134 Solid/Liquid Separation: Scale-up of Industrial Equipment
Endoscopes are available for direct straight-through viewing, lateral 90""
and lateral 45'' viewing, and are rotatable. Thus, they are able to view
areas beyond the tip, and downstream or upstream. In addition to
observations in the depth of the filter sand, they enable the surface of the
filter to be seen, if suitably located. Typical areas of view are about 10
grains, to a distance of 1 or 2 grains. An example is shown in Figure 3.28.
With the aid of a 65 cm TV monitor screen, a magnification of up to 500x
is possible, allowing much fine detail of flow of suspension, and deposit
structure to be seen. With video recording, freeze frame, slow motion and
high speed search of the record is possible (Ives and Clough, 1985).
F i g u r e 3 . 2 8 Typical view of filter grains in the
depth of a filter, viewed through an endoscope
A number of observations have been made, including the unexpected
shear gradient in the moving sand of a continuous filter as described in
Section 3.7.1.2. Also in continuous filtration the sand grain movement
was seen to be rotational and jerky, and not as a steadily moving mass.
This has implications for scouring of deposits as the sand moves. Other
observations, in fixed beds, have confirmed the presence of holes in
surface mat deposits. In depth recordings have shown the form and
instabilities of deposits, and the flow patterns through different-shaped
pores.
This technique has many potentialities for detailed inspection of
conditions deep inside filters, including biological growths, and
washing phenomena. The magnification that was available at the time
these instruments were used (1980-1990) was not sufficient to resolve
individual bacteria.
3 • Deep bed filters 135
3.8.8 Mathematical and computer modelling
Extrapolation of small-scale model experiments often relies on
mathematical models to represent the filtration processes. Alongside
physical theories of filtration, many mathematical models have
developed, describing in particular the changes in filtrate quality and
head loss in depth and time, for simple unisize-media filters to
complex multilayer multimedia designs. Generally, the mathematical
models have been too formidable for analytical solutions. Consequently,
computational solutions have evolved, many based on finite-difference
approximations. A comprehensive review has been presented in the
book edited by Rushton (1985).
A particular result of mathematical and computer modelling has been
its use for optimization. The concept of an operating optimum resulting
from simultaneous filtrate quality breakthrough with reaching the head
loss limit has been long known for simple unisize-media filters. Its
extension to size-graded, or multilayer filters was defeated for a long
time by the complexity of the problem. However, the solution for such
complex filters has been presented by Sembi and Ives (1983). A
commercially available filter model is included in the OTTER water
treatment design and simulation software developed by WRc pic. The
filter model employs either a logistic (S-shaped breakthrough curve) or
finite-difference approach and incorporates the specification of
different media types, backwashing arrangements and the operation of
a bank of filter units. More advanced models are currently under
development both for simulating filter performance (e.g. Stevenson,
1997) and backwashing performance (Hall and Fitzpatrick, 1998).
Nomenclature
C quality of water, e.g. concentration of suspended solids
Co initial quality of water
CD drag coefficient
^10? ^60 grain 'percentiles' (maximum size of, e.g. 10% or 60%
of grains, % wt.)
d^ hydraulic diameter (diameter of sphere of equal settling
velocity)
ds sieve size of grains (geometric mean of openings of the
passing and retaining sieves)
136 Solid/Liquid Separation: Scale-up of Industrial Equipment
F Filterability Number
g gravitational constant
hx,h2, etc. head loss between adjacent manometer points
Hi total head loss across bed
Hii^it maximum allowable head loss
//j extra head loss, above H^, for good deep bed filtration
//Q head loss through bed with clean water flowing
Hs extra head loss above HQ + //^ due to surface clogging
/ filter bed depth
M mass of media
Re Reynolds Number
Ux fluid velocity
Up terminal settling velocity of a grain
Ug velocity gradient of fluid
£ bed voidage (porosity)
6 time
Of flocculation time
I/; shape factor/sphericity
p density of fluid
p^ density of a grain
fi viscosity of fluid
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