Physics 1214

Chapter 8
Momentum
 Momentum
How can we deal with problems where the force acting on an object are not well
known?

Energy consideration can, at times, be helpful if the force is conservative or if it doesn’t

do any work.

How can we deal with the following scenarios?

• Golf club striking a golf ball
• Racket striking a tennis ball
• Bat hitting a baseball
• The collision between a bowling ball and a bowling pin
• A collision between two automobiles

In each of these examples a brief, but substantial, force between two objects induces a
significant change in the motion of one or both objects
 Impulse and Momentum
Consider a nonconstant force acting on an object:

⃗ Δ𝑣𝑣⃗
∑𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚
Δ𝑡𝑡
The area under the Force vs. Time graph is: ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚Δ𝑣𝑣⃗

This quantity is known as Impulse: 𝐽𝐽⃗ = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Δ𝑡𝑡 Units: 𝑁𝑁 ⋅ 𝑠𝑠

Consider the total impulse on an object:

∑𝐽𝐽⃗ = ∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Δ𝑡𝑡 = ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚Δ𝑣𝑣⃗
= 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 = Δ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗
Momentum is defined as: 𝑝𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗ Units: 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

Impulse-Momentum Theorem: ∑𝐽𝐽⃗ = Δ𝑝𝑝⃗

 Momentum
Momentum quantifies the state of motion of an object
“weighted” by its inertial properties: 𝑝𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
Momentum is a vector quantity: 𝑝𝑝⃗ = �𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧
We can revisit Newton’s Second Law:
Δ𝑣𝑣⃗ Δ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗ Δ𝑝𝑝⃗ Δ𝑝𝑝⃗
⃗
∑𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚 = = ⇒ ∑𝐹𝐹⃗ = lim
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡

If we have a system that consists of two or more particles, then we can define the total
momentum of the system as the vector sum of the momenta of the particles:
𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 = ∑𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ = ∑𝑝𝑝⃗ = 𝑃𝑃 = �𝑃𝑃𝑦𝑦 = ∑𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑃𝑧𝑧 = ∑𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧
 Example 8.1
Suppose a small compact car with a mass of 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is traveling north on Morewood
Avenue at a speed of 15 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠. At the intersection of Morewood and Fifth Avenues, it
collides with a truck with a mass of 2000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 that is traveling east on Fifth Avenue at
10 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.

Treating each vehicle as a particle, find the total momentum (magnitude and direction)
just before the collision.
 Conservation of Momentum
Assuming that the only force action on the astronauts is
𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵
due to their interaction. These are called internal forces.
Forces may be exerted on any part of the system by objects
outside the system; these are called external forces.
A system that is acted upon by no external forces is
Δ𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴
called an isolated system. ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 = lim
Δ𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡
If the net force on both together are considered, then:
Δ𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵
Consider the net force on the system: ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 = lim
Δ𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡
0 Δ𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵 Δ 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵
∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴 + ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = + = =0
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡

The total momentum of an insolated system does not change with time. It is conserved
throughout the interaction, i.e., Δ𝑝𝑝⃗𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = Δ𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0
 Example 8.2
An astronaut is floating in space 100 𝑚𝑚 from her ship when her safety cable becomes
unlatched. She and the ship are motionless relative to each other. The astronaut’s mass
(including space suit) is 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘; she has a 1.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 wrench and only a 20-minute air supply.
Thinking back to her physics classes, she devises a plan to use conservation of momentum
to get back to the ship safely by throwing the wrench away from her.
A. In what direction should she throw the wrench?
B. What is the magnitude of her recoil velocity if she throws the wrench at 10 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠?
C. Will her recoil velocity be great enough to get her back to the spacecraft before she
runs out of air?
 Example 8.3
A marksman holds a 3.00 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 rifle loosely, so that we can ignore any horizontal external
forces acting on the rifle–bullet system. He fires a bullet of mass 5.00 𝑔𝑔 horizontally
with a speed 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 300 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
A. What is the recoil speed 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 of the rifle?
B. What are the final kinetic energies of the bullet and the rifle?
 Example 8.4
Two gliders move toward each other on a linear air
track, which we assume is frictionless. Glider 𝐴𝐴 has
a mass of 0.50 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, and glider 𝐵𝐵 has a mass of
0.30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘; both gliders move with an initial speed of
2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠. After they collide, glider 𝐵𝐵 moves away
with a final velocity whose component is +2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.

What is the final velocity of 𝐴𝐴?

 Example 8.5
The figure shows two chunks of ice sliding on the
surface of a frictionless frozen pond.

Chunk 𝐴𝐴, with mass 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 5.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 moves with initial
velocity 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 parallel to the 𝑥𝑥-axis. It
collides with chunk 𝐵𝐵, which has mass 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 = 3.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
and is initially at rest. After the collision, the velocity
of 𝐴𝐴 is found to be 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 in a direction at
an angle 𝛼𝛼 = 30° with the initial direction.

What is the final velocity of 𝐵𝐵 (magnitude and direction)?

 Collisions
A collision is any strong interaction between two objects that lasts a relatively short
time. Examples such as:
• a car accident
• balls hitting each other on a billiard table
• the slowing of neutrons in a nuclear reactor by encounters with nuclei
• the impact of a meteor on the Arizona desert.
If the interaction forces are much larger than any external forces, we can model the
system as an isolated system, ignoring the external forces entirely.
Elastic collision: If the interaction forces between the objects are conservative, the
total kinetic energy of the system is the same after the collision as before.
Inelastic collision: A collision in which the total kinetic energy after the collision is less
than that before the collision is called an inelastic collision.
Completely Inelastic Collision: The colliding objects stick together and move as one
object after the collision. This results in the largest loss of kinetic energy.
 Completely Inelastic Collisions
Consider two objects collide and stick together.
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖
If the system is isolated, i.e., no net external force, the
momentum is conserved:

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓

= (𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 )𝑣𝑣⃗𝑓𝑓

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
(𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 )𝑣𝑣⃗𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑓𝑓 = =?
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖
 Example 8.6
Suppose we perform a collision experiment using the Velcro-equipped gliders. Glider 𝐴𝐴
has a mass of 0.50 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and glider 𝐵𝐵 has a mass of 0.30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘; both move with initial
speeds of 2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
A. Find the final velocity of the joined gliders
B. Compare the initial and final kinetic energies.
 Example 8.7
Here a simple form of the apparatus, known as a
ballistic pendulum, composed of a block and
some string. A bullet with mass 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 is fired into a
block of wood with mass 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 suspended like a
pendulum. The bullet makes a completely
inelastic collision with the block, becoming
embedded in it. After the impact of the bullet,
the block swings up to a maximum height ℎ.

Given values of ℎ, 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 and 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 , find:

A. The initial speed of the bullet?

B. What becomes of its initial kinetic energy?
 Elastic Collisions
Consider two objects collide elastically:
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖

1 2 1 2
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖
2 2

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑝𝑝⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓

1 2 1 2
𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
2 2

For an isolated system: 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖

For an elastic collision 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖

 Elastic Collisions
For a one-dimensional elastic collision:
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
2 2 2 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = −𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = −𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = − 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = −𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = −𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓

𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = − 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖

 Elastic Collisions
For a one-dimensional elastic collision:

𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = − 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖

(velocity of the approach) = (velocity of the recession)

If 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑖𝑖 = 0: 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 − 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 2𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴

𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵,𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴,𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵
 Example 8.9
Glider A has a mass of 0.50 kg, glider B has a mass of 0.30 kg, and each moves with an
initial speed of 2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 as they approach each other. What are the velocities of A and
B after the collision?
 Example 8.10
High-speed neutrons are produced in a nuclear reactor during nuclear fission
processes. Before a neutron can trigger additional fissions, it has to be slowed down by
collisions with nuclei of a material called the moderator. In some reactors, the
moderator consists of carbon in the form of graphite. The masses of nuclei and
subatomic particles are measured in units called atomic mass units, abbreviated 𝑢𝑢,
where Suppose a neutron (mass 1.0 𝑢𝑢 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) traveling at 2.6 × 107 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
makes an elastic head-on collision with a carbon nucleus (mass 12 𝑢𝑢) that is initially at
rest. What are the velocities after the collision?
 Example 8.11
Suppose you throw a ball with mass 0.40 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 against a brick wall. It hits the wall moving
horizontally to the left at 30 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 and rebounds horizontally to the right at 20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
A. Find the impulse of the force exerted on the ball by the wall.
B. If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.010 𝑠𝑠, find the average force on the ball
during the impact.
 Center of Mass
We can restate the principle of conservation of
momentum in a useful way with the help of the concept
of center of mass, which we define as follows:
Suppose we have several particles 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, and so on, with
masses 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 , 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 , …. Let the coordinates of 𝐴𝐴 be 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 , 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 ,
let those of 𝐵𝐵 be 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 , 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 and so on.
We define the center of mass of the system as the point
having coordinates 𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , 𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 given by
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑦𝑦𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖
𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
The center of mass is a mass-weighted average position
of the particles.
 Center of Mass
The velocity of the center of mass of a collection of particles is the mass-weighted
average of the velocities of the individual particles:

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖

The total momentum 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 for a system of particles is the total mass 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 + ⋯
times the velocity 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of the center of mass:
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀𝑀𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣⃗𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ = ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖

• If the system is isolated, then both 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 and are 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 are constant in time.
• Even if the individual velocities of the particles are not all zero, it is still possible that
𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.
 Example 8.13
Suppose a 2.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 cat and a 3.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 dog are moving toward each other along the 𝑥𝑥-axis,
heading for a fight. At a particular instant, the cat is 1.0 𝑚𝑚 to the right of the origin and
is moving in the +𝑥𝑥 direction with speed 3.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 and the dog is 2.0 𝑚𝑚 to the right of
the origin, moving in the −𝑥𝑥 direction with speed 1.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
A. Find the position and velocity of the center of mass of the two-pet system.
B. Find the total momentum of the system.
 Motion of the Center of Mass
Consider the rate of change of the velocity of the
center of mass:

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎⃗𝑖𝑖

𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖

∑𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐵𝐵 + 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎⃗𝐶𝐶 + ⋯ = ∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎⃗𝑖𝑖
Rewriting the total force in terms of external and internal
forces gives: 0
∑𝐹𝐹⃗ = ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
If the sum of the external forces is zero, then the
acceleration of the system’s center of mass is zero.
 Rocket Propulsion

Considering the rocket and burned fuel as an isolated system, ∑𝐹𝐹⃗𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0,
Momentum is conserved:
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 ′ + 𝑚𝑚 + Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑚𝑚 + Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝑣
0
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 + Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚Δ𝑣𝑣 + Δ𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 + Δ𝑚𝑚Δ𝑣𝑣
Δ𝑣𝑣 Δ𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚Δ𝑣𝑣 = −𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Δ𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚 = −𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡
Δ𝑣𝑣 Δ𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = −𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡
 Example 8.14
A rocket floats next to an interplanetary space station far from any planet. It ignites its
1
engine. In the first second of its flight, it ejects of its mass with a relative velocity
60
magnitude of 2400 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠. Find its acceleration.
 Impact

Baseball vs. Bat Golf Ball vs Steel Plate

 Impact

K. Arakawa, et. al, Experimental Mechanics (2009) 49:471–477