Engineering Chemistry 1105

Lecture by Sadiqul Sir

Tahsin Hossain, 2105006

1 Rubbers
Rubbers or elastomers are polymer that exhibits resilience or the ability to
stretch and retract to its original position without deforming at any point.

Question: Define natural rubber. (2021)

There are two types of rubbers.

1. Natural Rubber: They are obtained from natural resources.

Question: How can we know that rubber is a polymer of isoprene?

(a) Isoprene (b) Cispolyisoprene

Answer: Isoprene is a colourless liquid and it is unsaturated hydro-

carbon. Isoprene polymer are the main components of natural rubber.
Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene, because isoprene is a one type
of polymer in which isoprene has elasticity property. They returns to

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 its original shape before deing deformed just like rubber. So, natural
rubber is also know as polyisoprene - a polymer of isoprene.

2. Synthetic Rubber/Elastomer: They are men made product which is

produced by solution or emulsion polymerization reaction. Example:
Butyle Rubber, Neoprere, Styrene Rubber.

Properties of Rubbers:

1. Elasticity: When load is applied it is stretched several times. When

load is removed it returns to its original position.

2. Flexibility: Rubber material can be sheeted or rolled.

3. Mechanical Strength: It has high resistance to wearing, cutting and

tearing.

4. It is impermeable to gas and liquid. So, it is used as hosepipe, tube,

bladder etc.

5. It has high resistance to chemical attack with the help of vulcanization.

6. Tackiness/Self Gluing: Two rubber sheet can be pressed to form a single

piece.

7. Plasticity: Plasticity increases with temperature. So, rubber is used in

calendering, extrusion through tube, moulding.

Question: Write the structure of cis and trans poly isoprene.

Gutta percha is a tough substance at room temperature but becomes soft and
tacky when heated to 100◦ C. Unlike rubber, it is soluble in most aliphatic
hydrocarbon but not in aromatic and cholrinated. It is used for golf ball
cover, sheets, tubes, submarine, cable, adhesive, surgical tissues.

Sources of Rubbers: It may be of two types.

1. The tree having long stem. (Hevea Tree) Ammonia is used as preser-
vative.

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 Figure 2: Cispolyisoprene, Transpolyisoprene

2. The bushy plant like shrub. (Guyaule Shrub, low molecular weight)
Uprooting, Chopping, Ground with Water, Boiling then rubber floats
at the top of the water.

Natural Rubber Contents:

1. Latex - 30-40
2. Protein - 2
3. Resinous Material - 2
4. Water - 50
5. Ash - 0.7

Question: What is latex. Describe briefly the method of obtaining crude

rubber from latex.

Latex: Latex is a colloidal dispersion of negatively charged (double bond

of rubber) rubber particles of 1-2 micrometer diameter. Negative charge

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stabilize the emulsion. Removal of the charged destabilize (coagulates) the
emulsion. Coagulation is carried out by adding 1-2 Acetic Acid of pH range
from 5.05 to 4.77.

Pale Crepe Rubber: The soft spongy coagulated rubber is passed through
a roller to make sheet and squeeze out serum. It is dried in open field. Roller
rotates at variable speed, thickness of sheet is not uniform.

Smoked Rubber: Crude rubber is pressed through smooth rollers at uni-

form velocity. It is dried at smoke house which is produced by burning
coconut husk to remove volatile compounds.

Collection of Rubber from Bushy Plant: Guyaule tree is uprooted from

land, deleafed, cut into small pieces. Then it is taken into water filled tank
and boiled for some time. The rubber is separated by refloatation. It con-
tains has 70% Hyrdrocarbons, 20% Resins, and 10% Cellulose/Lignin. Rub-
ber from bushy plant has lower molecular weight than hevea plant.

Refloation: It is done in industrial chambers. Rubber is hydrophobic. The

process to flow air at uniform velocity from below in water to separate hy-
drophobic and hydrophilic parts.

Chemical Reaction:

1. Oxidizes slowly on exposure to air.

2. Procudes CO2 and H2 O on burning.

QUESTION: Why rubber is a hydrocarbon?

QUESTION: Why Rubber is a unsaturated hydrocarbon?

ANSWER:

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 Figure 3: Unsaturated Hyrdrocarbon

Figure 4: Unsaturated Hyrdrocarbon

1. High temperature distilate contains dipentene. (C10 H6 )

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2. Low temperature distilate contains dipentene, isoprene.

Natural rubber has low tensile strength and elesticity. On streching it under-
goes permanent deformation. Thus, crude rubber is not suitable or usable
for the purpose to which it is commonly put. According to the desired prop-
erties, crude rubber is mixed with different chemical substances and heated
at different temperature under different pressure. The process of mixing sub-
stances with the natural rubber for the manufacture of valuable articles is
known as compounding. Vulcanization is an important part of it.

Question: What is vulcanization? Why is it so important for making

natural rubber workable. Explain the different types of vulcanization
techniques.

Question: With the help of diagram give an idea about the effect of
vulcanization in crude rubber. (2021)

Vulcanization: The process by which rubber is incorporated with some

compound such as S, H2 S, SOCl2 to improve its tensile strength and resis-
tance to abrasion, low electric and thermal conductivity, resistance
to action of water, air, acid, base etc. through sulfar brazing. Cross
linking of unsaturated hydrocarbon chain of rubber with sulfur. We can add
5-10% for elasticity and 30-40% for strong rubber. It is possible because we
can perform tuning to change the properties of rubber. The extent of vul-
canization depends upon: amount of vulcanizing agent, duration of
vulcanization (curing time), and temperature.
Examples: Polysulfide Polymer, Alkyle Phenol Sulfide, Thorium Disulfide.

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 Figure 5: Vulcanized Rubber

Question: What is rubber compounding. What are the substances used

in compounding. Mention their specific function. (2021)

Rubber Compounding: The process of adding certain chemicals to rub-

bers (fillers, curing agent) in definite proportions to obtain uniform mixture
which will have desired physical and chemical properties to meet procession
at low cost and enhance performace.

Question: Shortly describe the function of accelerators, antioxidants.

Materials used for compounding:

1. Accelerators: The substance that increase the rate of curing and shorten

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 the time requirement for vulcanization. Complex organic accelerators
are more effective than inorganic ones. It is added in proportion of
0.5-1 parts per 100 parts of rubber. Example: lime, magnesia, white
lead, thiazoles, aldehyde, amine (inoragnic) & marcepto benzothiazole,
biphenyle guanidine (organic).
The advantages of using accelerators:

ˆ The temperature of vulcanization is lowered saving steam and en-

ergy.
ˆ Time of vulcanization is lowered. So, labour and equipment cost
is reduced.
ˆ The quality of the product can be improved.

2. Accelerator Activators: The compound that is used along with accel-

erator to increase the effect of accelerators. Example: Stearic Acid,
Lithage, MgO, ZnO.

3. Antioxidants: Rubber is attacked by water, air because of the presence

of double bond which may break double bond by oxidizing agents. To
protect rubber, antioxidants are used. It is a negative catalyst. Exam-
ple: B-napthyle p-phenyleamine, phenyle B-hapthyleamine.

4. Reinforcing agent: The substance that is added in compounding to im-

prove the mechanical strength, rigidity, toughness of rubber. It also
helps preventing abrasion. The amount of reinforcing agent may be
increased upto 35% of rubber compound. Example: Carbon black,
ZnO, M gCO3 , BaSO4 , CaCO3 . Acetylene black is used to produce
electrically conducting rubber.

5. Inert Filler: The materials those are added to cut down the cost by in-
creasing the amount without deteriorating the quality of the product.
Example: BaSO4 , Barytes, Oils, Resins, Chalk.

6. The Coloring Materials: These substance impart different color to rub-

ber sheets.

ˆ T iO2 , ZnS = White

ˆ Lead Chromide, Potassium Chromate = Yellow

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 ˆ Ferric Oxide = Brown
ˆ Antimony Sulfide = Crimson
ˆ Ultramarine Blue = Blue
ˆ Chromium Oxide = Green

7. Plasticizer/Softener: The substance that is incorporated to increase the

tenacity and adhesive properties of rubber goods. Example: Oil, Wax,
Stearic Acid, Resins etc. Softeners also help in dispersing pigments.
The following substances are used as softener:

ˆ Petrolium Origin: Napthanic Oils, Aromatic Oils

ˆ Plant Origin: Vegetable Oils
ˆ Animal Oils: Fats
ˆ Synthetic Organic Substance: Esters, Liquid Polymers
ˆ N aHCO2 is used for manufacturing sponge rubber.

8. Processing Aids: It is used for uncured or undercured rubber stock.

Lubricant like substances are added to undercured stock as they are
sticky. These substances are more or less insoluble in the stock. To
impart tackiness into vulcanized rubber, which is hard and non-sticky,
taking substances are used. Pepticizers are used to reduce the viscocity,
such as Aromatic Mercaptans or Thiophenols. Reclaimed rubber is used
to improve the processibility.

9. Miscellaneous Agents: Sand or silica is added to the rubber to use as

eraser. Also, freezing point of rubber can be decreased by adding freez-
ing point depressants.

Question: Describe the techniques of vulcanization.

Techniques of Vulcanization: The following four techniques are used to

vulcanization of crude rubber.

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 1. Mould Cure Method: Rubber is mixed with requisite amount of agents.
The mixture is taken in a closed mould under hyrostatic pressure. Then
it is placed between steam hot plates. The vulcanized rubber gets shape
within the mould.
2. Steam Cure Method: The rubber is mixed with requisite agents and
heated by steam under pressure.
3. Hydraulic Cure Method: The rubber is mixed with agents in a con-
tainer. Then it is heated using boiling water under definite pressure
and temperature.
4. Electrical Cure Method: It is the newer techniques. High frequency
electrical field is used to perform vulcanization.
Ebonites: It is a hard inextensible solid produced by treating rubber with
excess amount of sulfur. It contains about 32% combined sulfur. Fillers are
used in the production of ebonites to reduce the difficulties in handling the
rubber sulfur matrix. No reinforcements are needed. Only fillers and carbon
black. Ebonite is chemically inert, Corrosion resistant, thermally and elec-
trically insulating.

Use of Vulcanized Rubber: Natural Rubber:

1. Manufacturing tires
2. Gasket, Sealing materials for refrigerators
3. Lining Material
4. Sandwich material between two metal plates
5. Manufacturing V-Belts, Safety Glass
6.Manufacturing hoses.
7.Manufacturing toys,sports goods.
8.manufacturing cushions,mattresses etc.
9.Blended with plastics & chemically treated.

Synthetic Rubber:During world war I, demand for production of rubber

was increased because of the following factors.
1. High cost of rubber

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 2. Demand for natural rubber for transportation of fuels, foods to the war
field.

Polymerization
Synthesis of Butadiene: Butadiene/Buna Rubber

1. From Butane:

Figure 6

Mixture of Butadiene, bueten-1, butene-2 is found. Furfural is added to

the mixture. Upper layer contains butene-1 and butadiene. Butene-2
is extracted through straight distillation from the bottom layer. Buta-
diene is highly soluble in furfural. It is extracted from the bottom layer
in furfural through distillation using solvent.
Polymerization

Figure 7: Vulcanized Rubber

Ethyl Alcohol
2. From Aldol Condensation:

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 Aldol Condensation

Oxidation
2

Reduction
3-hydroxy 1,3-dihydroxy butane
Dehydration butanaldehyde

Figure 8: It is widely used.

Ta Tantalum
73

Figure 9
Neoprene Rubber
Polymerization
3. Chloroprene:

Figure 10

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 # It can be vulcanized without adding any sulphur
compound.
Properties of Neoprene Rubber:
#It is soluble in polar solvent.

1. Antimony sulfide is used as an effective vulcanizing agent.

2. It has higher resistance to oxidizing agent, aging, and high temperature.

3. It is well resistant to vegetable and mineral oil.

4. It’s tensile strength is lower that natural rubber.

5. It possesse superior resistance to flame, sunlight.

Use of Neoprene Rubber:

tyres.
1. Used for manufacturing good quality of tiers.

2. Used as standard engineering materials in oil refining plant.

making
3. Used for^conveyor belts, printing rollers.

4. Used in wire, cable, coating, industrial hoses.

5. Used as container for gasoline transportation.
Styrene Rubber:

Polystyrene is an important elastomer especially useful as an electric insulator.

Figure 11: Polystyrene

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 Question: What is SBR? Briefly illustrate SBR with properties and uses.

Styrene Butadiene Rubber:

Figure 12: SBR

Properties of SBR:
1. It has high resistance to abrasion, ozone, weathering action.
2. It has high load bearing capacity. & good resilience.
3. It has poor tack forming capacity. 6.It gets readily oxidized,swells in
oils and solvents.
4. Milling of SBR is difficult.
5.It can be vulcanized in a similar way as natural rubber.

Figure 13: Freedalcraft Alkylation

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 Acrylonitrile Rubber:

Ethanon

Figure 14: Acrylonitrile Rubber

Alkyle benzyle sulfonate is used as emulsifying agent. N a2 P4 O7 is used as

complex forming agent. The properties of this rubber are:
1. Shows excellent resistance to oil, acid, salt, heat, sunlight.
2. Reasonably
1. Shows has good abrasionresilience
excellent and thermalto resistance.
oil, acid, salt, heat, sunlight.
3.It has high resistance to common solvents.
4. It has lower tensile strength than natural rubber (before vulcanization).
2. It has lower tensile strength than natural rubber (before vulcanization).
5.It less resistance to alkali than natural rubber.
6.It has relatively less resilience than natural rubber.
3. beReasonably
7.It can hasway
vulcanized similar good abrasion
as natural rubber.and thermal resistance.

Reclaimed Rubber: It is the processing of treatment of vulcanized or

Application/Uses
waste rubber byoftreating
Acrylonitrile Rubber:
with certain chemical compounds by the applica-
tion of heat and specific temperature.
1.ItProcess:
is very useful as it has resistance to oil,solvent & greases & heat resistance.
2.Used for manufacturing fuel tanks,gasoline hoses.
3.Used 1. for
Foreign material likegaskets,printing
manufacturing metal, fabrics are rollers.
separated from rubber goods.
4.Used 2. for
Heatmanufacturing
at 321-370 F and automobile
digested withparts,creamery
alkali in a closedequipments.
vessel. It removes
5.Used as theadhesives.
sulfur as alkali sulfide.
6.Vulcanized
3. Crude nitrile
rubber rubber is used
is separated fromindigestor
petrol pipes,tanks.
liquor by washing with water.
Then it is sent to dewatering press to squezze out the water.
4. Crude rubber is mixed with reinforcing agent and softener to improve
the quality.

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Reclaimed Rubber: It is the processing or treatment of vulcanized or
waste rubber by treating with certain chemical compounds by the
application of heat and specific temperature.

Process:

1. Foreign material like metal, fabrics are separated from waste

rubber.
2. Heated at 321-370 F and digested with aqueous solution alkali in a
closed vessel.
3. This removes the sulfur as alkali sulfide.
4. Then it is sent to dewatering press to squeeze out the water.
5. This is mixed with reinforcing agent and softener to improve the
quality.
Advantage of Reclaimed Rubber:
original
ˆ It is less costly than pristine rubber.

ˆ Less time, power, and heat is required for mixing with other ingredients
than new rubber.

ˆ It is less thermoplastic than virgin rubber.

ˆ It has higher ageing properties than new rubber.

Less curing time.
Use of Reclaimed Rubbe:

ˆ Manufacturing many cheap articles.

ˆ Tiers, camels back.

ˆ Rubber heels, floor mat, soles.

4.Used for automotive goods such as hose,bumpers.
Thiokol (Polysulfide Rubber) The molecular formula of sulphur is S8
which indicates it may form polymeric molecules. The elastomers in which
the sulfur atom form part of the polymering chain is called thiokol.

Figure 15: Freedalcraft Alkylation

Properties:

ˆ It tends to loss shape under continous pressure.

ˆ It’s tensile strength is lower than natural rubber.

ˆ It has poor mechanical strength and abrassion resistance.

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Use of Thiokol

1. Barrage balloon.

2. Oil tank lining.

3. Solid propelling fuel.

Manufacturing Process of Neoprene:

Pyrogallol+
Chloroprene

Figure 16
1.Mixing of ingredients: 4% wood resin,.6% S,0.8% NaOH,1% K2SO4

+ˆ Na salt of napthalene sulphonic acid-formaldehyde condensate is used.

+100% chloroprene,150% water
ˆ2.De
After deemulsification,
emulsification freeze coagulation is performed to seperate from
by adding CH3COOH.
mixture.from mixture by freeze coagulation.
3.Separation

ˆ Size is controlled by adding alkyle merceptans.

5.Branching is prevented by adding inhibitors.
ˆ Inhibitors are used to prevent the formation of hard, non elastic rubber.
branching.

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 Question: Describe the preparation and uses of SBR.

Manufacturing Process of SBR

Charge

Figure 17

Ethylene

Figure 18

Bailing

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1:3

Figure 19

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Recommended process

modifier

# 0.1 % Inhibitor # 0.1 % Inhibitor

7.150% water.

Figure 20: Different Process for SBR

Question:What are the differences between plastic and rubber.

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Fabrication of Rubber Goods:

1. Mastification: The process to soften rubber by continuous breakdown

into small pieces.

2. Roll Mill: Two or more parallel horizontal rollers is opposite direction

at different speeds.

3. Mixing: To mix different ingredients.

ˆ Getting better blend of all constituents

ˆ Getting better dispersion of pigments
ˆ Producing consecutive batches

4. Calendering: The materials are formed into sheet or on fabrics. It

consists of three parallel roll arranged one above another driven at
variable speed. Cold and hot water are passed through the hollow
space.

Figure 21: Different Process for SBR

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2 Fertilizers
Question: What is fertilizer? (2021) Write down the raw materials and
manufacturing process of urea fertilizer with schematic flow diagram.

Fertilizers are natural or artificial chemical compounds that are applied to

soil to enhance the fertility of soil and replenish the deficiency of chemical
elements that are consumed by plants by previous cultivation.

Major Fertilizer Compounds:

ˆ Nitrogen Based: N H3 , N H4 N O3 , (N H4 )2 SO4 , (N H2 )2 CO, N aN O3 ,

Ca(N O3 )2

ˆ Phosphate Based: CaH4 (P O4 )2 H2 O (monocalciumphosphate), CaHP O4

(dicalcium phosphate)

ˆ Potassium Based: KCl, K2 SO4

ˆ Multinutrients: N H4 H2 P O4 (monoammoniumphospate), (N H4 H)2 HP O4

(diammoniumphospate)

Question: Describe the classification of fertilizer. (2021)

Classification:

ˆ Inorganic: Contains inorganic compounds

Organic: Contains organic compounds.

ˆ Indirect: Added to soil in order to improve the chemical, mechanical,

biological properties.
Direct: Phosphate, nitrate, potas etc are present.

ˆ Simple, Double, Triple, Micro, Complex Fertilizers

ˆ Water Soluble, Solube in Soil Acid

Function of N2

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 1. Encourage vegetable growth and impert green color.

2. Increase protein contents.

3. Regulate the utilization of potassium phosphate.

Adverse Effects of Abundant Supply of Nitrogen:

1. It delays the ripening by encouraging the vefetable growth.

2. It delays the reproductive growth and has adverse effect on fruit and
seen quality.

3. The straw of cereal crops becomes weak and seed quality.

4. It deteriorates the quality of potato, barly.

Adverse Effects of Deficiency of Nitrogen:

1. The plants become yellowish and stunted.

2. The leaves and young fruits tend to drop out.

3. The fruits ripen permanently and gives por crops yield.

4. The seed of different crops do not attain normal size.

5. The flower turns pale and sheds permanently.

Micronutrients: Out of 16 essential nurtients for the growth of plants seven

are required to small amount but most essentials elements. There are called
micronutrients. There are B, Cl, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo.

Functions of Micronutrients:

1. They help in the photosynthesis of green plant.

2. They participate in the production of cholorophyll.

3. They are resposible for the activities of enzymes.

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 4. They are essential for the production of vitamin and other compounds.

5. They maintains the ratio of potassium and calcium.

Method of Production of N H4 N O3 : There are three methods for it: a)

Crystallification b) Flacking c) Prilling

Prilling Method:

1. Neutralization: Heated ammonia vapor produced by Haber’s Process is

passed.

Figure 22

2. Evaporation: 83% N H4 N O3 is passed through a hearer supplied with

steam for neutralization. Then it is passed through cacuum evaporation
where it is concentrated about 95%.

3. Prilling: The sample is sprayed into prilling tower which is cooled by

ascending current of air.

4. Drying and Finishing: The adsorbed water is removed by evaporation.

Short prilling tower is avoided despite its lesser time to dry due to low
quality.

ˆ Stengel: Super heated ammonia vapour and concentrated nitric

acid is passed in a cyclone.
ˆ Bamag: Nitric acid and ammonia gas is pumped into melt.of NH4NO3
ˆ Crystallization: Solution is crystallized and crystals are removed
using centrifugers.

Question: Write down the raw materials and describe the manufacturing
process of TSP fertilizer with schematic flow diagram.

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 Question: Write down the characteristics of good fertilizer. Explain in
brief about the pH value of soild.

Non-Toxic, Deliquescent, Soluble in Water.

Question: What are the essential requirement of a fertilizer.

Replenish nutrients used by previous plants, Supply additional tonic and

foods, Maintain the pH of soil.

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 Question: What is pulp? Explain the alkaline process for making sul-
phate of kraft plum from wood.

3 Paper:
Paper is a material manufactured in a thin sheet from pulp of wood or various
fibrous plants which is used in myriad application such as for writing, drawing,
printing and wrapping purpose. The following ingredients are necessary for
production of 1 Metric Ton paper.

Figure 23

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Chemical Process:

Figure 24

or stainless steel ,lead & bronze

,strong fiber fiber is weaker than kraft

Figure 25

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Recovery of Black Liquor: It is important for Kraft process. Black
liquor washed from the pulp contains almost 95 to 98% of the total chemicals
charged. It is concentrated, burned in smelting furnace and limed.

Figure 26

Green Liquor:Molten smelt is dissolved to give green liquor by falling into

a weak solution coming from causticizing plant. Insoluble impurities are
allowed to settle out, and any carbonate is then causticized by adding slaked
lime. The slurry is the seperated in settlers and roary continuous filters.

Question: Describe the batting calendering process of making paper.

Question: What are the functions of sizing agent and bleaching agent
for the manufacturing of pulp and paper.

Sizing agent control the penetration of water into paper. Bleaching agent
removes the lignin from the pulp.

Question: Describe the manufacturing process of sulphate pulp with

flow diagram. (2021)

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4 Sugar Industry
Sugar: Any classes of compounds which is soluble, crystalline, typically
sweet tasting of carbohydrates obtained from various plant, specially from
sugarcane (33%), sugar beat (60%).

Corn Sweeteners: Glucose syrup prepared from starch by treating with

α-amylase can be treated with different immobilized enzyme such as glucose
isomer. This will convert upto 43% of glucose to fructose. This increases the
sweetening process 1.3 times. It is called High Fructose Corn Sugar (HFCS).

Uses:

Figure 27

Question: Explain in details the recovery of sugar from molasses.

Manufacture of Sugar:

ˆ Harvesting is accomplished by hands with machetes.

ˆ The workers cut off the stacks above the ground and top of the cane.

ˆ There can be no delay to transport the fresh cane.

ˆ The cane is washed to subplant the mud.

ˆ The cane is chopped and shreded by crushers.

ˆ The juice is extracted by passing the crushed cane through a series of

mills.

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 ˆ The juice is screened to remove the floated impurities and treated with
lime.

ˆ The mixture is heated with high pressure steam and settle in large tank.

ˆ Continuous rotatory drum vacuum filters are used to cover the sugar.

ˆ The clarified juice is evaporated to 40% by quadropole effect evapora-

tion.

ˆ Concentrated juice is pressed through three single effect vaccum pans.

Question: Describe the manufacturing process of sugar with flow dia-

gram from sugar cane.

1. Film of molasses are removed from raw sugar crystals through affination
using heavy syrup of Brix in heavy scroll conveyors called minglers.

2. Sugar crystals are dumped into partially sweet hot water of half their
weight.

3. It is then treated by clarification.

4. The pH is adjusted using inert material and mixture is filtered in press.

5. Clear solution with slightly improved color is achieved.

6. Calirfied liquor is then sent to decolorization reducing the coloring mat-

ter by 45%.

7. Calcium carbonate is precipitated using carbonation. It is then removed

by filtration.

Question: Write down the use of bagasses.

Source of energy (electricity) for sugar mills, Source of bio ethanol, bagasses
board (Bangladesh, India), Cattle Feed (Fermantation with enzyme and mo-
lasses), Produce paper, Furniture making.

Question: Describe the method of testing or estimation of sugar.

30
In colorimetric method, acid is added in the sugar which creates furfural
compound. Anthroene reagent is added which produces blue green colored
complex. The intensity of the coloured complex is equivalent to the amount
of sugar present in the sample which is determined by comparing it with an
known standard graph.

Question: What is inversion? How does it affect sugar production.

Sugar inversion is the chemical conversion of saccharose into glucose and

fructose. This process is enhanced by acids and high temperatures. It has
following adverse effects: forms carboxylic acid lowering pH, sucrose loss,
economic consequences, formation of coloring material, migration of moisture,
increases viscosity of sugar liquor,

Question: Discuss about the uses of byproducts of a sugar industry.

(2021)

Bagasse, Molasses (For producing Ethanol), Filter Mud (Contains Nitrogen

for fertilizer), Refined Wax.

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5 Cement Industry:
Cement is a dry powdery substance made by pulverizing clinker accounts
for essentially of hydraulic calcium, aluminates, silica of varying composition
which when come in contact with water becomes hard like stone.

Question: What are Calcareous and Argillaceous materials? Give ex-

amples. (2021)

Elements:

1. Ca.SiO2 (C2 S) Dicalcium Silicate: Resposible for final strength devel-

oped in 2 years.

2. CaO.SiO2 (C3 S) Tricalcium Silicate: Develops both early strength with-

ing 7-8 days and final strength in 2 years.

3. CaO.Al2 O3 (C3 A) Tricalcium Aluminate: It causes initial flash set.

4. CaO.Al2 O3 .F e2 O3 (C4 AF ) Tetracalcium Alumina: Alkali lower the clink-

ering temperature.

Types:

1. Regular

2. Moderate Heat of Hardening and Sulfate Resistance

3. High Early Strength

4. Low Heat of Hydration

5. Sulphate Resistance

32
 Figure 28

Question: Discuss the setting and hardening process of cement.

Question: What is meant by Portland cement? Write the general com-

position of Portland Cement. (2021) Discuss its manufacturing process
by wet process.

Question: Write down the manufactuing process of conventional ceramic

product with flow diagram.

Question: Write down the reactions at different temperature that take

place during burning of raw materials of cement in the rotary kiln.
(2021)

Question: Cooling is considered a very important step in the manufac-

turing process of cement clinker. Explain.

Question: How does setting of cement take place with water. (2021)

33
 Question: Describe the manufacturing process of cement in Chatak ce-
ment mill with the flow chart diagram.

Hydrolysis:

3CaO.SiO2 + H2 O → CaO.SiO2 + Ca(OH)2

2CaO.SiO2 + H2 O → CaO.2SiO2 + Ca(OH)2
Hydration:

2CaO.SiO2 + H2 O → 2CaO.SiO2 .4H2 O

3CaO.Al2 O3 + 6H2 O → 3CaO.Al2 O3 .6H2 O
3CaO.Al2 O.xH2 O + CaSO4 .2H2 O → 3CaO.Al2 O3 .CaSO4 .3H2 O
2CaO.Al2 O3 + nH2 O → 2CaO.Al2 O3 .nH2 O (n = 5 to 9)
4CaO.Al2 O3 + nH2 O → 4CaO.Al2 O3 .nH2 O (n = 12 to 16)
Factors:
ˆ Burn Ability Index: 0.45 to 0.85
C3 A + C3 AF
C3 S

ˆ Lime Saturation Factor: 0.66 to 1.2

CaO
2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2 O3 + 0.65F e2 O3

ˆ Silica Modulus: 2.2 to 3.5

SiO2
Al2 O3 + F e2 O3

ˆ Alumina Modulus: Greater than 0.66

Al2 O3
F e2 O3

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6 Polymers
Polymers are large molecules that account for small repeating units that are
joined together by covalent bonds.
CH2 = CH2
−[−CH2 − CH2 −]n −
Repeating Units: The structural units that are enclosed by paranthesis.
−[−CH2 − CH2 −]−
Base Units: The smallest repeating unit in the polymer backbone.

End Groups: The structural units in which the polymers terminate. It has
two types: (i) Reduced Group (ii) Oxidized Group.
CH3 − CH2 − [−CH2 − CH2 −]n − CH = CH2

Question: Classify polymers from different point of view.

Reactive Polymers: It is oligomers that contain reactive end groups ca-

pable of undergoing further polymerization by the application heat to form
network polymers.

Homochain Polymer: It is consisted of one atom type in the backbone of

polymers. Example: Polyethylene.

Heterochain Polymer: It is comprised of more than one atom type in the

backbone. Example: Polyesters.

Question: What is degree of polymerization?

Degree of Polymerization: The total number of repeating unit includ-

ing end groups. For example, if the polymer is following. Then Degree of
Polymerization (DP) will be:
CH3 − CH2 − [−CH2 − CH2 −]n − CH = CH2
DP = n + 2

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 Question: Describe Homo Polymer, Co-Polymer.

Homopolymers: It account for one type of monomer.

Heteropolymer: It account for more than one type of monomer in the

backbone.

−A − B − B − A − B − A − B− → Random Polymer
−A − B − A − B − A − B− → Alternating Polymer
A − A − A − B − B − B → Block Polymer
A − A − A(B − B − B) − A → Graft Polymer

Linear Polymer: It is consisted of one polymer branching from the back-

bone of other.

Alternate Polymer: The repeating units are arranged in alternate fashion.

Linear Polymer: It has no branching other than the pendant groups asso-
ciated with the monomer.

Figure 29

Branched Polymer: It arises as a result of polymerization reaction of the

side chain or having reactive end groups during the reaction.

Figure 30

36
Network Polymer: These are formed when linear of branched polymers
are united together by covalent bonds with cross linking.

Figure 31

Unusual Polymer:

Figure 32: Star

Figure 33: Comb

Figure 34: Ladder

37
 Figure 35: Semi Ladder

Figure 36: Derivative (Hyper Branched)

Question: Polymers are macromolecules but all macromolecules are not

polymer. Explain.

Question: All fibers are polymer but all polymers are not fibers.

Question: Define the property of macromolecules

38
Thermosetting Polymer: Because of cross linking the chain of polymers
loss their ability to flow pass aone another. As a result, the polymer will not
melt and cant be remoulded. Example: Backelite, Epoxy, Resin.

Properties:

1. They are generally heat resistance in nature.

2. They have high MP, high cross linking and high MW.

3. They cant be reshaped or remoulded easily.

4. They are resistance in chemical effect.

5. They are insoluble in organic solvent.

Application:

1. They are used for manufacturing permanent parts in wide array of

industried.

2. Used for producing electrical goods, insulation, panels.

3. Used for the manufacturing of construction equipment.

4. In automobile, they are used for making brake piston.

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Thermoplastic Polymer: These polymers are not crosslinked, may be dis-
solved in organic solvent and in most instances, they can be reshaped and
remoulded. Example: Polyethylene, Polypropylene.

Properties:

1. They have low MP, low degree of crosslinking, low MW.

2. The intermolecular forces acting between polymer chain are weak.

3. They are recyclable.

4. These are high weight.

Application:

1. They are used in sports components.

2. They are utilized in toys.

3. Used in CDs and DVDs.

4. These are used in soft drink bottles, food container.

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