INDUSTRIAL METAL WORKING PROCESSES MSE

4234
What is Rolling?
Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional area or shaping a metal piece through the deformation
caused by a pair of metal rolls rotating in opposite directions.

The gap between the rotating rolls is less than the thickness of the entering bar therefore a friction force is necessary
in order to bite the bar and to pull it through the rolls.
A metal bar passing through the rotating rolls is squeezed, and it elongates while its cross-section area decreases.
Rolling is an indirect compression process.
Normally the force or stress applied is the radial pressure from the rolls.
A machine used for rolling metal is called rolling mill.
Rolling improves the materials properties by refining the grain microstructure.

As cast iron are often characterized by the large grain size, significant porosity and coarse 2 nd phase particle. porosity
can be closed up, grain size reduced by recrystallization and coarse particle broken up leading to stronger and tough
alloys.

Types of Rolling Processes

Based on work piece geometry:

 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section

 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape.

Based on work temperature:

 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large

amount of deformation required

 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and

plate stock

Hot rolling is a rolling operation carried out at a

temperature just below the metal melting point,
permitting large amount of deformation.

Cold rolling is a rolling operation carried out at room

temperature. Cold rolling is commonly conducted
after hot rolling when good surface quality and low
thickness tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes
material strengthening.
Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive

Rolling mill configurations:

 Two-high: two opposing rolls

 Three-high: work passes through rolls in both directions

 Four-high: backing rolls support smaller work rolls

 Cluster mill: multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls

 Tandem rolling mill: sequence of two-high mills

(a) 2-high rolling mill; (b) 3-high rolling mill (c) 4-high rolling mill; (d) cluster mill (e) Tandem rolling mill

Rolling mills have several stages, where each stage successively reduces the thickness of the stock until the desired
cross section is achieved.

Thread Rolling

Thread rolling is a metal forming process that forms threads into the mirror image of a roller die. The process is
different from metal cutting, grinding, and chasing because it does not remove any metal from the workpiece.
Instead, thread rolling uses hardened steel dies to displace and mold ductile metals.

Advantages of Rolled Threads:

 Faster than thread cutting

 No chip generation, slight economy of materials, eco friendly
 No cutting of fiber, high tensile strength, greater smoothness of the thread
 High precision thread
Disadvantages of Rolled Threads:

 High initial cost of rollers and tooling. A set of dies is required for each thread type.
 Not suitable for materials with low ductility.
 Thread size limitations.
 Wrong thread making due to misalignment
Force in Roll Gap

Consider a rolling operation, where a piece of metal of thickness h 1, and width W1, is passing into a pair of rolls (Fig.1)
at a velocity v1. The gap between the rolls is such that the thickness is reduced to h₂ at the point of nearest approach
and the velocity of the metal leaving the rolls is v 2. The width is assumed to be constant for simplicity, but in practice
there is always some spread and W2 is greater than W₁.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing rolling stress distribution

Figure
in a typical 2: schematic
rolling diagram showing workpiece velocity variation with roll gap.
operation.

The velocity of the roll surface, which is normally constant, must lie between v₁ and v₂. Figure 2 shows how the
velocity of the workpiece varies in the roll gap. Between the point of entry, A and C, the rolls are travelling faster than
the metal, tending to drag it into the gap. Between C and B, the exit, the rolls are travelling more slowly than the
metal, tending to hold it back. There is only one point, C, where the rolls and the metal are travelling at the same
speed, this is the Neutral Point or the Point of No Slip. The friction force between the rolls and the metal must,
therefore, be exercised towards the neutral point.
Capus and Cockcroft in an elegant experiment showed that state of affairs does indeed exist in the roll gap. They
agreed that if relative slip occurred between metal and rolls firstly in a forward direction and then in a backward
direction, this could lead to scratching of the surface of the metal. If metal spread occurred, then the scratches would
gradually lie at an angle the direction of rolling. So, it is better to set the neutral point closer to the neutral point as
much as possible.

FRICTION FORCE IN THE ARC OF CONTACT

It is possible to derive an expression for this friction force. Consider in (figure 3) a vertical element of metal, height h 1,
width W₁, thickness dx, located in the roll gap at a position θ from the line joining the roll centers. Pressure P, acts
radially on the ends of this element and if the element is located between the point of entry and the neutral point a
frictional force acts toward the neutral point (figure 3).

Figure 3: stress distribution in rolling.

The radial pressure has a horizontal component which tends to reject the metal and prevent it from entering the
rolls, whilst the friction force has a horizontal component dragging the metal inward. Whether the metal passes
through the rolls depends upon the values of the two horizontal force components as rejecting force Psinθ and
pulling force μPcosθ.

The variation of these components with θ is given in figure 4. The maximum angle possible in the roll gap before the
rejecting in the force exceed the pulling-in force is θmax where,

μPcosθmax - Psinθmax = 0

i.e., μ = tanθmax

θmax is the maximum angle of bite or the friction angle and decides the maximum reduction possible for a given mill.
It will be noticed that this depends only on the coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the work piece and the
rolls.

Figure 4: variation of various active forces with roll gap.

Let’s consider the basic geometry of rolling to obtain the relationship between roll diameter and maximum draft
possible in the rolling process shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: basic geometry of flat rolling.

Applying Pythagoras, Now, μ=tan θmax

( )
2
2 2 Δh LP
R =L P + R− ¿
2 Δh
R−
2 2
2 Δh
LP =RΔh−
4
¿
√ RΔh R≫ Δh∨so , Δh is neglected ,
2
Δh R 2
R ≫ Δh∨so , is neglected ,
4
LP =√ RΔh ¿
√ Δh
R

Again,
 2 Δh
μ=
R
2
Δh=μ R
2
Δh max =μ R
Maximum reduction Δh will be achieved when θ is maximum.

FRICTION HILL IN ROLLING

Theoretically the mill could achieve 100% reduction by hot rolling but this is, of course, impossible in practice since
there are other limitations which will be referred to later. It can be seen that the maximum draft possible depends
upon two factors, the coefficient of friction, μ, and the roll radius, R, (figure 4).

In reality, the roll pressure varies significantly along the arc of contact and a typical distribution is shown in figure (6).
The pressure goes through a maximum close to the neutral point and the general form of the curve is known as the
friction hill (figure 7).

Figure 7: variation of roll pressure along the length of contact.

Figure 6: distribution of friction along the arc of contact of roller .

The total area under this curve is proportional to the rolling load. The area under the dotted line represents the force
required to deform the metal in plane strain compression. The area above this line is related to the force required to
overcome the friction between roll and workpiece, hence the name of friction hill. The height of the friction hill
depends upon the value of the friction coefficient, but both the peak height and position can be shifted by the
application of front or back tensions to the workpiece. A back tension will significantly reduce the rolling load and
shift the peak towards the exit site so this is often applied industrially.

Curve1: The variation of roll pressure from the entrance to the exit plane is shown. It can be observed that the
pressure increases along the arc of contact and reaches maximum at the neutral point and later decreases towards
the exit plane. θ1 is the angle of contact at which then neutral point is present. No roll tensions are applied σ x1 = σxo =
0. The peak pressure obtained is the highest.

Curve2: Assume a roll tension of σ’ is applied at the front as

well as at the back. Now the curve show decrease in the
roll pressure along the arc of contact and the peak pressure
is also reduced. In addition, the peak pressure takes place
at an early stage. This indicates that by application of roll
tensions the peak pressure is reduced and occurs earlier
than in the Curve1. θ2 is the angle of contact corresponding
to the new neutral point.

Curve3: Consider a roll tension of σ’’ being applied on

either side of the rolls (σ’’> σ’), it is noticed that the curve
shows further reduction in the pressure at each and every point along the arc of contact and the magnitude of
pressure has further reduced. The peak pressure is shifted towards the entry plane and the magnitude of peak
pressure is reduced. θ3 Is the angle of contact corresponding to the new neutral point. It can be concluded that as the
roll tension is increased at the front and back the roll pressure can be reduced along the arc of contact. Peak pressure
is reduced and shifted towards the entry side. As a result, the load required for rolling gets reduced.

FORGING AND ROLLING

Similar type of friction hill can also be observed in forging. However, there are two differences, in the relative friction
hills caused in rolling and forging. Firstly, the maximum pressure in forging always occurs at the center line of the
platen. Whereas in rolling the maximum occurs at the neutral point, which can be located anywhere in the arc of
contact, defending upon the stress situation. Secondly, the value of pressure at the two extremes of the metal in
forging is the same and equal to σ0. In rolling the metal is deformed as it passes from entry to exit and the yield stress
increases.

Using the analogy between forging and rolling and approximate expression can be developed for the effect of friction
on the rolling load.

 P= 2K [1+
ROLLING
2 √ RΔh
Δh
LP =√ RΔh=2 a √3 4 (h ¿ ¿ 1− ) ¿
2
plane
Sliding friction

Rolling load  R.L = w√ RΔh2K [1+

2

 P= σ0 [1+
μ √ RΔh
√3
Δh
2(h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿
2
√ RΔh
homogeneous Δh
4 (h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿
Rolling load  R.L = w√ RΔhσ0 [1+
2

μ √ RΔh
Δh
2(h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿
2
FORGING

 P= σ0 [1+
μ √ RΔh
2 Width = 2a
Δh
√3 2(h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿
2 Sliding friction
plane

Rolling load  R.L = w√ RΔhσ0 [1+  P= σ0 [1+

2 μa
¿
√3 h
P max = σ0(1+
μ √ RΔh
Δh
2(h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿ 2μa
2 ¿
Sticking friction h
Sticking friction
 P= 2K [1+
√ RΔh
 P= 2K [1+
a
Δh ¿
4 (h ¿ ¿ 1− ) ¿ 2h
Pmax =2K
2
homogeneous

Rolling load  R.L = w√ RΔh2K [1+

(1+
a
¿
√ RΔh h
Δh
4 (h ¿ ¿ 1− )¿
2
If, the ratio of the arc of contact (LP) to the thickness tends to be homogeneous. If the ratio is large, it is
Lp plane strain.
(h), is low, (let’s assume 10) the deformation
h P' the rolling load based on the radius R'

Rolling load  P'= R.L = σ0w√ RΔh

ROLL FLATTENING

The workpiece passing between a pair of rolls is compressed by the radial stress in them, but the reaction is
transferred to the mill bearing and housing, which are capable of only limited yield because of their large
dimensions. If an attempt is made to compress thin hard material further, the reaction becomes that the rolls deform
elastically and the radius of curvature of the arc of contact is increased.

the extent of flattening depends on the magnitude of the reaction stress and the elastic constants of the rolls.
attempts to determine R’, the deform to radius of curvature is now the target. concerning this, it has been proposed
that the arc of contact did not remain circular, but it gets deform to and flattened to some extent. in such case, the
relationship between the initial roll radius R and deformed radius R’ becomes:
' '
R CP
=1+
R wΔh

( 1−ν 2)
C=16
πE
ν =Poisson's ratio 0.35, E is Young's Modulus for steel, chilled-iron, cast-iron is 2.01 MN/mm 2, 1.74 MN/mm2, 1.005 MN/mm2, P'
the rolling load based on the radius R', W the width of the metal and Δh the reduction. To calculate a value for R’ successive
approximations are necessary.

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING LOAD

1. Width of Bar– Rolling load is directly proportional to the width of bar being rolled. Load requirement for rolling flat products
is much more than rolling of long products. Hence, power requirement of motor is the main criteria for selecting the width
of flat products. It is seen that except for narrow strips, the rolling load is always nearly proportional to the strip width for
any given reduction.

2. Roll Size – Rolling load increases with the increase of the roll diameter. At 50% reduction, the rolling load, corresponds the
largest roll will be 1.5 times than the small roll. As with larger roll the arc of contact for the given reduction will be more and
consequently more work has to be done to overcome the surface friction. Fig. 1.44 shows the effect of roll size on the
friction hill.

3. Work Hardening of Metal – The effect of work hardening is to increase the value of yield stress of metal, as bar processes
through rolls, as shown in Fig. 1.45.

4. Coefficient of Friction – The horizontal stress increases with increase in frictional stresses, as shown in Fig. 1.46. Rolling load
varies substantially with increase in co-efficient of friction.

5. Material Properties – The mechanical properties (yield strength, hardness) determine how much force is needed to deform
the metal.
6. Chemical Composition of Metal Being Rolled – The magnitude of metal stress depends upon the chemical composition of
metal being rolled. The power requirement and rolling load will be related to the tensile strength of rolling material and thus
increases with tensile strength. In other words, load increases with the increase of carbon and alloying elements in steel.

7. Rolling Speed – Speed has a very little effect on either rolling load or mean specific roll pressure. Actually, at higher speed,
slightly less power per ton is required than at lower speed.

8. Reduction in Pass – For a given roll size and initial bar thickness, the length of the arc of contact varies with the percentage
of reduction. The effect will be similar to the change in roll size. Roll load increases with reduction in pass.

9. Tension in the Material (Front and Back Tension) – The effect of front and back tension on the friction hill curve is shown in
Fig. 1.48 (a & b). In each case, it is seen that rolling load is reduced and the line of resultant is moved either forward or
backward, depending upon whether back or forward is applied.

10. Bar Thickness – The horizontal stress increases as bar become thinner. In case of thin strip, the horizontal stress will become
several times, therefore rolling load increases, as the initial thickness of bar decreases for a given draft and roll size.

11. Temperature of the Workpiece – With increasing temperature, the yield stress decreases. In other word, the rolling load
increases with drop in rolling temperature.

12. Friction Between Rolls and Metal – Higher friction improves grip but also increases rolling force.

13. Roll Material and Surface Condition – Harder rolls resist deformation and maintain shape, while smoother surfaces reduce
friction.

14. Lubrication – Reduces friction, minimizing rolling load and wear on the rolls.

COMPARING FORGING AND ROLLING PROCESSES IN METALLURGICAL TERMS:

ASPECT FORGING ROLLING
Definition Process of shaping metal using compressive Process of reducing thickness or changing cross-
forces, usually with hammers or presses. section by passing metal through rollers.
Deformation Type Plastic deformation occurs due to compressive Plastic deformation occurs due to continuous
and impact forces. compressive forces applied by rotating rollers.
Initial Material Typically uses ingots or billets. Typically uses slabs, blooms, or billets.
Direction of Can be multi-directional (depending on hammer Mostly unidirectional, along the rolling axis.
Deformation or die movement).
Grain Structure Produces finer and more uniform grain structure Produces elongated grains in the rolling direction.
due to repeated compression.
Mechanical Properties Results in higher toughness, strength, and Good strength but may develop anisotropy
fatigue resistance due to refined grain structure. (directional properties).
Temperature Range Can be hot or cold forging. Can be hot or cold rolling.
Surface Finish Generally rougher due to hammering or Smoother due to rolling action.
pressing.
Precision & Less precise; requires further machining for More precise with better control over dimensions.
Dimensional Accuracy final shape.
Common Applications Used for high-strength components like Used for sheets, plates, beams, and structural
crankshafts, gears, and connecting rods. sections.
Roll Torque

An examination of the friction hill in the arc of contact indicates that the
resultant roll separating force acts, not along the line joining the roll
centers but rather at a position which is between the point of entry and
the point of exit: The resultant forces are acting in a direction opposing
the revolving rolls which must, therefore, be supplied by a torque to
overcome this resistance. The distance between the line of action of the
roll separating force and the line joining the roll centers is called the lever
arm, indicated by a, in Figure.

It can be seen that the lever arm is a fraction of the arc of contact, which
a a
is denoted by λ= = ·
√ R Δh
' Lp

A typical value for λ is about 0.5 for hot rolling and 0.45 for cold rolling. Mill torque τ is then equal to 2aP.

Mill Power

Power, which is usually supplied by an electric motor, in necessary to drive the mill and overcome the mill torque.
The work done to turn one roll one revolution is πaP. But since there are two rolls the total work done for 1 rev =
2πap. If the rolls turn at n rev/s then the rate of doing work, i.e. power = 2πaPn watts.

Roll Pass Design

Roll pass design is an essential part of long product rolling process, since the long products are rolled between the
shaped rolls in the long product rolling mills.

Roll pass design generally means the cutting of grooves in the roll body through which steel to be rolled is made to
pass sequentially to get the desired contour and size.

Roll pass design is a set of methods for determining the dimensions, shape, number, and type of arrangement of
rolling mill passes. Roll pass design also includes the calculation of pressing forces and their distribution on the roll
passes.

The primary objective of the roll pass design is

 to ensure production of a product of correct profile within the tolerance limits,

 free of defects
 with good surface quality and
 the required mechanical properties.
 In addition, economic condition must be achieved while rolling the product, for example, maximum productivity
at the lowest cost, optimum energy utilization, easy working conditions for the rolling crew and minimum roll
wear.

Conditions of the roll pass design

 Characteristics of the finished product

 Dimensions of the sections

 Tolerances and specifications connecting to mechanical properties
 Surface finished of the rolled product

 Characteristics of the initial product

 Dimensions and weight of the ingot or billet

 Grade of sheets
 Metal temperature before and in the course of rolling

 Specifications of the rolling mill

 Number of stands
 Roll diameter
 Rolling speed
 Available horsepower of the drive motor
 Strength of the roll etc.
Total and Mean Draught

Total coefficient of elongation:

F0
η Σ=
Fn
Number of passes required to roll the finished stock:

log η Σ log F 0−log F m

n= =
log ηm log ηm Figure: various breakdown passes

In the successive stages of rolling, the dimensions of the rolled bars are expressed as follows:

V0 = h0b0l0 = initial value of volume in terms of initial height, breadth and length of stock when rolling starts.

F0 = h0b0 = initial cross-sectional area of stock;

V1 = h1b1l1= volume, height, breadth and length of stock after first pass;

F1 = h1b1 = cross-sectional area of stock after first pass;

Vn = hnbnln
Figure: showing dimension change in
rolling.
= volume, height, breadth and length of stock after n passes (n denotes the number of passes);

Fn = hnbn

= cross sectional area of stock after n passes.

Basics Concepts and Symbols in Rolling

The concept of mean height has been introduced to maintain the principle of constancy of volume. For
sections with:
F0 F1 Fn
h 0m = h1 m = h nm=
b0 b1 bn

Now the following relationships are obtained On the above dividing these relations we get:
from the condition of constancy of volume: h2 m b2 l 2
=γ βα =1
V 0=F 0 l 0 ¿ h 0 m b 0 l 0 h1 m b1 l 1 m
V 1=F 1 l 1 ¿ h1 m b1 l 1 h2 m b2 F 2 b1
where, = =γ
V n=F n l n ¿ h nm b n l n h1 m b1 b2 F 1 m

Here γ m denotes the mean coefficient of draught and the mean absolute draught Δhm, is given by:
 F1 F2
h1 m −h2 m= − =Δ hm
b1 b2
The following relationship can also be made:

h1 m−h 2m
=ϵ m - mean relative draught
h1 m
h1 m−h 2m
100 %=ϵ m 100 % - mean percentage draught
h1 m

where, according to Fig5a, the terms h1 m , h2 m , and h3 m are equal to hi , and hi =F i /b i

In rolling non-rectangular sections, the term maximum draught is sometimes used (Fig.5b):

h2 max
=γ - maximum coefficient of draught,
h1 min max
h1 max −h2 min =Δ hmax - maximum absolute draught,

h1 max −h2 min

=ϵ max - maximum relative draught, and
h1 max
h1 max −h2 min
100 %=ϵ max 100 % - maximum percentage draught.
h1 max
In rolling, the coefficient of elongation is also expressed as follows:

F1 h1 m b1 l 2 l 2 w 2
α= = = =
F2 h2 m b2 l1 l 1 v 1

where, v 1 = entry speed, w 2= exit speed.

This method of calculation is convenient since to find the area, height or breadth of pass it is sufficient to multiply or
to divide by appropriate coefficients of elongation draught and spread. If the applied reduction or the coefficients of
elongation in rolling are known, each can be easily calculated from the other using the following formula:

1 100 %
η= =
1−U 100−U %
where,

1
U = relative reduction U =1−
η
100
U% = percentage reduction U %=100−
η