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CIE A Level Physics Your notes
8.1 Stationary Waves
Contents
T he Principle of Superposition
Stationary Waves
Wavelength of Stationary Waves
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The Principle of Superposition
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The Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that:
When two or more waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the
displacements of the individual waves
This principle describes how waves which meet at a point in space interact
When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude arrive at a point, they superpose either:
in phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on both waves.
The resultant wave has double the amplitude
or, in anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave line up with the
troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
Constructive and destructive interference
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Your notes
Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference
The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e. transverse and longitudinal
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Worked example
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Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The variation with x and y
displacement of the wave is shown in the figure below.
Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.
Answer:
The graph of the superposition of both waves is in black:
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Your notes
To plot the correct amplitude at each point, sum the amplitude of both graphs at that point
E.g. A point A, each graph has a value of 0.7. Therefore, the same point with the resultant
superposition is 2 × 0.7 = 1.4
Exam Tip
The best way to draw the superposition of two waves is to find where the superimposed wave
has its maximum and minimum amplitudes. It is then a case of joining them up to form the wave.
Where the waves intersect determines how much constructive or destructive interference will
occur.
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Stationary Waves
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Stationary Waves
Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the superposition of two waves of the
same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The superposition produces a wave
pattern where the peaks and troughs do not move
Formation of a stationary wave
Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end
Stretched strings
Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound
This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins, work
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This can be demonstrated by a length of string under tension fixed at one end and vibrations
made by an oscillator:
Your notes
Standing wave experiment
Stationary wave on a stretched string kept taut by a mass and pulley system
As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers of minima
(nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form
Microwaves
A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting plate and a small detector between the two
The reflector can be moved to and from the source to vary the stationary wave pattern formed
By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) of the
stationary wave pattern
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Your notes
Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves
Air Columns
The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by sound waves
This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and organs, work
This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a loudspeaker at the
open end
At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube, showing where
there is z ero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary wave
Stationary waves in an air column
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Your notes
Stationary waves can be seen in air columns using dry power
In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end and a maxima
(antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker
Exam Tip
Always refer back to the experiment or scenario in an exam question e.g. the wave produced by a
loudspeaker reflects at the end of a tube. This reflected wave, with the same frequency,
overlaps the initial wave to create a stationary wave.
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Formation of Stationary Waves
A stationary wave is made up of nodes and antinodes Your notes
Nodes are where there is no vibration
Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum amplitude
The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and antinodes only
move in the vertical direction
Between nodes, all points on the stationary are in phase
The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a stationary wave at a point in
time
Nodes and antinodes on a stationary wave
Nodes are points of zero amplitude, anti-nodes are points of maximum amplitude
L is the length of the string
1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string
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Worked example
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A stretched string is used to demonstrate a stationary wave, as shown in the diagram.
Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X and Y?
Length L Point X Point Y
A 5 wavelengths Node Antinode
1
B 2 wavelengths Antinode Node
2
1
C 2 wavelengths Node Antinode
2
D 5 wavelengths Antinode Node
Answer: C
Step 1: Determine the number of wavelengths in the length of the string
1
The string has 2 wavelengths
2
This rules out A and D
Step 2: Determine points X and Y
X is a point of 0 displacement - a node
Y is a point of maximum displacement - an antinode
Therefore, the correct row is C
Exam Tip
The lengths of the strings will only be in whole or ½ wavelengths. For example, a wavelength could
be made up of 3 nodes and 2 antinodes or 2 nodes and 3 antinodes.
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Wavelength of Stationary Waves
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Measuring Wavelength
Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of the vibration and
the situation in which they are created
Two fixed ends
When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both ends, the simplest wave pattern
is a single loop made up of two nodes and an antinode
This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the first harmonic
The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of standing waves possible in the string
depend on its length L and its speed v
As you increase the frequency, the higher harmonics begin to appear
The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave equation
Wavelength and frequencies of different harmonics
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Your notes
Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string with corresponding frequencies
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The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1 nodes Your notes
One or two open ends in an air column
When a stationary wave is formed in an air column with one or two open ends, we see slightly
different wave patterns in each
Harmonics in an air column
Diagram showing modes of vibration in pipes with one end closed and the other open or both ends open
Image 1 shows stationary waves in a column which is closed at one end
At the closed end, a node forms
At the open end, an antinode forms
Therefore, the fundamental mode is made up of a quarter wavelength with one node and one
antinode
Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
Hence, only odd harmonics form
Image 2 shows stationary waves in a column which is open at both ends
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An antinode forms at each open end
Therefore, the fundamental mode is made up of a half wavelength with one node and two
antinodes Your notes
Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node and an antinode
Hence, odd and even harmonics can form
In summary, a column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and resonant frequency f for stationary
waves to appear is as follows:
Air Column Length & Frequencies Summary Table
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Worked example
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A standing wave is set up in a column of length L when a loudspeaker placed at one end emits a
sound wave of frequency f. The column is closed at the other end. The speed of sound is 340 m
s −1.
For a column of length 7.5 m, what is the frequency of the second lowest note produced?
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the positions of the nodes and antinodes
One end of the column is closed, and the loudspeaker represents an open end
Hence, an antinode forms at the loudspeaker (open end) and a node forms at the closed
end
The fundamental frequency represents the lowest note - this would be 1 node and 1 antinode
So, the second-lowest note must have 2 nodes and 2 antinodes
Step 2: Write an expression for the length of the sound wave in the column
3
In the column, there is a quarter wavelength and a half wavelength, or λ
4
Therefore the length of the column is:
3λ
L=
4
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nλ
Note: for a column with an open and closed end, L = , this would represent the third
4 Your notes
harmonic (n = 3)
Step 3: Determine the wavelength of the second lowest note
4L 4 × 7.5
λ= = = 10 m
3 3
Step 4: Calculate the frequency using the wave equation
v = fλ
v 340
f = = = 34 Hz
λ 10
3v
Note: you could combine steps 3 and 4 by using the expression f =
4L
Exam Tip
The fundamental counts as the first harmonic or n = 1 and is the lowest frequency with half or
quarter of a wavelength. A full wavelength with both ends open or both ends closed is the
second harmonic. Make sure to match the correct wavelength with the harmonic asked for in the
question!
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