, 1 and 2
denote beginning & end of time, Δt is time interval, which should be sufficiently short so that
inflow & outflow hydrographs can be assumed to be straight line in that time interval.
• According to Muskingum method, for a given channel reach by selecting a routing
interval Δt, the change in storage is;
– S2 – S1 = K [x*(I2 – I1) + (1-x) (O2 – O1)]

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 9

Linear Reservoir Routing

• As both continuity equation and Muskingum equation have “change in storage” as

common term on one side, equating them, we will get a simple linear equation for
channel routing as: O2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2O1; where, C0, C1, C2 are dimensionless
coefficients with C0 + C1 + C2 = 1.

• The values of the coefficients in earlier equation are estimated by;

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 10

Linear Reservoir Routing

Fig.: Hydrologic Routing

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 11

Linear Reservoir Routing
• Question#14: Route the following hydrograph through a rive reach for which K = 12
hrs and x = 0.20. A the start the inflow flood, the outflow discharge is 10 m3/s.
Estimate Attenuation & lag of peak as well.
T, hr 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
Inflow, I (m3/s) 10 20 50 60 55 45 35 27 20 15

Linear equation for channel routing → O2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2O1

O
SN T, hr Inflow, I (m3/s) C0I2 C1I1 C2O1
(m3/s)
1 0 10 10.00
2 6
3 12
4 18
… …
10 54
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 12
Linear Reservoir Routing
• Question#14: Route the following hydrograph through a rive reach for which K = 12
hrs and x = 0.20. A the start the inflow flood, the outflow discharge is 10 m3/s.
Estimate Attenuation & lag of peak as well.
T, hr 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
Inflow, I (m3/s) 10 20 50 60 55 45 35 27 20 15
• Here, first we need to calculate C0, C1 & C2 using;

• This gives, C0 = 0.048; C1 =0.429, and C2=0.524

• Using these values and linear equation for channel routing (i.e., O2 = C0I2 + C1I1 +
C2O1), we will get outflow hydrograph as indicated in next slide.
• After looking in the table as well as Inflow & Outflow hydrograph plot, we can get;
– Attenuation of peak flood = 60.00 – 49.68 = 10.32 m3/s
– Peak lag time = 30 – 18 = 12 hrs.
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 13
Linear Reservoir Routing
• Question#14: Route the following hydrograph through a rive reach for which K = 12 hrs
and x = 0.20. A the start the inflow flood, the outflow discharge is 10 m3/s. Estimate
Attenuation & lag of peak as well.
T, hr 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
Inflow, I (m3/s) 10 20 50 60 55 45 35 27 20 15

Inflow, I O
SN T, hr C0I2 C1I1 C2O1
(m3/s) (m3/s)
1 0 10 10.00
2 6 20 0.96 4.29 5.24 10.49
3 12 50 2.40 8.58 5.50 16.48
4 18 60 2.88 21.45 8.63 32.96
5 24 55 2.64 25.74 17.27 45.65
6 30 45 2.16 23.60 23.92 49.68
7 36 35 1.68 19.31 26.03 47.02
8 42 27 1.30 15.02 24.64 40.95
9 48 20 0.96 11.58 21.46 34.00
10 54 15 0.72 8.58 17.82 27.12

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_1 14

 Engineering Hydrology (CE 606)

Vishnu Prasad Pandey, PhD

Professor – Civil Engineering (Water Resources)

Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
E: vishnu.pandey@pcampus.edu.np

Lecture#7_2: Flood Routing (2)

Course Delivery Plan [Vishnu Pandey’s Part]
Chapter Contents Lecture Hrs
3.1, 3.2
3 Initial losses; Evaporation processes L#3_1 2
(partly)
3.2 (partly), Actual evapotranspiration and Lysimeters; Potential
3 L#3_2 2
3.3 evapotranspiration (Penamn’s equation)
Infiltration – Horton’s equation; infiltration indices;
3 3.4 L#3_3 2
infiltrometers
Design flood and its frequency; continuous probability
6.1, 6.2.1 –
6 distribution; return period; frequency, and risk; Plotting L#6_1 2
6.2.3
position and frequency factors.
Log Pearson III method; Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I
6 6.2.4, 6.2.5 L#6_2 2
method
6 6.3 Flood frequency by Rational and Empirical methods L#6_3 2
7 7.1 Linear reservoir routing L#7_1 2
7 7.2 Time area method L#7_2 2
7 7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph L#7_3 2
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 2
7. Flood Routing

7.1 Linear Reservoir Routing

7.2 Time Area Method

7.3 Clark Unit Hydrograph

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 3

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH

• Time area method or time-area histogram method, also known as Clark’s method,
– aims to develop an Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH)
▪ due to an instantaneous rainfall excess over a catchment.
• This Clark’s method considers two processes in the transformation of excess precipitation
to runoff;
– Translation or movement of excess rainfall from its origin to the watershed outlet (effect of
time, time here refers to time of concentration)
– Attenuation or reduction of the magnitude of the discharge (effect of storage)
• The translation is achieved by a travel time-area histogram,
– It specifies watershed area contributing to flow at the outlet as a function of time.
• The attenuation by routing the results of the above
– through a linear reservoir at the catchment outlet

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 4

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH
• If points on the area having equal time of
travel (say, t1 hour, where, t1 < tc), are
considered and located on a map of the
catchment, a line joining them is called as
“Isochrone (or runoff Isochrone)”
– The catchment is divided into sub-areas by
Isochrones having an equal time interval
(∆t).
• Procedure for constructing time-area
histogram Fig.: Conceptual Method for Clark’s Method

– Find the longest path (L) of the river and plot its profile as longitudinal section (elevation vs
distance).
– Divide L into number of equal segments “n” as the number of blocks of time-area histogram
to be prepared. If a basin is divided into n time-area histograms, then –

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 5

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH

• Procedure for constructing time-area histogram

𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝒏
–𝒍= 𝟎.𝟓 = =⋯= ; where, l1, l2, … ln are the length segments with their sum
𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎.𝟓 𝑺𝒏 𝟎.𝟓
equal to 1; and S1, S2, … Sn are slopes of the segments. The basic assumption made here is
𝑙
that the time of travel of any elemental area is proportional to 𝑖0.5
𝑆 𝑖

– Find the time of travel. This is the distance between the end of excess rainfall hyetograph
and the point of inflection of recession limb of direct runoff hydrograph.
– Repeat the procedure for the tributaries.
– Draw isochrones passing through points at l distance apart.
– Measure the area enclosed by successive isochrones.
– Plot a bar graph showing area vs time.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 6

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH

• With the linear reservoir model, storage at time t is related to outflow as, S = K*O,
where, K is the storage time constant.
𝑑𝑆
• Also the continuity equation is, 𝑑𝑡
=I−O
𝑑O 1
• From these two equation, = I−O
𝑑𝑡 𝐾
• For time interval ∆𝑡, the equation can be expressed as (t is tc)
𝑂2 −𝑂1 1 𝐼1 +𝐼2 𝑂1 +𝑂2
– =𝐾 −
∆𝑡 2 2
0.5∆𝑡
– 𝑂2 − 𝑂1 = 𝐾 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝑂1 − 𝑂2 How to
0.5∆𝑡 0.5∆𝑡 0.5∆𝑡 0.5∆𝑡 calculate
– 𝑂2 1 + = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝑂1 1 − Inflow (I)
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾 𝐾

– 𝑂2 =
0.5∆𝑡
𝐼1 +
0.5∆𝑡
𝐼2 +
𝐾−0.5∆𝑡
𝑂 → 𝑶𝟐 = 𝑪𝟎 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟏 between
𝐾+0.5∆𝑡 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡 1
Isochornes?
0.5∆𝑡 𝐾−0.5∆𝑡 (Muskingum Routing Equation)
– Where 𝐶0 = 𝐶1 = 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡 , 𝐶2 = 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡
BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 7
Time Area Method & Clark’s UH

• The inflow rate between an inter-isochrone area Ar (km2) with time interval Δt (hr) and
1cm excess rainfall is;

𝐴𝑟 𝑥106 𝑥10−2 𝐴
– 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝐼) = = 2.78 ∆𝑡𝑟 m3/s
3600𝑥∆𝑡
– Since inflows are derived from the histogram, I1= I2 for each interval. Also, as
shown earlier, C0 = C1;
– Therefore; ordinates of IUH can be calculated as; 𝑶𝟐 = 𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟏

• Routing of the time-area histogram by above equation gives

– the ordinates of IUH for the catchment.
• Using this IUH, any other D-h unit hydrograph can be derived.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 8

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH

• Question#15: A drainage basin has the following characteristics: Area = 110 km2, time
of concentration = 18 h, storage constant = 12 h, and inter-isochrones are distribution
as below. Determine IUH for this catchment.
Travel time, t (h) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Inter-Iso-Chrome area, Ar (km2) 0 3 9 20 22 16 18 10 8 4

• For determining IUH for the catchment with A = 110 km2, tc = 18 hr, K = 12 hr, and Δtc
0.5∆𝑡 𝐾−0.5∆𝑡
as 2 hrs, we need to calculate C1 & C2 using: 𝐶1 = 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡 , 𝐶2 = 𝐾+0.5∆𝑡
𝐴
• Similarly, Inflows at each time-interval can be calculated as: 𝐼 = 2.78 ∆𝑡𝑟 m3/s
• Outflows or Ordinates of IUH can be calculated as: 𝑶𝟐 = 𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟏
• The results – ordinates in Table & IUH plot – are shown in next slide.

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 9

Time Area Method & Clark’s UH
Travel Inter-Iso- Ordinat
time, Chrome area, I (m3/s) 2C1I1 C2O1 e of IUH
t (h) Ar (km2) (m3/s)
0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 3 4.17 0.64 0.00 0.64
4 9 12.51 1.92 0.54 2.47
6 20 27.80 4.28 2.09 6.36
8 22 30.58 4.70 5.39 10.09
10 16 22.24 3.42 8.54 11.96
12 18 25.02 3.85 10.12 13.97
14 10 13.90 2.14 11.82 13.96
16 8 11.12 1.71 11.81 13.52
18 4 5.56 0.86 11.44 12.30
20 0 0 0 10.40 10.40
22 8.80 8.80
24 7.45 7.45
26 6.30 6.30
28 5.33 5.33
30 4.51 4.51

BE (Civil) | IOE/TU - Nepal | Engineering Hydrology Course | L7_2 10