1. Introduction to Philosophy (e.g., flawed reasoning).

The
Principle of Charity encourages
Philosophy comes from the Greek words
interpreting arguments in their
philos (love) and sophia (wisdom),
strongest form to ensure fairness.
meaning "love of wisdom." It is the
systematic study of fundamental Socrates: Focused on moral
questions about existence, knowledge, philosophy and critical thinking
values, reason, mind, and language. through the Socratic Method of
Philosophy seeks to provide clarity, questioning. He emphasized self-
justification, and coherence in examination, famously saying,
understanding these concepts. “The unexamined life is not worth
living.”

To provide a framework for Plato: A student of Socrates, he

understanding reality, knowledge, developed the Theory of Forms,
values, and reasoning, shaping which posits that true reality
exists in perfect, unchanging
philosophical inquiry and human
"Forms." In The Republic, he
thought. There are 4 branches envisioned an ideal society led by
philosopher-kings.

1. Metaphysics explores the nature Aristotle: Plato’s student, he

of reality, existence, and the rejected the Theory of Forms,
universe, addressing questions emphasizing observation and
like What is real? and What does practical reasoning. Known for his
it mean to exist? Golden Mean in ethics, he
advocated balance and
2. Epistemology studies moderation in behavior.
knowledge, its sources, and
limits, asking What is
knowledge? and How do we
justify belief?
3. Value Theory includes:
o Ethics, which evaluates
human behavior and moral
principles, exploring What
is right or wrong?
o Aesthetics, which
examines beauty, art, and
their significance.
4. Logic focuses on reasoning and
argumentation, distinguishing
valid arguments from fallacies

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 4. Moral Judgments: Evaluating
actions as right or wrong.
2. Introduction to Ethics
5. Moral Responsibility:
Ethics, also known as moral
Accountability for one’s actions.
philosophy
6. Ethical Theories: Frameworks
The word "ethics" comes from the
like consequentialism
Greek word ethos which means
(outcomes), deontology (rules),
"character" or "personal
and virtue ethics (character).
disposition". The Latin word mores
means "customs" or "manners". 7. Rights and Duties: Balancing
individual entitlements with social
These domains collectively examine
obligations.
the foundations, principles, and
practical applications of morality. 8. Justice and Fairness: Ensuring
equitable treatment.
1. Meta-Ethics explores the nature
and meaning of morality, asking if 9. Reason and Emotion: Both logic
moral truths are objective, and feelings guide ethical
subjective, or culturally relative. decisions.
2. Normative Ethics provides These concepts help resolve moral
frameworks for moral decision- dilemmas and promote fairness and
making, focusing on principles harmony in society.
like consequences (e.g.,
Application in Daily Life:
utilitarianism), duties (e.g.,
deontology), and virtues (e.g., Ethics applies to all areas of life, from
virtue ethics). personal decisions to professional
responsibilities. For instance:
3. Applied Ethics addresses real-
world moral issues, such as  To do one's duty is moral, such
medical ethics, environmental as fulfilling a promise.
ethics, and business ethics.
 To neglect it is immoral, like
Ethics is the study of morality, focusing breaking a commitment.
on principles that guide right and wrong
actions. Key concepts include:  Neutral decisions (amoral),
such as picking an outfit, fall
1. Morality: Rules defining outside moral evaluation.
acceptable behavior.
By adhering to ethical principles,
2. Moral Values: Core beliefs like individuals contribute to a fair,
honesty, kindness, and justice. harmonious society where rights are
respected, obligations are fulfilled, and
3. Moral Norms: Standards of
freedom is responsibly exercised.
behavior derived from values.

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 3. Frameworks for Moral Reasoning:

1. Consequentialism:
3. Moral Agent and Moral Reasoning o Focuses on outcomes;
actions are judged by their
1. Moral Agent consequences.
o Example: Choosing an
A moral agent is an individual or entity action that maximizes
capable of making moral decisions and happiness or minimizes
being held accountable for their actions. harm.
To qualify as a moral agent, one must 2. Deontology:
possess: o Emphasizes duties and
rules, irrespective of
 Moral Awareness: The ability to outcomes.
distinguish right from wrong. o Example: Always telling
 Freedom of Choice: The the truth, even if it leads to
capacity to act according to one’s a negative result.
will. 3. Virtue Ethics:
 Accountability: Responsibility o Centers on character and
for the consequences of one’s virtues rather than specific
actions. actions.
o Example: Acting with
2. Moral Reasoning honesty because it aligns
with being a virtuous
Moral reasoning is the process by person.
which individuals evaluate actions,
behaviors, or decisions based on ethical 4. Importance of Moral Reasoning:
principles and values. It involves
identifying what is morally right or wrong  Promotes Ethical Decision-
and why. Making: Helps resolve moral
dilemmas by providing a
Key Components of Moral structured evaluation process.
Reasoning:  Encourages Accountability:
Ensures that individuals take
 Understanding the Situation: responsibility for their choices.
Recognizing the ethical issues or  Builds Moral Integrity:
dilemmas involved. Strengthens the alignment of
 Applying Moral Principles: actions with ethical principles,
Using frameworks like justice, fostering trust and respect in
fairness, or duty to evaluate relationships and society.
actions.
 Critical Thinking: Weighing
different perspectives, potential
consequences, and conflicting
values.

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 morality is defined by each
society’s norms.
o Argues that an action is
4. Moral Agent and Culture
right or wrong depending
Philosophy: A Text with Readings" on the culture in which it
(11th edition) by Manuel Velasquez, occurs.
specifically focusing on the topic "Is
o Faces challenges, such as
Ethics Relative?"
the inability to criticize
The text explores the relationship one’s own society or
between ethics and morality, focusing on provide a clear standard
the contrasting ideas of cultural when societal views
relativism, ethical relativism, and conflict.
ethical absolutism.
4. Ethical Absolutism
1. Ethics vs. Social Sciences
o Asserts that one universal
o Social sciences like moral standard exists,
sociology and applicable to all people
anthropology study and cultures.
morality descriptively,
o Criticizes ethical relativism
focusing on how people
for its logical flaws and
actually behave.
inability to address
o Ethics, in contrast, asks fundamental shared values
how people should behave across cultures.
and what beliefs are
o Example: Even societies
morally correct.
permitting infanticide often
2. Cultural Relativism share the core value of
protecting life, adapted to
o Observes that different
their harsh circumstances.
societies have varying
moral practices (e.g., 5. Critiques of Ethical Relativism
infanticide among Inuit or
o Disagreement on moral
widow marriage in Africa).
issues doesn’t prove the
o It is a sociological fact absence of universal moral
describing the diversity of truths (e.g., disagreements
moral standards across in science don't mean truth
cultures. doesn’t exist).
3. Ethical Relativism o Ethical relativism
discourages moral
o Claims there are no
criticism and reform,
universal moral truths;
limiting progress.

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 6. Tolerance and Critical Thinking
o While ethical relativism
emphasizes tolerance for
diverse moral systems, it is
still important to critically
evaluate both one’s own
beliefs and those of others.
o Acknowledges that some
societies may have more
reasonable or effective
moral practices.
7. Conclusion
o Regardless of the stance
on relativism or
absolutism, individuals and
societies must establish
reasonable moral
standards to guide
behavior and collective
decisions.

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 The Three Pitakas (Baskets)
5. Ethics of Buddhism 1. Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline
Basket)
Buddhist ethics, known as Sīla, are a
foundational aspect of the religion's path o Purpose: To maintain
to enlightenment. They focus on actions harmony and discipline
and intentions that reduce suffering and within the monastic
promote harmony. Unlike some systems community (Sangha).
based on divine commandments,
Buddhist ethics are grounded in 2. (Dhamma) Sutta Pitaka
mindfulness, compassion, and (Discourse Basket)
wisdom, encouraging practitioners to o Purpose: To guide
act skillfully in alignment with the natural individuals on the path to
law of karma (cause and effect).
enlightenment through
teachings on morality,
meditation, and wisdom.
“Cease to do evil,” sums up the code
of Buddhist morality contained in the five 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
precepts that invite followers to refrain (Philosophy/Analysis Basket)
from certain actions. o Purpose: To provide an in-
1. Refrain from harming living things. depth understanding of the
nature of reality and the
2. Refrain from taking what is not given. mind.
3. Refrain from a misuse of the senses. 4 Noble Truths
4. Refrain from wrong speech. 1. Duhkha: The Truth of Suffering
2. Samudaya: The Truth of the
5. Refrain from taking drugs or drinks
Cause of Suffering
which tend to cloud the mind.
3. Nirodha: The Truth of the
- Excerpt from the book of Manuel Cessation of Suffering
Velasquez 4. Marga: The Truth of the Path to
the Cessation of Suffering
Eight Fold Path
short discussion by Prof. Manuel Dy
Rational Aspect
Life of Buddha – Siddhartha Gautama
- Right View
The Buddha, born Siddhartha Gautama,
- Right Thoughts
was an Indian prince who renounced his
- Right Speech
royal life to seek enlightenment
(understanding the truth about life and Volitional Aspect
suffering), ultimately founding Buddhism
- Right Action
and teaching the path to overcome
- Right living
suffering.

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 - Right Effort the moral cause-and-effect relationship
and the cycle of existence. Together,
Emotional Aspect
they form the framework of samsara,
- Right Mindfulness the endless cycle of birth, death, and
- Right Concentration rebirth.

2 aspects Karma means "action" or "deed."

Negative (avoiding evil) - It refers to intentional actions—

thoughts, words, and deeds—that
Positive (doing cultivating the good) lead to consequences, shaping
Five moral virtues (Panca Sila) one’s present and future
experiences.
1. Taking life of oneself and of
others Rebirth refers to the continuation of
2. Taking what is not given existence after death in another form,
3. Wrong indulge in sense pleasure driven by unresolved karma.
4. Falsehood
- It is not the transmigration of a
5. Indolence consequent in use of
permanent soul (as in Hinduism)
intoxicants
but the continuation of causal
10 moral virtues processes (like a flame passing
from one candle to another).
First four
Nirvana:
5.Slander
 The ultimate goal of Buddhism is
6. Harsh or rough speech
to escape samsara by attaining
7. frivolous chatter nirvana, a state free from
craving, ignorance, and the cycle
8. covetousness
of karma and rebirth.
9. malevolence
 Nirvana ends the continuation of
10. false or heretical views suffering and leads to ultimate
peace.

The phrase "One who loves himself

should not harm another" reflects a
fundamental Buddhist teaching about
compassion and ethical conduct. It
highlights the interconnectedness
between self-care and the treatment of
others.
The concepts of karma and rebirth are
central to Buddhist teachings, explaining

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 1. Final Telos: The most final,
unconditionally good, chosen for itself,
6. Virtue Ethics of Aristotle
always.
2. Self-Sufficient: Desirable in
Historical Background themselves (e.g., honor, health, virtue).

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was a Greek 3. Attainable: Goods desirable not in

philosopher who founded the Lyceum in themselves but leading to further goods
Athens. His Nicomachean Ethics is a (e.g., wealth, pleasure).
seminal work on virtue ethics.
Eudaimonia Illustrations
Aristotle's Key Concepts
- A person living a virtuous life, with a
1. Telos (End/Goal): The purpose or sense of purpose and fulfillment.
ultimate goal of human life, which is
- A swallow (bird) flourishing in its
perceived as good. There's a hierarchy
natural environment, illustrating ergon.
of purposes, with the final telos being
the highest. Essentialism
2. Eudaimonia: Often translated as Aristotle's philosophy is essentialist,
"flourishing," "happiness," or meaning he believes in the inherent
"blessedness," but it's more complex. essence or nature of things.
Eudaimonia is:
Character and Reason
- The highest purpose and highest
Aristotle emphasizes the development of
good
virtuous character (ethos) and the
- Not an emotion, but a long-term cultivation of reason (logos) as essential
state for achieving Eudaimonia.
- Not equivalent to nirvana or stoicism Reviewer on Aristotle's Nicomachean
Ethics (Book I)
- Development for self-fulfillment, in
accordance with virtue (arête) The Pursuit of the Good:
3. Ergon (Function): The unique
function or purpose of a person,  All human actions aim at some
distinguishing them from others. For good, with the ultimate "chief
good" being eudaimonia
humans, it's the activity of reason.
(happiness or flourishing), sought
4. Arête (Virtue): Moral excellence, for its own sake.
achieved through cultivating virtues like
wisdom, courage, and justice. The Role of Political Science:

Criteria for Ultimate Telos  Happiness, the highest good, is

connected to political science, as
it organizes virtues and
knowledge to achieve the well-

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 being of both individuals and  Appetitive/Desiring Soul:
society. The happiness of the Governs desires and emotions
community is superior to (e.g., hunger, pleasure); shared
individual happiness. with animals but influenced by
reason in humans.
The Nature of Happiness:
The Rational Soul:
 Happiness is not pleasure,
wealth, or honor but the activity  Practical Wisdom (Phronesis):
of the soul in accordance with Guides moral decision-making
virtue over a complete life. It is and helps cultivate virtues like
self-sufficient and the ultimate courage and temperance by
end. balancing desires.

The Function of Humans: phronimos is an individual who

embodies practical wisdom
 The unique function of humans (phronesis) and serves as a model of
lies in rational activity. A good moral and intellectual excellence. The
life involves performing rational phronimos uses reason to make sound
activities excellently, guided by judgments and acts virtuously in all
virtue. aspects of life.

The Importance of Virtue:  Philosophic Wisdom (Sophia):

Engages in intellectual pursuits
 Virtue, both moral and and understanding universal
intellectual, is essential for truths, leading to the highest
happiness. It is cultivated through happiness (eudaimonia).
habit and education.
Significance in Aristotle's Ethics
External Goods:
The structure of the soul is crucial for
 While virtue is central, external understanding virtue:
goods (e.g., wealth, friendships)
are necessary to support virtuous Moral Virtues: Cultivated through
actions and ensure a complete controlling the appetitive part with
life. rational guidance (e.g., courage,
temperance).
Main Divisions of the Soul
Intellectual Virtues: Cultivated through
The Irrational Soul: the contemplative part (e.g., wisdom,
knowledge).
 Vegetative/Nutritive Soul:
Responsible for basic life Mesotes is a key concept in Aristotle’s
functions (nutrition, growth, virtue ethics, referring to the "Golden
reproduction); shared by plants, Mean"—a state of balance between two
animals, and humans. extremes of excess and deficiency.

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Aristotle argues that virtues are  The categorical imperative is
achieved by maintaining this balance, the central principle: act only
guiding moral behavior and decision- according to maxims that can be
making universalized.

Critique of Empirical Morality:

7. Deontology of Kant
 Kant argues against basing
"Fundamental Principles of the morality on examples, emotions,
Metaphysic of Morals" by Immanuel or self-interest, as these lack
Kant. It provides a foundational universal validity.
examination of moral philosophy and  Genuine morality stems from
respect for the moral law as a
ethics, emphasizing the necessity of a
product of reason.
priori principles (principles derived
from reason rather than experience) for Importance of Pure Philosophy:
grounding moral laws.
Why I must do the right thing?  Moral principles must be derived
from metaphysics of morals, a
- Because it is the right thing to do pure philosophy that applies
universally to all rational beings.
Division of Philosophy:
Deontology is an ethical theory that
 Philosophy is divided into logic emphasizes the morality of actions
(formal), physics (natural laws), based on adherence to rules, duties, or
and ethics (laws of freedom). obligations, rather than their
 Ethics should be based on pure consequences. The term comes from
rational principles, not empirical the Greek words "deon" (duty) and
or anthropological observations. "logos" (study or logic).

Concept of Duty: Examples of Deontological Rules

 Actions are morally good only if  Do not lie, even if lying could
done from duty, not out of produce good outcomes.
inclination or for expected  Do not kill, even if it could save
outcomes. others.
 A good will is the only thing  Keep promises, regardless of
inherently good, independent of inconvenience or harm.
its effects.
Universalizability is a key principle in
Moral Law: Kantian ethics, stating that a moral
action is right if the maxim (principle or
 Moral laws must have absolute rule) behind it can be consistently
necessity and not rely on applied as a universal law for
subjective desires or inclinations. everyone, without contradiction. This
idea is central to Immanuel Kant's

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categorical imperative, which guides
moral decision-making.

Key Steps:
1. Formulate the guiding maxim of
your action.
2. Imagine if everyone followed this
rule universally.
3. Check for contradictions:
o Logical Contradiction: The
rule undermines itself
when universalized (e.g.,
"It’s okay to lie").
o Practical Contradiction:
The universalized rule fails
to achieve its purpose
(e.g., "Stealing is
acceptable").

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