General Physics II
(PHYS 121)
Chapter 16
(Waves – I)
Reference: Principles of Physics by J. Walker, D. Halliday, and R. Resnick, WILEY, 10TH Edition, 2014
16. Wave I
Contents:
16.1 Transverse Waves: Types of waves, Transverse and Longitudinal
Waves, Wavelength and Frequency, The Speed of a Traveling
Waves
16.2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
16.3 Energy and Power of a Wave Travelling Along a String
16.5 Interference of Waves: The Principle of Superposition of Waves
16.7 Standing waves and Resonance: Standing Waves
16.1 Types of Waves
1. Mechanical Waves: They are governed by Newton’s laws, and they can
exist only within a material medium, such as water, air, and rock.
Examples: water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.
2. Electromagnetic waves: These waves require no material medium to
exist. Light waves from stars, for example, travel through the vacuum of
space to reach us. All electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at
the same speed c = 299 792 458 m/s.
3. Matter waves: These waves are associated with electrons, protons, and
other fundamental particles, and even atoms and molecules. Because we
commonly think of these particles as constituting matter, such waves are
called matter waves.
16.1 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string (Figure
(a)). A typical string element moves up and down
continuously perpendicular to direction of wave.
This wave is said to be transverse wave.
A sound wave is set up in an air- filled pipe by
moving a piston back and forth (Figure (b)). (a) Transverse
Wave
Because the oscillations of an element of the air
(represented by the dot) are parallel to the direction
in which the wave travels, the wave is a
longitudinal wave.
(b) Longitudinal
Wave
16.1 Wavelength and Frequency (Transverse Waves)
Displacement of a particle in transverse wave is given by
Here k is angular wave number = 2/
Amplitude and phase Wavelength and Angular Wave Number
The amplitude ym of a wave, is the The wavelength of a wave is the distance
magnitude of the maximum (parallel to the direction of the wave’s travel)
displacement of the elements from between repetitions of the shape of the wave (or
their equilibrium positions as the wave shape).
wave passes through them. A sine function begins to repeat itself when its
angle (or argument) is increased by 2 rad, so we
The phase of the wave is the must have k = 2 , or
argument (kx - t ) of the sine in Eq.
of displacement. As the wave sweeps
through a string element at a particular
position x. We call k the angular wave number of the wave;
its SI unit is the radian per meter, or the inverse
meter. (Note that the symbol k here does not
represent a spring constant as previously.)
Period, Angular Frequency, and Frequency
We define the period of oscillation T of a wave to be the time any string element
takes to move through one full oscillation.
We call the angular frequency of the wave; its SI unit is the radian per second.
The frequency f of a wave is defined as 1/T and is related to the angular
frequency by
16.1 The Speed of a Traveling Wave
Two snapshots of the wave: at
time t = 0, and then at time t=Δt.
As the wave moves to the right
at velocity ν, the entire curve
shifts a distance Δx during Δt.
Ex. 16.02, P. No. 399
Answer a) 2,3,1 ; b) 3, 1 and 2 tie
16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
The speed of a wave on a stretched string is set by properties of the string (i.e. linear
density), not properties of the wave such as frequency or amplitude. Tau is the tension (in
N) in the string. m
(linear density)
l
3. (a) same (independent of f); (b) decrease (l = v/f ); (c) increase; (d) increase
16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
String
• When we set up a wave on a stretched string, we provide energy for the
motion of the string. As the wave moves away from us, it transports that
energy as both kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.
• The Rate of Energy Transmission The kinetic energy dK associated with a
string element of mass dm is given by
𝟏
𝒅𝑲 = 𝒅𝒎𝒖𝟐
𝟐
where u is the transverse speed of the oscillating string element
16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String
The average power of, or average rate at which energy is transmitted by, a
sinusoidal wave on a stretched string is given by
𝟏
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐 𝒚𝟐𝒎
𝟐
The factors μ and ν in this equation depend on the material and tension of the
string. The factors ω and ym depend on the process that generates the wave.
16.5 Principle of superposition of waves
Interference is the result of combining two or more
waves pass simultaneously through the same region.
When we listen to a concert, for example, sound waves
from many instruments fall simultaneously on our
eardrums.
Suppose that two waves travel simultaneously along the
same stretched string. Let y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) be the
displacements that the string would experience if each
wave traveled alone. The displacement of the string
when the waves overlap is then the algebraic sum
𝑦 ′ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡
1. Constructive interference occurs when wave pulses are both
positive or both negative and the resultant amplitude is greater than
the amplitudes of the individual waves
2. Destructive interference occurs when wave pulses are
opposite in direction and the resultant amplitude is a partial or
whole cancellation of the amplitudes of the individual waves
Superposition of Sinusoidal Waves
1. Same phase but different amplitudes
2. Different phase but same amplitude
Sample Problem 16.04
Solution
16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance
The interference of two identical
sinusoidal waves moving in
opposite directions produces
standing waves.
If waves of equal amplitude and
frequency 180° out of phase but
traveling in opposite directions,
The resultant wave is stationary wave oscillates in
place, i.e. The amplitude of the resultant standing
wave at any point, x, is 2ym sin kx
Differences between traveling and standing waves
a) Traveling waves oscillate with same amplitude and frequency of wave generator
for all string elements.
b) Standing waves oscillate with same frequency as wave generator, but with
resultant amplitude of combined waves and is varying with position, x.
c) Traveling waves appear to move; standing waves appear to oscillate in place
Nodes and Antinodes
1. nodes occur when amplitude is zero, if sin (kx) = 0 implies no transverse motion at all.
2𝜋
Nodes are located at kx = n𝜋 then 𝑥 = n𝜋
𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝑥=
2
n = 0,1,2… (number of nodes)
𝝀
distance between adjacent nodes =
𝟐
2. antinodes occur when amplitude is a maximum, sin (kx) = ± 1
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 (2𝑛+1)𝜋
this implies that k𝑥 = , , …
2 2 2 2
2𝜋 (2𝑛+1)𝜋
then 𝑥 =
𝜆 2
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
𝑥= , n = 0,1,2… (number of antinodes)
4
𝝀
distance between adjacent antinodes =
𝟐
𝝀
distance between adjacent node and antinode =
𝟒
Standing Waves and Resonance:
Consider a string of length, L, linear density, ( = mass(m)/ length(L)) fixed at both
ends with tension, T. The string oscillates in one end with the other end fixed. Incident
and reflected, out of phase, waves are generating and interfering to produce standing
wave, as shown in the figures.
For certain frequencies, the interference produces a standing wave pattern (or oscillation
mode) with nodes and large antinodes like those in Fig. Such a standing wave is said to
be produced at resonance, and the string is said to resonate at these certain frequencies,
called resonant frequencies. If the string is oscillated at some frequency other than a
resonant frequency, a standing wave is not set up. Then the interference of the right-going
and left-going traveling waves results in only small (perhaps imperceptible) oscillations
of the string.
Sample problem 16.06
Solution
29
Major Equations
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 𝜆
1. 10. 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1Τ2
2
𝜔
2. 𝑣 = = = T 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛
𝜆
𝑘 𝑇 11.
2𝜋
2
𝑘= Distance between two consecutive
3. 12.
4. 𝜔=
2𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑓 node or antinode = /2
𝑇
1 13. Distance between two adjacent
5. 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 𝑦𝑚
2
2 node and antinode = /4
∅ ∅
6. 𝑦′(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑦𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝐿
2 2 14. =
′ = 2𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝑛
7. 𝑦𝑚 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑓
2 15.
8. 𝑦′ = 2𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
′ = 2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 𝑇
9. 𝑦𝑚 𝑚 16. 𝑣=
𝜇
𝑚
17. 𝜇=
𝐿
