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Cement and Concrete Composites 152 (2024) 105663
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp
Alternative concrete aggregates - Review of physical and mechanical

properties and successful applications
Sara Dias a,b,* , João Almeida b,c , António Tadeu a,b, Jorge de Brito d
a
University of Coimbra, CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbra, Portugal
b
Itecons, Coimbra, Portugal
c
University of Coimbra, CERIS, Coimbra, Portugal
d
CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials, yet its production is associated with significant
Circular economy environmental impacts. One approach to mitigate such impacts is to use alternative aggregates. However, the
Sustainable construction limited knowledge about the availability and benefits of these unconventional materials, as well as concerns
Waste-cement composites
about their quality and performance, have hindered their adoption. This paper aims to analyse the potential
Unconventional concrete materials
benefits and limitations of using alternative aggregates in concrete by reviewing examples from three primary
sources: construction and demolition waste (CDW), end-of-life materials (i.e., tyre rubber, glass, and plastic), and
forest and agricultural waste (i.e., rice husk, wood, and hemp). First, the main sources and treatment needs are
analysed. Then, a comprehensive macro analysis is provided on the physical and mechanical properties of
concrete materials, discussing the results in terms of the aggregate nature and substitution ranges. The collected
experimental data are also compared with estimations based on different models from two published codes,
suggesting that more specific design-oriented models need to be developed to relate concrete’s physical and
mechanical properties using different waste-type aggregate replacements. Selected data analyses are presented to
help the readers obtain the optimum content for specific structural or non-structural applications. Examples of
successful application of alternative aggregates in construction projects and products are also provided and
discussed.
1. Introduction land for quarrying has been associated with biodiversity reduction,
noise pollution, and health problems mainly due to soil erosion and the
Concrete is an important material for constructing buildings and release of dust into the air and water [7].
infrastructure and is sometimes irreplaceable. It is the most consumed According to the European Aggregates Association (UEPG) [8], the
material after water and the most consumed man-made material in the tendency in recent years has been to increase the share of recycled and
world [1], with a consumption rate of 14 billion m3 in 2020 [2]. Its re-use aggregates. However, it is still a small fraction. In 2021, Europe’s
consumption is not likely to decrease in the coming years; on the con- share of recycled and re-use aggregates was 9.3 %, while for crushed
trary, with the population predicted to increase and the consequent need rock, sand, and gravel, it was 46.9 % and 39.7 %, respectively [9]. The
for infrastructure, the demand for concrete is expected to grow yearly. Global Aggregates Information Network (GAIN), a coalition of aggre-
There are concerns about the environmental impact of concrete gates associations worldwide, accounted for 44 billion tonnes of global
production, particularly in terms of natural resource depletion and high aggregates production in 2019 [10]. China is responsible for 50 % of the
carbon dioxide emissions [3,4]. Portland cement is the concrete con- worldwide output. Continued population and economic growth,
stituent that contributes the most to carbon dioxide emissions, which is particularly in Asia, will likely drive global aggregate demand to 50–55
why it is the focus of strategies for creating a greener concrete industry billion tonnes by 2030 [10]. This increasing demand forces the
[5]. Nevertheless, natural aggregates are not renewable, and their replacement of natural aggregates with alternative ones. Since the
exploitation causes significant environmental impacts [6]. Removal of aggregate deficit coincides with increasing waste production, using
* Corresponding author. University of Coimbra, CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbra, Portugal.
E-mail address: sara.dias@itecons.uc.pt (S. Dias).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.105663
Received 14 January 2024; Received in revised form 20 June 2024; Accepted 9 July 2024
Available online 10 July 2024
0958-9465/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
S. Dias et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 152 (2024) 105663
waste materials and by-products as aggregates could minimize the readers determine the optimal content for specific structural or
concrete industry’s environmental impact [6]. Given this, research has non-structural applications. Besides, selected construction projects and
been carried out to study the use of waste and recycled materials in products are also presented and discussed to emphasize the feasibility of
concrete mixes, but these approaches have not been implemented on a using these alternative aggregates in specific concrete applications.
large scale. Focusing on successful applications of these materials could lead to
This paper comprehensively examines materials from three groups of adopting more circular economy strategies and, consequently, to a more
alternative aggregates (demolition waste (CDW), end-of-life manufac- sustainable construction sector.
tured materials waste, and forest/agricultural waste). Their potential
benefits are highlighted, as well as some possible limitations. Sources 2. Alternative aggregates for concrete
and treatments of the aggregates are analysed, and the most relevant
properties published in the literature are discussed. This review holds In the following subsections, the three groups of materials targeted in
significant importance within the scope of sustainable construction this review (CDW, end-of-life manufactured materials waste, and forest/
practices. With the increasing global concern over environmental agricultural waste) are introduced, highlighting the sources, main fea-
degradation and resource depletion, the exploitation of alternative ag- tures, advantages and limitations of selected waste materials within
gregates presents a promising path for reducing our dependency on each one, and identifying, when relevant, the need for further study.
traditional raw materials while simultaneously diverting waste from Based on this review, a final subsection compares and discusses the most
landfills. Furthermore, understanding these alternative aggregates’ po- common sources and treatment needs for these alternative aggregates,
tential benefits and limitations is crucial to assist decision-making pro- the properties of the resulting concrete materials, depending on different
cesses in construction projects, aiming at more environmentally substitution ranges, and the strengths, weaknesses, and challenges.
responsible and resource-efficient building practices.
The selection of materials for this review was based on several as- 2.1. Construction and demolition waste
pects. First, the literature has strong evidence that they can effectively
replace natural aggregates in concrete production. Second, they are Construction and demolition waste materials are essentially any-
substantial in terms of waste streams, and their use in concrete appli- thing produced during the construction, renovation, or demolition
cations could make a noteworthy contribution to the circular economy. process that is no longer viable for use [49] (Fig. 1).
Finally, these waste materials are not often used to produce more According to 2018 data [36], China was the country that produced
valuable products. Note that a number of alternative aggregates could the largest absolute amount of CDW in the world (2360 million tonnes),
have been selected, for example, from marine sources [11–14], metal- followed by the United States of America (600 million tonnes) and India
lurgical industry [15–19], ceramic industry [20–24], coal industry [25, (530 million tonnes). However, if the analysis considers the population
26], desert or sea sandbanks [27,28], and artificial aggregate production size (tonne/capita), which, for some purposes, is a more realistic com-
[29–32], but those are beyond the scope of this work. Also beyond the parison. In that case, the European countries lead the ranking. The
scope of this work are the potential synergetic effects of incorporating United States of America (1.8) and China (1.7) are the first
various types of waste. Although studies on the combined utilization of non-European countries in the ranking. With the population increasing,
wastes are limited [33–35], they have recently started to emerge. Mixing this problem will tend to worsen.
different wastes into concrete or cement composites is an interesting Some authors report that approximately 35 % of the global CDW was
approach but also more complex to analyse. The combination of mul- landfilled [50–53], although this percentage might be higher since large
tiple waste materials makes it more challenging to draw definitive countries like China have very low recycling ratios (about 5 %) [54].
conclusions and adds additional unknown factors to the system. Until 2010, some European Union countries had a recovery ratio of CDW
Consequently, determining the optimal waste content in terms of fresh below 10 % [55]; consequently, the European Commission identified
and hardened state properties becomes more difficult and requires more CDW as a priority waste stream [55]. According to the European Com-
extensive experimental campaigns. mission [55], the EU countries presented a recovery ratio of CDW of 89
By exploring alternative aggregates, this work can present a sys- % in 2020, achieving the target of 70 % reuse and recycling set for 2020.
tematic analysis of their properties and potential applications, thereby However, the recovery data of the mineral CDW considers reuse, recy-
contributing to a broader implementation of sustainable construction cling and backfilling operations, too, which could be misleading. In fact,
practices. While a wider range of materials from each group was this milestone was achieved mainly by backfilling and low-value re-
considered, only those with more published research and known ap- covery applications, reducing the potential to move towards genuinely
plications were investigated deeply. There are several review articles on circular waste management [56]. For instance, Portugal’s low recycling
the use of different types of aggregates in concrete, with particular ratio and heavy reliance on landfills for dealing with CDW have resulted
emphasis on CDW [36–38], rubber [39–42], plastic [43,44], and glass in a negative waste hierarchy index of 39 %.
[45,46]. These materials are among the most extensively studied for The EU Directives enforced the use of coarse recycled aggregates
incorporation into concrete. Most reviews focus on the mechanical from CDW in concrete production, but this practice still needs to be
properties of these aggregates, highlighting their strengths, weaknesses, improved. Pacheco and de Brito [57] state that legislation and project
and the challenges of aggregate substitution. Recently, a few studies [47,
48] have evaluated broader sets of concrete incorporating various types
of waste-based aggregates (plastic rubber and glass). The present review
goes further by including organic materials such as rice husk, hemp and
wood, which have gained interest due to their natural origin and CO2
sequestration potential. This inclusion provides a comprehensive range
of waste aggregates and broadens the potential applications. The study
begins by presenting each group and type of aggregate, then discusses
their sources and the most relevant properties. A comprehensive macro
analysis is provided on the physical and mechanical properties of con-
crete materials, discussing the results in terms of the aggregate nature
and substitution ranges. In this discussion, experimental data from the
literature are combined with estimations based on different models from
two published codes. Selected data analyses are presented to help Fig. 1. CDW sample.
2
Fig. 2. Samples of end-of-life manufactured materials with potential as alternative materials for natural aggregates: a) Tyre rubber; b) Glass; c) Plastic.
requirements will follow the need for circularity, and coarse recycled are generated annually [66]. Four huge environmental concerns are
aggregates will be part of the concrete industry in the future. CDW plants linked to the accumulation of this waste: severe tyre fires with heavily
must be prepared to respond to this need [57]. The market of recycled toxic smoke, leachates containing harmful, toxic chemical compounds,
concrete aggregate (RCA) depends on the assurance of a continuous breeding grounds for pest species, and land use [42,66]. Considering the
supply of RCA to the concrete industry and the fulfilment of the quality abundance of rubber waste generated and the risks related to stock-
requirements. Several authors [57–62] have presented approaches to piling, incorporating this waste in concrete has proved to be a feasible
improve the quality of RCA and mitigate their heterogeneity. However, option (Fig. 2a). Mixes with rubber crumbs are much more common.
little development has been observed in existing standards and specifi- The literature shows that using rubber instead of natural aggregates
cations concerning the effect of recycled aggregates (RA) on the prop- could cause a decrease in workability [67], which is probably related to
erties of concrete [63]. the higher water absorption of rubber compared to mineral aggregates
According to bibliometric research (from 1465 works) by Sanda- [68], and a reduction of mechanical properties, particularly compressive
nayake et al. [64], fly ash and recycled aggregate used in concrete strength. Girskas and Nagrockiene [69] show that substituting 20 wt%
production were the two main waste materials extensively researched in of fine aggregate with crumb rubber causes the compressive strength to
the last ten years. Despite this huge amount of knowledge gathered over drop 68 %. Other studies corroborate this conclusion, showing that
the years, work still needs to be done. using rubber in the mix significantly reduces the compressive strength
In conclusion, if backfilling is no longer possible, high levels of [40,41,70,71]. However, this reduction can be overcome with
segregation and advanced plants will be needed to increase the recycling pre-treatments [40,72–74]. Other studies highlight the increase in dry-
ratio of CDW. The future lies in the concrete industry, especially con- ing shrinkage and water absorption chloride ion penetration depth [68,
crete plants, which are progressing and investing in quality RCA 70,75,76].
production. Nevertheless, at the same time, the use of rubber as a natural
aggregate substitute can also show better properties than those of con-
ventional concrete. Those advantages are expected to emerge for ap-
2.2. End-of life manufactured materials plications that benefit from lower matrix density [77], higher ductility
and toughness [78,79], higher damping ratio [80], improved impact
The environmental problem demands new end-of-life materials ap- load resistance [81], higher thermal and sound insulation [82,83],
plications to contribute to a more circular economy. According to Fer- increased strain capacity and improved energy absorption [68,84].
dous et al. [65], 75 % of tyres, 55 % of plastics, and 75 % of glass wastes Despite all the research, the practical use of rubber concrete in real
are currently disposed of in landfills around the world, contributing to a constructions seems too little. Youssf et al. [84] consider understanding
substantial environmental burden. The use of these end-of-life materials these composites’ performance in real-world structures essential. More
in new construction products, integrated specifically into concrete and recently, other concrete construction elements that incorporated rubber,
other cement composites, has been investigated. Fig. 2 shows samples of developed under laboratory conditions, have been further studied
these wastes. [85–89].
c) This gap between research and the market reveals specific barriers
that limit the application of rubberized concrete in the construction
2.2.1. Tyres rubber industry. Kara De Maeijer et al. [90] identified the four major obstacles
Waste tyres are not biodegradable. Globally, an estimated 1.5 billion
Fig. 3. Samples of agricultural waste with potential as alternative materials for natural aggregates: a) Rice husk; b) Wood; c) Hemp.
3
to applying these composites in the concrete industry: the cost of crumb ASR. They concluded that colourless glass aggregate causes the greatest
rubber recycling, the recyclability of rubberized concrete, poorer me- expansion and that the expansion rate by ASR increases the higher the
chanical properties, and insufficient research about leaching criteria and content of waste glass. Possibilities to mitigate ASR in concrete with
ecotoxicological risks. glass have been studied [111], for instance, the incorporation of a
suitable pozzolanic material [110,112,113], the reduction of
2.2.2. Glass alkali-silica agents and an increase in the water cement ratio [46].
Another problematic waste is glass. According to Ferdous et al. [65], Waste glass has the potential to be utilized in concrete [91]. Still,
130 million tonnes of glass waste are generated worldwide every year. more research needs to be undertaken in the mix design to reduce the
However, glass is 100 % recyclable and can be recycled indefinitely. likelihood of the alkali-silica reaction occurring while optimizing the
Apparently, only 1/5 of it is recycled. Crushed glass (Fig. 2 b)) is being pozzolanic activity produced from the glass.
used in concrete to replace natural coarse and fine aggregates [91,92],
and also as a binder [93,94]. The process of obtaining aggregates in- 2.2.3. Plastic
cludes grinding and crushing to the proper size, which is a significantly Plastic is another waste considered an important alternative for
less energy-consuming process than recycling glass to produce new glass mineral aggregate in concrete. The environmental problem of plastic is
[46]. Also, waste glass as aggregates in concrete could be an alternative quite well-known. Most plastics are not biodegradable and are chemi-
for mixed colour glass. Note that coloured glass can only be recycled into cally unreactive in the natural environment; hence, such polymeric
glass of the original colour [91]. products persist for decades, even for centuries [44]. In the last two
Glass with a lower density than natural sand tends to reduce slump, decades, the production of plastics worldwide doubled. In 2020, the
while high-density glass increases slump [65]. In addition, the density of world’s production of plastic was about 367 million tonnes (not
concrete will be reduced with increased glass content if the density is including recycled plastics production) [114]. Asia is the largest pro-
lower than natural sand. Lower fresh and dry densities were found with ducer of plastics (more than half), but Europe has an important slice too
the increasing replacement ratios of waste glass [91]. As an alternative (about 16 %) [114]. Gu and Ozbakkaloglu [44] presented data regarding
to sand, several studies show different conclusions about the effect of the the treatment of post-consumer plastics in 2012 by EU-27 + 2. At that
incorporation of waste glass on mechanical properties. Some studies time, 38 % was sent to landfill, 36 % was used for energy recovery, and
claim that the replacement of sand improves compressive strength only 26 % was recycled. The data for 2020 [114] show a positive
[95–97]. Higher strength is generally explained by the higher change. About 23 % was sent to landfill, 42 % was used for energy re-
aluminium and silica dissolution, resulting in an efficient pozzolanic covery, and 35 % was recycled. Increasing the last percentage creates
reaction and curing age [98]. Some studies report the opposite [99,100]. the opportunity for using plastic materials in concrete production. A
In this case, the reduction in bonding strength between the waste glass large number of studies reporting the behaviour of concrete containing
and the cement paste is explained by the extreme smoothness of the plastic waste have been published [44,115,116]. Researchers studied
waste glass, which results in cracks and poor adherence between the waste plastics as aggregates in concrete (to replace natural aggregates)
waste glass and cement matrix [91,101]. [117,118] and as fibres (as reinforcement) [119,120]. However, fibres
Qaidi et al. [101] report that as the content of waste glass increases, are outside the scope of this work.
the proportion of cracks and voids increases in the concrete’s matrix. Plastics are a broad group of polymeric materials with very different
Proportions exceeding 30 % of substitution were found to affect the properties according to the type of polymer. The literature reports a
compressive strength adversely [97]. Meanwhile, Du and Tan [102]
found that concrete containing up to 100 % glass sand achieved
Table 1
compressive strength similar to that of the control, and at 90 days, the
Sources for alternative aggregates.
compressive strength even increased. The optimal replacement level of
natural sand by the glass is not consensual either. Ferdous et al. [65] Aggregate Sources Reference
claim that the optimal replacement was 45 %, but others have reported CDW - Construction, renovation, or demolition processes [216]
up to 15 % [103], about 20 % [92,101] and 30 % [97]. According to - War destruction [217,218]
- Natural disasters
Ismail and Al-Hashmi [92], the best 28-day compressive strength value
[221] [219,
was obtained from a concrete mix made with 20 % waste glass fine 220]
aggregate, which led to an increase in compressive strength compared to Tyres - Vehicles (passenger, and trucks) [66]
the control reference. rubber - Off-road machinery
Regarding other mechanical properties, there still needs to be more Glass - Glass bottles and containers [46]
- Engineered glass (laboratory glass)
consensus. Some studies report that using waste glass aggregates
- Construction, renovation, or demolition process
reduced flexural strength [100,104]. Other research shows the opposite, (windowpanes)
namely that substitution of fine aggregates improves flexural strength - Furniture
[92,105,106]. Concerning durability, Kim et al. [100] found that as the - Automotive and transport, etc.
Plastic - Electronic devices [44]
mixing ratio of waste glass increased, chloride ion penetration resis-
- PET bottles
tance, sulphate attack resistance, and freezing and thawing resistance - PS foam plastics
were all better in the concrete containing waste glass than in normal - Plastic containers
concrete. Bisht and Ramana [105] observed that water absorption and - PVC pipes
water permeability increase with the increment of waste glass in con- - Automotive and transport
- LDPE bags, etc.
crete. Abdallah and Fan [106] also noticed a clear decrease in water
Rice husk - Rice cultivation [161]
absorption with an increased waste glass aggregate ratio. Hemp shiv - Hemp cultivation [183]
Regardless of the inconsistency found in the literature, the only [185]
significant limitation of concrete containing glass aggregates is the [181]
vulnerability to alkali-silica reaction (ASR) [46]. The reaction between Wood - Furniture industry [191]
- Wood industry [222]
the alkali from cement and the silica from glass creates a gel that swells - Construction [223]
and causes hydrostatic pressure when exposed to moisture, thereby - Construction and demolition wastes [214]
leading to cracking [65,107,108]. Research has shown that glass colour - End-of-life wood wastes (walkways, fences,
and size profoundly influence ASR expansion [109,110]. Topçu et al. agriculture posts, decks etc.)
- Packaging, etc.
[110] analysed colourless, green, and brown bottle wastes regarding
4
Table 2
Pre-treatments to enhance properties of alternative aggregates under study.
Aggregate Composite description Pre-treatment description Results/conclusions Reference
CDW Recycled concrete with replacement of Two carbonation methods: C- RA (20 % high- The order of the strengthening effect of the [225]
natural aggregates by recycled aggregates. concentration CO2) and CH-RA (Calcium hydroxide different treatment methods was as follows: CH- (2020)
emulsion 10 % Lime powder + 100 % water, and RA > C-RA > RW-RA > W-RA.
20 % high-concentration CO2). The compressive strength of the carbonated
Two wrapping methods: recycled aggregate concrete was greater than that
W-RA (Ordinary wrapping: 100 % cement + 100 % of the wrapping-treated sample.
water + 15 % fly ash);
RW-RA (New paste wrapping: 70 % cement + 30 %
accelerator + 100 % water + 15 % fly ash + 1 %
retarder).
Recycled concrete with replacement of Pressurized carbonization to strengthen RCA using Concrete samples with 100 % carbonized RCA [226]
natural aggregates by recycled aggregates. pressure (0.5, 1, and 2 bar) during a specified time showed a rise of around 28 % and 11 % in (2023)
(2 h and 4 h). compressive strength and tensile strength,
respectively, compared to the non-treated
concrete samples.
Recycled concrete with aggregate only Carbonation for 1 h at 25 kPa. The recycled aggregate concrete achieved 95.1 % [227]
containing crushed concrete, excluding strength compared to the virgin aggregate (2021)
other recycled materials such as bricks and concrete. It surpassed the untreated recycled
tiles. aggregate concrete, which only had a
compressive strength of 64.76 % compared to the
virgin aggregate concrete.
Recycled concrete with replacement of Different carbonation conditions of pressure Flexural strength increases between 16.3 % and [228]
natural aggregates by recycled aggregates (0.75–1.5 bar) for a specified time (30–90 min). 50.8 %, and tensile strength increases between (2016)
in different percentages (0 %, 30 %, 100 %). 4.7 % and 19.8 %.
Tyres Concrete mixtures incorporating crumb Solution of water and 3 μm limestone powder was Significant improvement in compressive and [74]
rubber rubber at 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, and 15 % mixed with crumb rubber. In addition, some mixes tensile strengths was recorded in mixtures (2014)
substitution levels for fine aggregate. also contain silica fume at 15 v% cement containing coated crumb rubber and silica fume.
replacement. Those mixes outperform the reference mix in
compressive strength for 5 % and 10 % of fine
aggregate replacement.
Rubberized concrete for pavement Aggregates subjected to a sodium hydroxide The optimized sodium hydroxide treatment [229]
construction with different water-cement (NaOH) solution during different times (20 min, 2h, rubber had 25 % and 5 % higher compressive and (2016)
ratios and a variety of rubber content. 24h, 48h, and 7 days). flexural strength, respectively.
Rubcrete with cement and crumb rubber as Aggregates subjected to different conditions: water All rubber pre-treatment methods used resulted [230]
a partial replacement of sand. washing, water soaking-A (rubber particles were in a reduction in workability and had no (2019)
soaked in tap water for 24 h and left to air dry); significant effect on compressive strength.
water soaking-O (same as the previous but the According to the authors, those pre-treatment
rubber was dried in a 100 ◦ C oven for 6 h); NaOH methods are probably not worth the time and
(the rubber was submerged in a solution of 10 % of cost. They recommend simply washing the
the NaOH for 30 min); H2O2, (the rubber was rubber with water to decrease surface impurities,
submerged in a solution of 10 % of the H2O2 for 30 mixing the rubber with dry cement at the start of
min); CaCl2 (the rubber was immersed in a solution the mixing process, and using slightly longer
of 10 % CaCl2 for 24 h); H2SO4 (the rubber was mixing times.
immersed in a solution of 35 % H2SO4 for 24 h);
Silane (the rubber was stirred for 20 min in a 1 %
concentration silane solution); and
KMnO4_NaHSO4 (double treatment method
including oxidation and sulphonation of the rubber
particles).
Glass Mortars with Portland cement and glass Addition of 10 w% and 20 w% of fly ash as mineral Both additions provide enough ASR resistance for [110]
waste (white, green and brown) as fine admixture and 1 w% and 2 w% Li2CO3 as chemical 25 % of the glass cullet replacement ratio in all (2008)
aggregate substitution in different ratios. admixture. glass colours.
Mortars with Portland cement and 100 % CO2 curing treatment on the alkali-silica reaction Short (1.5 h) CO2 curing treatment effectively [231]
recycled glass, (ASR). mitigates ASR expansion. Extending the CO2 (2022)
curing duration up to 3 h can entirely suppress
the ASR expansion.
Plastic Concrete mixes with Portland cement with Chemical treatment with 5 wt% polystyrene and 5 The compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural [232]
different % of aggregate substitution with wt% PKHH-phenoxy resin. strength were improved by 45 %, 35 %, and 6 %, (2022)
PET. respectively, compared to untreated plastic
recycled concrete.
Concrete mixes with 15 v% partial Microwave radiation pre-treatment of aggregates. Treatment of recycled plastic with microwave [233]
replacement of coarse aggregate with radiation was found to decrease the fresh (2021)
recycled plastic aggregates (PET, HDPE and concrete workability. PET plastic surface
PP). treatment presented an improvement in
compressive strength. No improvement was seen
in the compressive strength of concrete of the
other treated mixed plastic types.
Rice husk Cement bricks with rice husk and Portland Gelatine-hexamine, linseed oil, and sodium Linseed oil was the best treatment, with positive [147]
cement. metasilicate-aluminium sulphate were used as fibre effects on strength, water absorption and (2017)
treatments. dimensional change of bricks.
Rice husk cement-based composites made Pre-soaking the rice husk in water. Unit weight and mechanical performance of the [168]
with Portland cement. composites with treatment increased. On the (2019)
other hand, those composites also presented a
reduction in porosity, thermal insulation
(continued on next page)
5
Table 2 (continued )
Aggregate Composite description Pre-treatment description Results/conclusions Reference
performance, and sound absorption behaviour,

when compared with non-treated composites.
Hemp shiv Hemp concrete with hemp as coarse Mineralization with aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 The compressive strength of hemp concrete [234]
aggregate, sand, and Portland Cement, and calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2. increased by four times compared with non- (2017)
mineralized.
Hemp fibre-reinforced concrete with Ca (OH)2 solution pre-treatment. 28-day tensile and compressive strength of [235]
Portland-fly ash cement (1%v of fibres). treated fibres was 16.9 % and 10 % higher, (2017)
respectively, compared to the mix with untreated
hemp.
Hemp lime composite. Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH), during 48h at The four-point bending results show that NaOH [236]
20 ◦ C. The fibres were also washed with distilled treatment of fibres enhances the maximum stress (2011)
water containing 1 vol% of acetic acid. by 60 % compared to untreated hemp fibres
composites.
Wood Wood-cement composites with Portland Particles of sunflower stems were treated with a 1 The NaOH pre-treatment was found to be a more [237]
cement in a ratio of 1:3 using the treated/ wt% NaOH solution for 24 h. The effect of various effective treatment than chemical additives (2022)
untreated sunflower stem particles as a chemical additives (CaCl2, AlCl3, MgCl3) was also (CaCl2, AlCl3, and MgCl2) on the mechanical
partial replacement of poplar wood. evaluated. properties improvement (modulus of rupture,
modulus of elasticity, internal bond strength, and
screw holding power).
Wood-cement composites with wood fibers Three different methods: water extraction; alkaline Treated wood resulted in a higher modulus of [213]
and Portland cement. hydrolysis; and retention of inhibitory substances elasticity than non-treated. The highest (2016)
by coating. increment was observed for coating treatment,
followed by alkaline hydrolysis and extracted
water.
Woodcrete with lime binder and sawdust in Modification of sawdust by hot water boiling, Hot water treatment significantly improved [238]
a ratio 2:1. alkaline treatment, and the addition of different woodcrete, with the compressive strength being (2014)
types of waste paper. increased by about 30 % and 260 % for hot water
boiling treatment and hot water with 4 % NaOH
treatment, respectively. The magnitude of the
increase was related to the length of treatment
time.
Concrete mixes with partial replacement of Silane-treated wood waste: soaking the wood waste Increase of the compressive strength between [193]
fine aggregates by wood waste. in Silane (SiH4) for 24 h, followed by a curing 33.5 and 65.5 %. A slight improvement of the (2023)
period of 72 h. tensile strength was also found for 7 % of the fine
aggregate replacement by treated wood waste.
variety of types and origins of plastics used as aggregates in concrete - durability, and microstructure of concrete incorporating different types
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), of electrical and electronic plastic waste. The results show poorer me-
expanded polystyrene (EPS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density chanical and durability performance of concrete with E-plastic. Other
polyethylene/linear and low-density polyethylene (LDPE/LLDPE), pol- studies [129,130] presented the same conclusions regarding E-plastic
ylactic acid (PLA), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), etc. The incorporation in concrete. Needhidasan and Sai [125] used fly ash as an
recycling methods also vary and usually involve direct mechanical addition and E-waste as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate, and
recycling or melting. The former is an efficient and economical way to the results showed higher strength of concrete compared with the con-
obtain recycled plastic aggregates and fibres, yielding materials of more ventional product. They concluded that 20 % of E-plastic waste could be
uniform size and properties [44]. The bulk density of plastic aggregates used as coarse aggregate substitution without compromising
also differs based on the recycling method. The direct mechanical performance.
recycling method typically leads to a relatively low bulk density,
whereas the melting process leads to a higher bulk density [44]. 2.3. Forest and agricultural waste
Most of the research agrees that concrete’s fresh and hardened
properties are mainly negatively affected by incorporating plastic ag- Agricultural waste is very difficult to estimate, and in some cases, the
gregates. Saikia and de Brito [121] drew some conclusions in a review low price of such waste materials means that their economic value is less
paper about how incorporating plastic aggregate diminishes concrete’s than the cost of gathering, transporting, and processing them for ad-
various strength properties. The insufficient binding strength between vantageous use [131]. Some agricultural waste that is characterised as
the surface of plastic particles and cement paste is the fundamental having low inorganics and high carbon is incinerated for energy pro-
reason for the decline in performance. The authors pointed out that the duction, and the ashes are used to produce excellent materials for con-
variations found in the compressive strength values were mainly struction and industry. However, ashes are only one of the ways to add
because of the differences in the type of plastic waste used, its size, and value to this type of waste since substituting the mineral aggregates in
shape. Tota-Maharaj et al. [122] investigated the use of a plastic (pol- concrete is a viable option, too [6,132,133].
ymethyl methacrylate) as a fine aggregate replacement. This work In the last decade, increasing efforts have been made to explore the
comprises a steel-concrete bond assessment, an important feature for possibility of using agricultural wastes (crop-based aggregates) as an
reinforced concrete applications. The results show that bond strength aggregate substitute in concrete or cement-based materials and bio-
decreased by 8 %–32 %. aggregate concrete (BAC) [134]. Such waste materials include coconut
The possibility of integrating electrical and electronic plastic waste shells [132,135–138], oil palm shells [139–145], corncob [146–148],
in concrete materials has recently been investigated [123–127]. Ac- straw [149–151], bamboo [152,153], and cork [154–157]. Based on
cording to Ref. [128], E-plastic, as it is also called, is defined as waste this, the present review selected rice husk, hemp, and wood (Fig. 3).
derived from electrical and electronic equipment, consumer electronics,
and small and large household appliances. This kind of waste is het- 2.3.1. Rice husk
erogeneous and difficult to recycle [127]. Nwaubani and Parsons [127] In 2020, rice production residues reached 497.2 million tonnes
present the results of an experimental study to assess the properties, globally [158], which is expected to increase yearly as the population
6
grows. Around 90 % of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in mechanical breaking process [182]. Hemp shives and hurds were first
Asia [159]. Rice husks (RH), also called rice hulls, are coats of seeds or mixed with water and a mineral binder (which can be itself a mixture of
grains of rice. Each kg of milled white rice results in roughly 0.28 kg of different binders [175]) in France in the 1990s, creating hempcrete
rice husk as a by-product [160]. Rice husk does not have nutritional [183]. This new material was used as an alternative to wattle and daub
purposes and is composed of cellulose, lignin, inorganic matter, and high for restoring a historic building and is now widely used for reconstruc-
levels of silica [161]. Due to the large amount generated, different tion and new construction.
possibilities for using it have been studied [162–164]. Binders commonly used for hempcrete are Portland cement or lime-
Nevertheless, the typical endpoint destination of this material is based. Portland cement as a hempcrete binder has a significant role in
composting or energy generation in industrial boilers [158]. Burning providing strength to the concrete compared to only lime-based binder
rice husks generates another residue product, rice husk ash (RHA). This [184]. The main disadvantage of hemp concrete using lime as a binder is
ash is a pozzolanic material with more than 75 % of silica (by weight) the time required to cure when casting on-site [175]. However,
[165], and it has been widely studied and used as cement substitute lime-based binders have a much more favourable carbon footprint [185,
[161]. Although RHA is much more common in concrete as a cement 186]. The carbon sequestration of hemp-lime is an enormous benefit of
alternative, RH has also been investigated as an aggregate for concrete the material, and because of that, lime is used more with hemp than
and cement composites. Some studies even combine both uses [158]. Portland cement.
The presence of RH diminishes the mechanical performance of The hempcrete can be cast in situ as filling in wood-structure walls or
cementitious composites [159,166–168]. Among the factors that influ- prefabricated, such as in masonry blocks. Precast blocks allow optimal
ence RH concrete’s mechanical performance is the bio-aggregate’s low curing conditions, accelerate hardening and improve early age strength,
specific weight [158]. Furthermore, roughness, size, and shape can representing an advantage. Casting in situ is done using a formwork,
potentially interfere with the stiffness of this bio-concrete [158,169]. usually made of wood. The contribution of hempcrete to the racking
Marques et al. [168] highlighted that previously soaking the husks strength of walls has yet to be examined [175,187], and that contribu-
significantly influences the performance of cement-based composites. tion should be further studied since it constitutes a gain. The increasing
Chabannes et al. [170] developed concrete using RH for the same adoption of hempcrete in construction indicates that recognition of its
application as hemp concrete. Compared with hemp concrete, RH con- numerous advantages is growing [188,189], including its positive
crete showed lower mechanical performance but better thermal insu- impact on the environment, its potential to enhance energy efficiency,
lation, with a thermal conductivity ranging from about 0.10 to 0.14 and benefits to the comfort and health of building occupants.
W/mk. The authors claim that RH concrete is suitable as an eco-friendly
insulating material for filling walls. Marques et al. [171] evaluated the 2.3.3. Wood
performance of cement-based composites made with RH intended to be Wood and forest resources are finite but possibly renewable. With
used in acoustic barriers and as thermal insulating material in multilayer the increasing demand for wood-based products, it is crucial to consider
systems. Their study confirmed the suitability and effectiveness of these using post-consumer wood as a raw material, which can reduce the
composites for the intended applications. pressure on virgin wood resources [190]. Wood waste from industry is
Besides mechanical and physical performance, durability is an relatively well-defined and clean, making it easier to recycle and use to
important aspect, especially given the organic nature of the aggregate. produce particleboard panels, oriented strand board (OSB), and
Pachla et al. [172] ascertained that axial compressive strength increases medium-density fibreboard (MDF). Wood waste from other sources, like
due to the curing time and wetting and drying cycles. Nonetheless, the those generated by households and collected through municipal
three-point bending strength was reduced by approximately 52 % after collection systems, construction and demolition waste, or end-of-life
the wetting-and-drying cycles. Sisman et al. [166] found that using RH wood products, is more challenging [191]. Contamination levels in
as an aggregate replacement slightly increased the water absorption wood waste from these sources can limit their adoption in a circular
(about 3 % without RH and about 5.5 % for 30 % RH). However, the RH economy, essentially for sequential recycling loops [192].
concrete developed was considered resistant to freezing since the dif- There are several studies [193–198] where wood particles replace
ference in compressive strength was as little as 10.9 %. mineral aggregates (fine, coarse, or both) in different percentages. Wood
Concrete or other cement composites containing bio-aggregates from incorporation generally reduces mechanical properties, including
rice cultivation are generally proposed to be used in sandwich panels compressive strength, although thermal properties improve [199–203].
[173,174], masonry components, and façade elements [175,176]. Given When waste aggregate is incorporated at high ratios in concrete, the
the potential for reducing environmental impacts [158], weight [173], thermal conductivity decreases, making it an ideal solution for
and cost [177], the use of rice residues should be studied more carefully, non-structural walls with better insulation capacity than regular con-
and their behaviour should be better disseminated. crete walls. In such cases, wood chips are typically the only aggregate
used, resulting in a non-structural composite that closely resembles
2.3.2. Hemp shiv hempcrete. This material is often referred to as woodcrete or, in some
Hemp is genetically close to THC-producing plants (the chemical cases (depending on the application), as wood cement board (WCB) and
responsible for the psychoactive properties in marijuana), so the pro- is commonly used for ceilings or walls [204].
duction is tightly controlled under existing European laws [178]. In Despite the decrease in compressive strength, several authors
most European countries, the upper legal limit for cultivating industrial [205–207] considered that some of these composites (for low waste ratio
hemp for fibre is 0.2 % of THC [179]. incorporation) can be used as a structural material, such as
Hemp is considered a low-cost, ecological, and sustainable plant that self-sustained walls. For instance, Smith [208] considers that concrete
can be used in different forms (fibres, powders, felts, seeds, and shives) that uses wood chips as aggregate can be a solution to add stiffness and
for many varied applications, such as textiles, paper, energy production, to solve the acoustic and vibration issues that affect pure timber con-
cosmetics, medicine, and construction materials [178,180]. According struction structures, not increasing excessively the mass as it happens in
to United Nations data [181], there are currently about 40 countries regular concrete-timber structures. Another suggested application for
producing raw/semi-processed industrial hemp. In 2020, the biggest these composites is replacing masonry ceramic blocks with a solution
producers of hemp fibre were Canada, France, and China, and most of that uses concrete blocks with wood chips. Pescari et al. [209] analysed
the rest were European Countries, like the Netherlands, Poland, four types of walls. The two proposed solutions of concrete blocks with
Lithuania, Austria, and Italy [181]. wood chips had the best force-displacement relationship results.
Hemp shiv is a by-product of hemp fibre production and consists of According to Maier [210], the second most common use of wood
the woody core of the hemp stalk obtained through defibration by a waste after particleboards is its incorporation in concrete or mortar
7
Fig. 4. Density values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [69,74,82,83,92,97,99,117,158,166–168,
170–172,195,198,202,239–281].
Fig. 5. Compressive strength values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [41,67,69,71,74,82,92,97,99,
100,102,104,106,117,158,166,167,168,170–172,195,198,200,202,239–256,258–310].
mixes for building materials. This option can be a solution for contam- aggregates in concrete materials are discussed.
inated wood, although further research should be carried out to
demonstrate the feasibility [201]. Contaminated wood can contain 2.4.1. Sources and pre-treatments
physical impurities in the form of foreign materials, including plastics, Based on the previous review, some examples of the sources of the
metals, glass, textiles, soil, and inert waste [211,212]. Chemical impu- discussed materials are identified in Table 1. The procedures to trans-
rities are likely to be present, too, due to treatments to improve dura- form some of those wastes into aggregates for concrete and cement
bility [213–215]. The presence of these chemicals depends on the source mixtures are also briefly discussed.
of wood waste, can be hazardous, and requires special handling to avoid Pre-treatments comprise essential procedures in converting raw
adverse environmental and health effects [214]. waste into useful aggregates. These pre-treatments might only some-
times be necessary, and the waste could be utilized in its raw form, such
2.4. Discussion as rice husk, hemp, and even wood by-products. The other wastes
considered involve more demanding procedures. According to Ref. [36],
This section provides a comparative discussion of the selected ma- the process of producing recycled aggregates from construction and
terials reviewed above. First, it examines the sources and treatments demolition wastes involves: size reduction; pre-separation; primary
required by the recycling processes. Additionally, it explores the prop- screening for small particle removal; primary crushing and magnetic
erties of concrete materials incorporating these alternative aggregates, separation; secondary screening and decontamination; secondary
mainly regarding their physical and mechanical properties. Finally, the crushing; washing; screening and air-sifting for contaminant removal;
strengths, weaknesses and challenges associated with using these and finally, the separation of aggregates into different size fractions for
8
Fig. 6. Static Modulus of elasticity values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [74,102,104,106,158,
170,172,200,239,240,245–247,250–253,256,257,260,261,265,267,271,273,280,284–288,291,292,299,300,304,305,308,310].
Fig. 7. Flexural strength values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [67,92,99,100,102,104,106,168,
171,172,195,198,240,242,244,249,250,252,253,256,259,263,265,267,271,273,275,276,278,280,285,287,288,292,294,299,303,304,306,308–310].
various applications. For tyre rubber aggregates, two technologies are mechanical features of the materials selected for this study. This macro
usually employed — mechanical grinding at ambient temperature for analysis will provide a comprehensive perspective on the possible ranges
chipped rubber (to replace coarse aggregates) and cryogenic grinding of properties achieved with different aggregate substitution levels and
below the glass transition temperature for rubber crumbs (to replace fine types (coarse or fine). Furthermore, it will facilitate a direct comparison
aggregate) [66,224]. Plastic recycling methods vary and often include between various types of aggregates. The data are organised according
direct mechanical recycling or melting. The former is considered an to the proportion of aggregate substitution: [0] represents the reference
efficient and economical way to obtain recycled plastic aggregates and without aggregate substitution; ]0–30[ represents substitution up to 30
fibres, yielding materials with more uniform sizes and properties [44]. % [30–50]; represents substitution above 30 % and below 50 %; and
Before being integrated into concrete glass, it must undergo various [100] represents total substitution of natural aggregates. These per-
processes, specifically selection, sorting, crushing, and grinding [231]. centages are in proportion to the natural aggregate and include the
The resulting glass aggregates to be used are obtained by grinding glass substitution of fine, coarse, or both aggregates. When there is no mineral
from different sources, which generally have different chemical com- aggregate, some studies present the aggregate as a percentage of the
positions and, therefore, other properties [231]. binder (e.g. for hemp mixes), and those data were assigned to 100 %.
Besides preparing wastes for conversion into aggregates, other pre- Some values considered in the analysis are approximations because data
treatments are applied to mitigate any adverse effects on properties. were extracted from graphic representations. Only some aggregate types
Table 2 presents examples of such procedures to enhance aggregate have wide substitution ranges for every property. The supplementary
properties found in the literature. material provides the references and data for each feature and aggregate
type, as well as additional information like water/binder content, binder
2.4.2. Physical and mechanical properties content, superplasticizers etc.
This subsection discusses and compares some of the physical and The features presented are the most relevant to characterising
9
Fig. 8. Tensile strength values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [41,67,74,99,102,106,168,171,195,
239,240,242,245,250–252,256,260,261,264,267,269,273,276,277,284–286,288,292,296,299,303,304,306–309].
Fig. 9. Thermal conductivity values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [83,158,166–168,170–172,
198,200,202,241,243,251,260,265,266,269,271,272,278,281,294,296,297].
Fig. 10. Water absorption values found in the literature for the alternative aggregates under study and different substitution ranges [69,82,100,106,166,198,200,
241,245,258,259,263,264,267,270,274,285,292,302,304,308].
10
Table 3
Equations relating compressive strength and other mechanical properties (such as flexural strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity) presented in various
codes.
Flexural Strength Modulus of Elasticity Tensile Strength Code
( )0.3
2/3
fr = 0.43 × f cm f 2/3
fst = 0.30 × f cm EN 1992-1-1
Ecm = 22 × cm [282]
f cm is the compressive strength in 10 f cm is the compressive strength in
MPa Ecm is the static modulus of elasticity in GPa f cm is the compressive strength in MPa
MPa
Valid for concretes made of quartizic aggregates
fr = 0.62 × f cm 0.5 E = 0.043 × w 1.5 fʹ
c c
0.5
× 10− 3 fst = 0.53 × f cm 0.5 ACI 318- 19
c
f cm is the compressive strength in Ec is the static modulus of elasticity in GPa wc is the unit weight of concrete in f cm is the compressive strength in [311]
MPa kg/m3 MPa
fʹc is the specified compressive strength in MPa
For values of wc between 1440 and 2560 kg/m3
Fig. 11. Flexural strength estimated (based on compressive strength results) according to code references and experimental results obtained from the literature.
concrete mixes, including density, compressive strength, modulus of the compressive strength.
elasticity, flexural strength, tensile strength, thermal conductivity and According to the EC2 code [282], lightweight concrete has a density
water absorption. The resulting density typically decreases when min- below 2200 kg/m3, whereas ACI 318-19 [283] suggests a range of
eral aggregates are replaced (Fig. 4). This happens because natural ag- approximately 1442–1842 kg/m3. The density values of the CDW mixes
gregates are generally denser than the other options. The extensive studied are above 2200 kg/m3. As expected, CDW has the smallest
range of results shown by the box plots presented in Fig. 4 can be reduction in density compared with the reference since its nature is quite
explained by different w/b ratios, which strongly affect the density and similar to that of natural aggregates. Glass concrete also has high median
11
Fig. 12. Tensile strength estimated (based on compressive strength results) according to several code references and experimental results obtained from
the literature.
densities. Again, this is because the density of glass is similar to that of presented lower mechanical performances, with a significant reduction
the original mineral aggregates. In the case of polymeric (rubber and in compressive strength that correlates with the density reduction. For
plastic) and organic (rice husk, hemp shiv and wood) aggregates, the instance, for mixes with no mineral aggregates and usually with very
decrease in density is significant, particularly for the organic aggregates high w/b relations, the compressive strength is between 5 and 10 MPa.
and when the replacement of natural aggregates is total. Hemp is rela- Therefore, these composites are used as insulators rather than structural
tively unexplored as a partial substitute for concrete and has only been materials. It is important to emphasize that in some cases, for environ-
used and studied in mixes as the only aggregate. Also, hemp is by far the mental reasons, Portland cement is not chosen as the binder of these
lightest compared with the other total organic composites (rice and composites, which results in a resistance loss. Using these lightweight
wood). In this case, the production method (vibrated, compacted, pro- and less resistant composites for building envelopes can also help to
jected, precast, pre-soaked, or wet) influences the density more than the reduce structural elements’ dimensions by lowering the building’s
aggregate’s density. weight. For small substitution ratios (rice husk and wood), the reduction
The compressive strength data (all cubic test specimen results) are in strength is noticeable but generally remains above 20 MPa; in the case
presented in Fig. 5. For CDW incorporation (including total substitu- of wood, it is above 30 MPa.
tion), the range is large but is compatible with most structural concrete The modulus of elasticity depends to a considerable extent on the
requirements. Rubber and plastic concrete exhibit a clear tendency to modulus of elasticity and the density of its components. Most alternative
lower the compressive strength with increasing ratio of aggregate sub- aggregates have a low modulus of elasticity compared with regular ag-
stitution, with resistance below 20 MPa for large replacement ratios. As gregates. The experimentally determined values for the modulus of
previously noted, this reduction has been attributed to a loss of adhesion elasticity are highly variable, differing by more than 100 times (Fig. 6).
between the aggregate and the cement matrix, which becomes more In some cases, the values are in the range of dozens of MPa, while in
evident as the ratio of substitution increases. On the other hand, glass other studies, they are in the range of dozens of GPa. As with the
does not follow this behaviour, although most studies only consider compressive strength, the modulus of rubber and plastic concrete elas-
glass as a fine aggregate substitute. As expected, organic aggregates ticity decreases with an increasing substitution ratio. The modulus of
12
Fig. 13. Static modulus of elasticity estimated (based on compressive strength results) according to several code references and experimental results obtained from
the literature.
elasticity of glass concrete does not differ significantly from that of the The analysis of these mechanical features allows the conclusion that
reference concrete. Regarding the elastic properties, the spotlight falls when these wastes are incorporated in high percentages, they contribute
on rubber, where the inclusion of rubber diminishes the elastic modulus to a general decrease in the material mechanical performance. Low
linearly. This could be advantageous if cement composites with energy flexural strength was also found for composites containing organic
absorption properties are needed for equipment like road barriers. aggregates.
Composites containing only organic aggregates have a very low modulus The same tendencies can be observed for tensile strength, as shown
of elasticity and density. These composites typically contain many voids, in Fig. 8. Using recycled aggregates and glass does not significantly
which deviate from the concept and properties of concrete. Fewer affect tensile strength, even with increased aggregate substitution. In
studies on organic aggregates have been conducted, contributing to the contrast, the inclusion of rubber and plastic leads to a significant
discrepancies in the available data, as seen in the information presented decrease in tensile strength as the rate of aggregate substitution rises.
in Fig. 6. Drawing conclusions about organic materials is more challenging due to
The flexural strength data are presented in Fig. 7. Regarding the the limited data on this feature for this type of aggregate. For instance,
CDW results, flexural strength does not seem much affected by the ag- no tensile strength results were found for hemp composites. Neverthe-
gregate’s substitution since the interquartile is almost the same range. In less, composites with 100 % rice husk aggregates exhibit promising
some cases, the median is even higher than the reference median. tensile strength results.
Concerning rubber and plastic, the reduction in flexural strength is clear. These reductions in mechanical performance can offset an
13
Fig. 14. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and CDW aggregate substitution.
Fig. 15. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and rubber aggregate substitution.
improvement in physical performance. Thermal conductivity is a prop- Fig. 10 presents water absorption values found in the literature for
erty that is often not prioritized when studying concrete because con- the alternative aggregates under study. The water absorption increases
crete is not used for insulation. However, this overlooks the potential with the addition of alternative aggregates, except for glass, which is
benefits of a slight drop in thermal conductivity. Therefore, it is expected to be less water absorbent. Besides the material type, the sur-
important to study the thermal conductivity of alternative aggregates in face area of the aggregates and aggregate treatment can also influence
concrete. the wide variability of the results.
Organic aggregates are particularly noteworthy in this regard (see
Fig. 9), especially in composites without mineral aggregates. Rice husk, 2.4.3. Code equation predictions versus experimental data
hemp shiv, and wood composites have very good thermal performances, Currently, no design-oriented models exist to relate the concrete’s
but only hemp is commonly used (in some countries) for housing en- mechanical properties to the use of different waste aggregates. Devel-
velopes. However, incorporating hemp in concrete mixes for structural oping such guidelines would facilitate predicting mechanical perfor-
purposes could offer a good compromise between strength, lightness, mance and thus promote the large-scale incorporation of waste
and thermal performance, which should be further explored. materials in construction. Considering this, the authors analyse in the
14
Fig. 16. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and glass aggregate substitution.
Fig. 17. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and plastic aggregate substitution.
following figures the experimental data from the literature and compare Regarding tensile strength, in Fig. 12, the aggregate that deviates
it with estimations based on equations relating compressive strength and most from the estimated trend is rice husk, which shows unusually high
other mechanical properties (such as flexural strength, tensile strength, values relative to its relatively low compressive strength. Tensile
and modulus of elasticity) presented in EN 1992-1-1 [282], and ACI 318 strength is less studied for organic aggregates, including rice husk,
[311], Table 3. making it difficult to determine if the existing results are outliers, as
In terms of flexural strength, Fig. 11 shows that the equation outlined more data is needed. For hemp, no experimental results were found.
in Eurocode 2 appears to better align with the results than the ACI code. The modulus of elasticity is often estimated using equations and is
However, it seems to be a conservative estimate since all aggregates, typically experimentally determined for scientific purposes. Given its
particularly rubber, glass, and plastic, demonstrate higher flexural significance, establishing robust correlations with this property is
strength than estimated. crucial. Unlike other equations, the ACI code considers compressive
Regarding tensile strength, the aggregate that less fit the estimations’ strength and density, limiting its application between 1440 and 2560
tendency is the rice husk, which presents very high values for what could kg/m3, a range adhered to in the presented estimations. the composite’s
be expected for relatively low compressive strengths. This feature has density appears to provide a more realistic assessment than equations
been studied less for organic aggregates; in the case of hemp, no that only consider compressive strength, see Fig. 13. Even the ACI es-
experimental results were found. timations are significantly higher than the experimental results in the
15
case of glass. is often compensated by increasing the binder content. However, this is
not environmentally beneficial because of the associated CO2 emissions.
2.4.4. Physical mechanical properties versus binder content and aggregate Considering that, the relationship between mechanical properties
substitution (compressive strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity and ten-
The selection of the optimum content of each alternative aggregate is sile strength) with binder content and aggregate substitution for each
important. Still, it depends on the desired objectives (e.g., maximizing or aggregate have been analysed, Figs. 14–20. This analysis allows the
minimizing specific features) and can be contradictory, as improving identification of the mechanical performances reported in the literature
one feature may decrease the performance of others. It also depends on and the corresponding substitution rates without significantly
other parameters, such as the water/binder ratio and binder content. increasing the binder content. This analysis helps maintain the envi-
In structural applications, where mechanical performance is highly ronmental benefits by avoiding additional binder use.
valued, the performance loss due to the integration of waste aggregates
Fig. 18. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and rice husk aggregate substitution.
Fig. 19. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and hemp shive aggregate substitution.
16
Fig. 20. Mechanical properties as a function of binder and wood aggregate substitution.
For CDW, Fig. 14 shows a tendency to increase the mechanical For applications aimed at reducing density, particularly for non-
properties with the increase of the binder content. Additionally, it is structural purposes like wall infill, bricks, panels, etc, incorporating a
evident that mixes with 100 % aggregate substitution can achieve per- larger amount of waste is advisable while still paying attention to binder
formances like those of reference concretes. This is important to report intensity. Furthermore, water content plays a crucial role; reducing it
because these mixtures, when analysed in detail (such as additives, may enhance mechanical strength but could significantly compromise
aggregate segregation, waste treatment, and water-to-binder (w/b) workability and casting.
ratio), could provide relevant information that enables good Fig. 21 provides a clear illustration of how density is influenced by
performance. binder content and substitution. With the exception of CDW and glass,
Regarding rubber, Fig. 15 shows a clear reduction in mechanical it’s evident that an increase in binder content generally leads to an in-
properties with increased waste substitution. However, the increase in crease in density, providing a straightforward guideline for material
binder content contributes to improved mechanical performance. The density optimization.
reduction in the modulus of elasticity is particularly significant The same analysis was conducted for thermal conductivity, and it
compared to other aggregates, which could be explored for specific was found that binder content slightly influences thermal conductivity.
applications. However, thermal conductivity diminishes with the increasing aggre-
Glass aggregate substitution (Fig. 16) leads to a behaviour like CDW, gate substitution ratio, especially for organic aggregates, as well as for
while plastic aggregate substitution tends more like rubber. plastic, and rubber. Further details regarding each study can be found in
The analysis of organic aggregates presents a distinct scenario. For the supplementary material.
rice husk, results show that increasing the binder content enhances the
mechanical properties, particularly compressive and tensile strength. In 2.4.5. Strengths, weaknesses, and challenges
the case of hemp, typically used for non-structural applications, the As previously discussed, a compromise between waste incorporation
binder content reported in the literature ranges between 100 and 200 and material performance must be achieved when pursuing recycling
kg/m3 (the narrower range). As previously mentioned, in these mix- purposes. The significant advantage of alternative aggregates is their
tures, the binder is often not cement but alternative materials, which material circularity, especially if they are unsuitable for other recycling
explains the lower mechanical performances. options. However, the biggest weakness is a likely reduction of me-
In the case of wood (Fig. 20), it is interesting to note that some chanical performance, as non-conventional aggregates are less resistant
studies present the higher cement content of all, but most mixtures are and provoke disturbance in the cement matrix.
around 400 kg/m3, which can be seen as a threshold for effective cement Since integrating waste aims to enhance sustainability, this must not
curing. Organic aggregates like wood add complexity due to the compromise the solution’s durability. Therefore, durability is a key
competition for water between the aggregates and the binder. The feature to analyse. Although water absorption is one of the most
variability in compressive strength results for wood aggregates is likely important features when assessing concrete durability and can restrain
related to several factors: differing water contents, how water is inte- possible applications, only a small number of the works analysed re-
grated into the mixture, treatments of aggregates to reduce water ab- ported the water absorption of concrete containing alternative aggre-
sorption, the use of retarders/superplasticizers, and the types of cement gates. The papers that presented durability results, assessed in this
used. revision, were insufficient to provide a comprehensive analysis. Addi-
The main conclusion is that for applications demanding high tionally, the variability in testing methods/conditions across studies
strength, it is preferable to incorporate small percentages of waste ag- makes comparisons difficult. For these reasons, durability was not
gregates rather than increasing the aggregate content and compensating assessed extensively in this review.
with more binder (except for CDW). Additionally, it’s important to Still, regarding durability assessment, an important concern is the
consider how other factors, such as mixture additives, w/b, type of susceptibility of the glass aggregates to alkali-silica reactions. Further
binder, etc, can impact mechanical performance. Besides, the optimum research is required to understand the risks and to develop mitigating
aggregate substitution should balance environmental and economic strategies to prevent an alkali-silica reaction in concrete containing glass
factors. waste. As summarised below, several challenges regarding using
17
Fig. 21. Density as a function of binder and aggregate substitution for the different waste aggregates.
alternative aggregates in concrete production can be identified. 3. Applications

Technical challenges may vary according to the material group.
Nevertheless, there are still common difficulties related to waste het- Using alternative aggregates in a practical context encourages
erogeneity and contamination, a lack of balance between demand and further applications and should thus be better disseminated. The rela-
supply in the recycling market, difficulty in obtaining proper work- tionship between scientific research and real-world applications is
ability, issues with maintaining concrete properties over time, logistical scarce. This section cites good examples of works that result from
difficulties in the transport and storage of recycled materials, and others. collaboration between universities/research centres and the construc-
Recycling-related costs could also be challenging because of waste tion/industry players.
transportation, pre-treatment of waste materials (including downsizing With this in mind and intending to contribute to further dissemina-
the aggregate), and investment in adapting concrete production to tion, examples of construction projects and products related to the
include materials of this type and production lines. subjects discussed in this paper are presented in this section. The ex-
International policies regarding waste management and material amples are divided, like the paper, into construction and demolition
circularity are expected to contribute to sustainable change. The chal- waste, end-of-life manufactured materials waste, and forest and agri-
lenge here lies in making this transformation on time and in a suitably cultural waste.
technically informed way to avoid greenwashing.
Incorporating waste materials in cement products could also result in
3.1. Construction and demolition waste
other environmental issues. Most of the contaminated waste is expected
to stay encapsulated in the cement matrix, but some could be leached
In the last 20 years that CDW has been deeply studied and then
during the concrete’s service life. Also, dealing with and storing
mainly used in road pavement layers, embankments, and earth-filling
contaminated waste could raise environmental and health challenges.
operations [312], the use of recycled concrete for buildings and struc-
Finally, the cultural resistance to unconventional construction
tures has increased in some countries with relatively small reserves of
products is still challenging, especially for structural purposes.
natural resources and/or with very restrictive environmental policies
18
Fig. 22. Examples of emblematic construction projects using CDW as an alternative to natural mineral aggregates [313–317].
Fig. 23. Examples of concrete products/prototypes using glass, rubber, or plastic as alternative aggregates [324–327].
[312]. To exemplify the use of sustainable concrete with the successful stent, glass sands, and recycled concrete aggregate. Concrete mixes with
incorporation of CDW, three emblematic projects/constructions were 76 % coarse aggregate substitution were used, pushing beyond the 50 %
selected (Fig. 22): a big symbolic sports infrastructure in the United coarse aggregate substitution standard and reaching 169,000 tonnes of
Kingdom, an office/residential building in Germany, and a museum in primary aggregate replacement [316,318]. Concerns were raised about
Switzerland. the impact of coarse aggregate substitution on the quality of the finish.
The London Olympics Aquatics Centre was designed by Zaha Hadid However, the Aquatics Centre’s finishing demonstrated that coarse
Architects for the Olympic Games in London in 2012. In this project, 11 aggregate substitution does not affect the achievable concrete finishing.
% of the concrete volume was reduced by a more optimized design, Another strategy adopted was cement substitution with ground granu-
saving 20,000 tonnes of embodied CO2 and 120,000 tonnes of aggregate lated blast-furnace slag (a by-product from the steel industry). It ach-
[316]. Another approach used coarse aggregate substitution from the ieved the optimum percentage of 40 %, and this work on cement
19
Fig. 24. Examples of construction projects using hemp as alternative aggregate [247,337–343].
Fig. 25. Examples of concrete products/projects using rice husk as alternative aggregate [348–351].
substitution was recognized with a BREEAM innovation credit [316]. future.

The Aquatic Centre is a success story since it surpassed many sustain- In 2010, in Ludwigshafen, one building in a group of buildings was
ability targets. It was a learning opportunity and a showcase for the chosen as the first in Germany to be built with recycled concrete without
other facilities of the Olympic Park and, more importantly, for the increasing the cement content. It was built as a low-energy construction
20
in a zero-carbon-emissions area [317]. 30 % by vol. of natural aggre- 3.2. End-of-life manufactured materials
gates were replaced with reused aggregate made from recycled con-
struction waste. This project shows that recycled aggregates with Regarding industrial waste materials, it was challenging to find
properties very close to the raw ones can be produced. Besides the projects where this kind of waste was used in concrete. That information
excellent workability of concrete, the quality of the fair-faced concrete is may be less disclosed, or this type of waste is less often used.
also emphasized [317]. It was evident during this research work that Australia is one of the
The Kunsthaus Zürich Museum Extension is a testament to Zurich’s countries where investment and effort have been made more recently to
commitment to green building practices [319]. The city pioneered in add value to glass, tyre rubber, and plastic waste. The scientific papers
using recycled concrete in public buildings, with its first public building published by different research groups and online news regarding con-
constructed with 80 % recycled concrete being the "Im Birch" school in crete with these wastes show that interest. That could be related to the
2002 [320]. The success of this pilot project led Zurich to make it fact that Australia has banned the export of tyres, glass, and plastic
mandatory in 2005 for all public buildings to be constructed with waste since 2021/2022 [323]. This action, combined with high landfill
recycled concrete, requiring concrete products to contain at least 25 % levies, boosted waste recycling. These policies impact the environment
recycled aggregates in total mass [321]. In 2013, Zurich went a step and the economy and are real incentives to increase the urgently needed
further by introducing an additional requirement that all concrete used circularity of solutions.
in building construction works procured by the city meet the CEM III/B The examples chosen are not construction projects but products or
cement standard [321]. prototypes that integrate glass, rubber, or plastic (Fig. 23).
To address the concerns of architects and other stakeholders The first example is a 3D-printed prototype using glass waste in the
regarding the aesthetic quality of recycled CEM III/B concrete, Zurich composition. Although not yet commercialized, it offers the potential for
built a "mockup wall" [322]. This wall allows a direct comparison of the using glass in 3D-printed mixes.
effects of various aggregate and cement types on the finished product. Researchers from Singapore University (NTU) have been working on
Also, recycled concrete is a cost-effective alternative to virgin concrete, developing a mix with recycled glass [328–330] to print a concrete
as it is often around the same price or slightly cheaper [321]. bench [324], which passed strength tests and showed suitable build-
Zurich has found that by mandating the use of recycled concrete in ability and extrudability [330]. This formula demonstrates for the first
its public buildings, the market has responded with increased supply. time that glass can indeed be used to 3D-print a bench with structural
Initially, only one supplier offered recycled concrete in the area, but integrity. Since glass is less water absorbent, less water is required to
eight to ten suppliers have since invested in production capabilities to create a concrete mix suitable for 3D printing. In collaboration with
meet the growing demand for sustainable building materials [321]. The Singapore start-up company Soda Lemon, the researchers are looking at
tendency in the future will be to integrate small percentages of recycled printing bigger structures with glass concrete [324].
aggregates but on a large industrial scale. This supply increase shows The second example is a concrete road barrier prototype that in-
that sustainable construction practices are becoming more accessible tegrates rubber crumbs from end-of-life tyres.
and viable for the industry. The Rubber T-Lok product has been developed by Saferoads and
researchers from the University of Melbourne’s Advanced Protective
Technologies of Engineering Structures Research Group, with funding
Fig. 26. Examples of concrete products/projects using wood as alternative aggregate [247,342,343,352–354].
21
and support from Tyre Stewardship Australia. This new product allows monolithic masonry to be created that fulfils both the casing and insu-
115 tonnes of used tyres to be recovered for every 10 km of road safety lating functions with a single material.
barrier produced [325]. There are several ongoing research projects investigating applica-
In 2022, a crash test was conducted at a speed of 100 km/h, and the tions for additive construction using hempcrete. The idea is to benefit
findings indicated that the rubberized concrete road barriers, when from the new technology and materials, and environmental benefits. For
designed appropriately, have the potential to lessen the impact force example, a team from Texas University [345] launched a project last
during collisions. This lowers the chances of sustaining severe injuries or year aimed at 3D printing resilient buildings using hempcrete. The
being killed, and it is less damaging to the barrier itself. Including rubber objective is to develop an approach that can reduce the environmental
enhances the flexibility and durability of concrete, and the product impact of conventional construction methods and improve the avail-
complies with the Australian and New Zealand standards for road safety ability and affordability of housing. Other research groups and com-
barrier systems [325]. panies are interested in hempcrete printables [346]. In preliminary
The third product has already been commercialized and has been experiments, Sinka et al. [347] from Riga Technical University
used in some projects. Hong Kong-based start-up EcoBricks has devel- demonstrated that hempcrete could be printed at a relatively low den-
oped a product to upcycle plastic waste from old washing machines. sity of 660 kg/m3 while achieving sufficient buildability and compres-
According to the information provided by the company [327], EcoBricks sive strength for printing wall elements (Fig. 24). Combining hempcrete
can use any plastic waste, materials that are impossible to recycle. The with 3D printing technology offers numerous possibilities for expanding
process is 100 % cold, with minimal processing contributing to lower the use of this sustainable material while reducing the environmental
embodied carbon. Another advantage mentioned is weight reduction impact of the construction industry.
without compromising performance. According to the founder of Eco- In contrast, rice husk and wood used in concrete construction are less
Bricks [326], the product can replace up to 50 % of natural aggregates in widespread. In the specific case of rice husk and wood, their use as ash
concrete bricks with plastic waste. This means up to 2000 kg of plastic for cement substitution has been studied and applied much more. The
waste could be diverted from landfills for every 100 m2 of EcoBricks examples include prefabricated solutions like blocks, material for 3D
produced, equivalent to 200,000 plastic bottles [326]. One of the first printing, and loose aggregate (Fig. 25). The two first examples align with
uses of EcoBricks was at Gold Coast Piazza in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong. the trend towards more industrialized construction, which is needed to
address some countries’ lack of a construction workforce.
3.3. Forest and agricultural waste RH-B Prefabricated rice husk blocks with 600 kg/m3 density are
commonly used in traditional constructions for internal and external
Of the three agricultural and forest waste products addressed in this insulating masonry, combined with a load-bearing frame made of con-
study, hemp is the most widely used. Its use has been demonstrated crete, steel, or wood. These blocks provide excellent thermal insulation,
worldwide [331,332], with some countries, such as France, leading the with a thermal conductivity of 0.075 W/mK and a specific heat of 1800
way in knowledge and application. A wealth of information on its J/kg K [348].
properties design, and application guides is readily available [333–336]. The Gaia project is an innovative, eco-sustainable architectural
In addition, there are various associations - the “Construire en Chanvre model built using a 3D printer and natural materials found nearby. The
Association” (France), the International Hemp Building Association, and structure was made from a blend of clay and rice husk, which is entirely
the US Building Association, among others, committed to advancing the natural and promotes a healthy environment. The house is highly effi-
use of hemp in sustainable building practices and promoting its benefits, cient from an energy consumption standpoint and maintains a
which further contributes to its use and acceptance. The examples of comfortable temperature [349,350]. Italian 3D-printing technology
constructions made with hemp are fortunately countless. The chosen built the house using natural materials, which were 25 % soil, 25 % rice
cases emphasize innovation and difference: the tallest building made husk, 40 % chopped straw rice, and 10 % hydraulic lime. The resulting
with hemp, collective housing rewarded for sustainability and innova- product is entirely biodegradable, and if not maintained, it will return to
tion purposes, and research projects/work to collect the environmental the soil. The walls were constructed with vertical holes that were sub-
benefits of hemp in the Construction 4.0 context using 3D printing sequently filled with rice husks to provide insulation. The outer cavity in
(Fig. 24). the wall remained empty to facilitate proper air circulation within the
The world’s "first hemp skyscraper" [342] is nearing completion in structure, and a bio-plaster made from rice husks coated the structure’s
Cape Town, South Africa. According to the New York Times [342], the internal walls and roof to provide additional insulation [349,350].
12-storey building will be the tallest structure in the world to incorpo- The Dojo, is an example of sustainable architecture incorporating
rate essentially hemp construction. Using hemp blocks for the walls locally sourced materials. The building roof is insulated with 20 cm of
reduces the mass of the building, which in turn reduces the load on the loose rice husk mixed with diatomaceous earth, which provides excel-
foundations and the cost of the structural elements. The building is a lent insulation and energy efficiency while utilizing a readily available
pioneering project demonstrating the potential of hemp as a viable and material that would otherwise be wasted [351].
sustainable building material. It may pave the way for future The incorporation of wood in concrete fulfils almost the same ap-
hemp-based construction projects of considerable dimensions. plications as hemp and rice husk, taking advantage of its good thermal
Case di Luce is a building in Italy that was awarded the Green and acoustic properties. The examples chosen in Fig. 26 are a house
Building Award in 2016 for its innovation as a Nearly Zero Energy constructed in 1948 to show how this material can be durable, even
Building (NZEB) [343]. This building is constructed with a completely though it is from natural sources, and two prefabricated solutions, ele-
natural envelope, utilizing hemp and lime bio-composite building ma- ments for homes and barriers, which seem to be well-received in the
terials, e.g. Biomattone® (precast blocks of hemp and lime), making it market.
one of the largest buildings in Europe built with these materials. It is also In 1948, Walt Friberg constructed a house made of sawdust concrete
one of the first examples in Italy to meet the objectives of the European in Idaho. At that time, the construction was featured in Popular Me-
Directive 2020 due to its high CO2 absorption and low energy con- chanics magazine [352]. Years later, the magazine Mother Earth News
sumption [344]. The building’s envelope is made exclusively from [355] revisited the house to see how it had fared. They found it was still
natural materials, hemp blocks, and a constructive system of sprayed standing and had withstood the cold Idaho winters remarkably well.
masonry in hemp and lime, which has earned Leadership in Energy and Walt Friberg’s innovative approach to construction led him to build or
Environmental Design (LEED) certification. The infill walls comprise an assist in constructing 30 to 40 sawdust concrete buildings in the vicinity
inner layer of tuff, onto which a mixture of hemp and lime is sprayed, [355]. Although there is currently no information about the houses or
followed by a final spray of a hemp-lime mixture. This allows an external the builder, this case study is an example of the long-term application
22
and durability of sawdust-concrete construction. aggregates and respective substitution ranges. This could result in
Noise barriers made with wood aggregates are highly sound- misguided design decisions, incorrect applications, and ultimately, the
absorbent, making them a widespread application of concrete in discrediting of materials of this type when some end up badly.
reducing noise from highways, railways, and industrial sources. The This review set out to comprehensively analyse concrete and cement
porous surface of these barriers allows them to absorb sound and composites that incorporate different waste materials, including con-
transmit it through cavities in the wall, forcing energy to follow a longer crete and demolition waste, end-of-life manufactured materials (i.e.,
path over and around the barriers. tyre rubber, glass, and plastic), and forest/agricultural waste (i.e., rice
Woodcrete can produce eco-friendly blocks that are non- husk, wood, and hemp). This review presents a macro analysis of the
combustible, highly breathable, and offer superior thermal and acous- physical and mechanical properties of such materials, discussing the
tic insulation. These framework blocks made of wood-cement con- results in terms of the aggregate nature and substitution ranges. It allows
glomerates provide eco-sustainable masonry options that offer excellent the definition of the best match between the waste aggregate alternative
thermal and high acoustic insulation. They are also lightweight and easy and the performance requirements of a specific application.
to install, making them an economical and quick solution. Many of these Additionally, examples of construction projects, products, and pro-
blocks have obtained CE marking and other relevant certifications, totypes that included these alternative aggregates have been provided
ensuring compliance with current regulations and providing confidence and described, giving a sense of these materials’ real-world applications
to owners and stakeholders. While these products are typically made and promoting their use.
with virgin wood, there is potential for integrating end-of-life wood Some potential future research directions and recommendations
waste, thus further enhancing the circular economy. regarding alternative aggregates are outlined in the following bullets.
3.4. Discussion - Development of guidelines correlating main concrete’s physical and

mechanical properties using different waste-type aggregate
The literature highlights the growing interest in alternative aggre- replacements.
gates for two main reasons: greater circularity in waste reuse and - Study the possible synergetic effects of mixing organic materials with
reducing the environmental impact of natural aggregate extraction. others as their natural origin could offer benefits (thermal).
Despite significant research investment, there has been limited uptake in - Long-term testing and service life behaviour assessment by building
real applications, and it still needs to be a common practice. real-scale prototypes and monitoring them over the years on real-
Regarding CDW, high levels of segregation and advanced industrial world applications.
units would be required to increase waste recycling rates resulting from - Development of life cycle studies to assess the avoided impacts of
construction and demolition activities. The knowledge about RA and waste deposition and the environmental consequences of recycling
concrete integrating CDW is solid, and recycled concrete in construction concrete containing alternative aggregates after its service life.
is more widely accepted than substitution with other types of aggregate. - Development of greener and more effective treatment methods for
The good performance and total feasibility of using RA in concrete (with aggregates.
the proper quality control) encourages wider application. In the exam- - Assessment of leaching of hazardous chemicals, even after embedded
ples presented, cooperative work between parties contributed to into concrete/cement composites.
achieving sustainable goals. Furthermore, public investment in con- - Development of practical procedures and guidelines to enable and
struction with CDW, like the example of Zurich, also gives confidence in scale up the incorporation of waste in construction. Prefabrication is
using recycled concrete. The future tendency will be for governments likely to be the best way to include this type of material in concrete
and municipalities to require the integration of RA in all concrete con- solutions.
structions, thus creating an efficient way to force the industry and - Document and disseminate the accomplishments and challenges
economy to change. encountered in real projects using alternative aggregates, particu-
Studying the addition of end-of-life waste materials from rubber larly those that are emblematic or innovative in some way.
tyres, glass, and plastic into concrete applications showed that it is less
prevalent in practice and seems to be explored almost only in an aca- CRediT authorship contribution statement
demic context. However, specific precast solutions previously developed
by scholars could be viable, marketable products for less exacting Sara Dias: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation,
structural/mechanical requirements with bigger waste content or used Conceptualization. João Almeida: Writing – review & editing, Valida-
for more demanding applications but in small percentages. tion, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. António Tadeu:
Finally, forest and agricultural waste and residues are important Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Methodology,
because their good thermal and acoustic behaviour, and environmental Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Jorge de Brito: Writing – re-
benefits, offer huge potential. However, if there is still some mistrust view & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervision.
regarding these materials, there is a growing interest in natural and
organic materials. This market trend will lead to the appearance of more Declaration of competing interest
specialized enterprises in this type of product and help to involve key
construction players who are more experienced in and aware of sus- The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tainability issues. Hempcrete is already a trend in some countries, interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
especially for housing envelopes. The other two resources, rice husk and the work reported in this paper.
wood, still need to be more relevant in the market, since they are only
commercialized by a few companies speculating on sustainability. Data availability
4. Conclusions The authors have shared the data (Excel file attached) "
There are excellent examples of recycling and waste integration in Acknowledgements

different applications worldwide. Unfortunately, these good examples
are not yet common practice. There is a lack of information about the This study was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science
performance and limitations of these materials. There is also some dif- and Technology (FCT), under PhD grant PD/BD/150575/2020, as part
ficulty among the practitioners in selecting the best alternative of the EcoCoRe Programme, and the project InnoCreteTech (EXPL/ECI-
23
EGC/1585/2021). The authors are grateful for the Foundation for Sci- [25] H. Hamada, A. Alattar, B. Tayeh, F. Yahaya, A. Adesina, Sustainable application
of coal bottom ash as fine aggregates in concrete: a comprehensive review, Case
ence and Technology’s support through funding UIDB/04625/2020
Stud. Constr. Mater. 16 (Jun. 2022) e01109, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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Cement and Concrete Composites 152 (2024) 105663

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cement and Concrete Composites

Alternative concrete aggregates - Review of physical and mechanical

performance, and sound absorption behaviour,

alternative aggregates in concrete production can be identified. 3. Applications

substitution was recognized with a BREEAM innovation credit [316]. future.

3.4. Discussion - Development of guidelines correlating main concrete’s physical and

There are excellent examples of recycling and waste integration in Acknowledgements

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