188 Solid/Liquid Separation: Scale-up of Industrial Equipment

same direction as that during forward filtration. The waste is

discharged through the upper discharge port, flushing out the solids
dislodged during the air scubbing.

Enhanced flux maintenance (EFM): EFM is a daily cleaning of mem-

branes to maintain optimal performance. The EFM process involves
circulation of a chemical cleaning solution on the feed side of the
membrane at an elevated temperature for 30 minutes before returning
the unit to filtration mode.
An on-board programmable logic controller (PLC) and computer
controls system operation and includes supervisory control/data
acquisition (SCADA) capability for real-time monitoring and data
logging. The system can also be monitored and controlled remotely via
modem connection.

4.4.1.3 Test operation, results and discussion

Pressurized membrane systems may be operated in an outside-in or
inside-out mode with periodic regeneration of the membrane by flux
maintenance protocols. In standard operation, when the TMP reaches a
terminal limit, (typically 3 bar for an outside-in module or <1 bar for a
vacuum membrane), the membrane is chemically cleaned in place
(CIP) using a two step caustic - acid procedure. Operational parameters
are often selected based upon feed water quality, removal criteria, and
economic considerations.
Data that are recorded during pilot trials include, but are not limited to,
the following:

• Temperature
• Flow rates (feed, excess recirculation, filtrate)
• TMP
• Turbidity (feed and filtrate)
• Particle counts (feed and filtrate) - optional
• Periodic water quality - TOC, Fe, Mn, etc.

During the initial optimization phase, system parameters are adjusted

in order to determine the optimal process conditions required to
achieve stable operation and meet project goals. At this point, pre-
treatment may be added or modified and additional water quality
samples may be necessary to confirm filtrate characteristics.
After sufficient information is generated, the system is cleaned in place
 4 • Membrane filters - microfiltration and ultrafiltration 189

and the design run started using the parameters defined in the initial
phase. Typical process data are given in Figure 4.37. Note that, in this
case, the membrane process yielded very stable performance with
respect to TMP buildup. The daily TMP increase of 0.3 bar/day was
negated with the daily EFM procedure. This resulted in peak daily TMP
values averaging less than 1 bar over the entire cycle with no net daily
increase, thus the general slope of the curve over the 30-day period is
near zero. This suggests the potential for elongated cycles beyond 30-
days or the ability to run at higher flux rates, A standard CIP procedure is
normally performed following the cycle in preparation for the next
design cycle or shipment to the next site.

1^
^C 60
Q
LL
O 50

CO

//yyyfVv^i^i^^
J • ^ »

Figure 4 . 3 7 Run design process data for test rig

Turbidity-. Turbidimeters are used extensively in the water industry.

Information obtained with these instruments is routinely used on
production systems to monitor the effectiveness of the water treatment
process. Typically, white light turbidimeters have been used but more
recently laser-based devices have increased sensitivity and are
becoming more widely used. The pilot test rig is equipped with
turbidimeters and recorded feed and filtrate turbidity results are
presented in Figure 4.38. Note that the filtrate turbidity, through the
MF membrane, remains stable despite variations in feed conditions.

Particle Counts: On-line particle counters have been gaining

popularity in recent years. These instruments are intended to be used as
190 Solid/Liquid Separation: Scale-up of Industrial Equipment

-Feed turbidity
Filtrate turbidity

0.010
17-Jan 22-Jan

F i g u r e 4 . 3 8 Performance data - turbidity

an "indirect" integrity test for membrane systems. However, this

method does not provide the same sensitivity level for detecting a
membrane breach as would a direct integrity test, such as pressure
hold. In addition, the units must be properly set up and isolated during
flux maintenance to prevent air bubbles and downstream contamin-
ation from creating erroneous results.

4.4.1.4 In tegrity testing

Regulatory agencies typically require that membrane systems undergo
direct integrity testing and continuous integrity monitoring for
compliance. In general, direct integrity testing is defined as a "physical
test" that is able to detect and isolate integrity breach. Based upon
recent US guidance documents, a direct integrity testing must be able
to identify a defect equal or less than 3 \xxn.
To meet the integrity testing (IT) requirements on pilot and full scale
systems, a pressure-hold test is typically performed at specified
frequencies as well as at the beginning of the test and at the conclusion
of each run after cleaning in place. On pressure modules, one method
consists of draining the filter module and pressurizing the feed side of
the wetted membrane while exposing the filtrate side to atmosphere.

Integrity Test Resolution: The test pressure of >14 psi (960 mbar) is
sufficient to detect a 3 |Lim breach based on Lin and Schaefer (2004).
Using the most conservative value for this analysis (i.e. the lowest test
 4 • Membrane filters - microfiltration and ultrafiltration 191

pressure) it can be determined (using Cantor's equation below) that the

equivalent diameter of the smallest defect is 1.67 |Lim, which is
considerably lower than the 3 |am defect for Cryptosporidium oocysts
and the 5 |Lim defects for Giardia lamblia cysts. This situation implies
that the minimum pressure to satisfy the 3 |Lim criterion is 13.9 psi.

1 _^7 cos 9
AP

where:
AP = Differential pressure applied across the membrane. The test
pressure must be corrected for backpressure and any static
head contribution.
Y = Surface tension at the air-liquid interface.
6 = Liquid-membrane contact angle.
d = Equivalent diameter of the smallest defect included in the
test.
For the theoretical case of a perfectly hydrophilic membrane, the
contact angle is zero, and assuming water at 25°C (surface tension 72
dynes/cm), the equation simplifies with d in micrometers and APtestmax
in kPa:
288
d=
AP
^^ testmax

4.4.1.5 Jar testing

Jar testing is a simple and rapid bench-scale tool used to examine the
effect of chemical treatment alternatives coagulants on a specific water
source. This technique has been used to predict pH, oxidant dose, and
detention time for iron, manganese and arsenic oxidation and
determine the effects of oxidants and powdered activated carbon to
remove colour and TOC.
Jar testing is usually conducted with a multiple-station stirring batch
reactor having identical mixing conditions. Important factors affecting
chemical reaction such as dosages, pH, and mixing intensity can be
conveniently studied with this equipment.
Note that suitable safety precautions should be taken for the process
fluids and materials as well as for the operation of the equipment and
procedures.
192 Solid/Liquid Separation: Scale-up of Industrial Equipment

4.4.1.6 Data scale up

In these cases, the scale-up factor can be very significant, and certainly
considerably greater than the levels that would be unacceptable in
other areas of piloting. The important feature here is that a full size
module is used. It has the same path length (as called for as a desirable
prerequisite in the forgoing TFF section) and is run at the same flux as
the final system will. Even the cleaning regimes will accurately reflect
the full-scale operation.
The pilot data can therefore be directly used for full-scale plant design. A
computer program is typically used to process the pilot parameters and
account for offline events such as flux maintenance and valve cycling.
Depending on the specific application, adjustments to the design may
be necessary to comply with project goals such as minimizing waste.
Other factors that must be considered include the following:

• Physical space
• Building type - new or existing structure
• Economic considerations (power, chemicals, operating cost, labour)
• Redundancy requirements
• Environmental factors (water quality changes, temperature)
• Regulatory issues (chemical disposal).

4.4.1.7 Case study

At one US site, groundwater had been used as the primary source of
drinking water for many years. Over time, contamination by iron,
manganese, arsenic and nitrates had increased. The deterioration in
water quality placed an undesirable operational burden on the
operators at the plant, which used conventional greensand pressure
filters to remove inorganic contaminants.

Use of Surface Water To overcome these issues river water was

investigated as an alternative source. The results of the investigation
determined that the use of membrane technology to treat river water
offered an absolute barrier to Giardia and Cryptosporidium, two key
contaminants of concern in the use of surface water for drinking. The
sub-micron absolute rating of the hollow fibre MF membranes also
maintained effluent turbidity in the range of 0.02-0.03 NTU without
any chemical addition or other pre-treatment, which may have been a
requirement in a treatment scheme for the groundwater, or conven-
tional surface water treatment.
 4 • Membrane filters - microfiltration and ultrafiltration 193

An MF system was sized from data generated during pilot testing

performed for a 75,000 MLD plant that is being constructed down river.
The modular nature of a pressure-driven MF system allows confident
scaling from pilot data to full-scale system without correction factors.
The pressure driven system also assures continuous operation, even
during periods of increased differential pressure, which are caused by
spikes in turbidity typically observed in surface water during weather
related events.
The MF system was installed at the plant and it has been treating water
at 580 to 1000 litres per minute with no chemical pre-treatment. An
illustration of the installation is presented in Figure 4.39.

F i g u r e 4 3 9 A modular MF system

The system automatically performs membrane integrity checks every

day, and maintains water throughput using a reverse flow/air scrub
procedure. An enhanced flux maintenance procedure using sodium
hypochlorite has been performed every 14 days to prevent organic
fouling. A complete CIP procedure with sodium hydroxide, sodium
hypochlorite and food grade citric acid has been performed
occasionally as preventative maintenance for the MF modules. The