Manufacturing Processes

(MSE – 881)

Dr. –Ing. Farhan Javaid

(farhan.javaid@scme.nust.edu.pk)
Office # 320 (SCME Building) +92-51-9085 5218
Work Hardening
Imperfection in Crystalline Solids: Dislocations
Imperfection in Crystalline Solids: Dislocations
Imperfection in Crystalline Solids: Dislocations
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming

3. Temperature in Metal Forming

4. Strain Rate Sensitivity

5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces

➢ The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the metal

➢ The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die.

Material Properties in Metal Forming

➢ Desirable material properties:

✓ Low yield strength

✓ High ductility

➢ These properties are affected by temperature:

✓ Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is

raised

➢ Other factors:

✓ Strain rate
Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation 2. Sheet metalworking

▪ Rolling ▪ Bending

▪ Forging ▪ Deep drawing

▪ Extrusion ▪ Cutting

▪ Wire and bar drawing ▪ Miscellaneous processes

Bulk Deformation Processes

✓ Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes

✓ "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low

surface area-to-volume ratios

✓ Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets

and rectangular bars

Forging

✓ In forging, a workpiece is compressed between two opposing dies, so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.
Forging

Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies

➢ Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 BC

➢ Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural

components, jet engine turbine parts

➢ Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of large parts

that are subsequently machined to final shape and size

Forging
Forging

The upper portion of the

forging die is attached to the

ram, and the lower portion is

attached to the anvil

Classification of Forging Operations

➢ Cold vs. hot forging:

✓ Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant deformation and
the need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal

✓ Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results from strain

hardening

➢ Impact vs. press forging:

✓ Forge hammer - applies an impact load

✓ Forge press - applies gradual pressure

Types of Forging Dies

➢ Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies,

allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum constraint

➢ Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is

imparted to workpart

✓ Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created

➢ Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die

✓ No excess flash is created

Open-Die Forging
Open-Die Forging

Compression of workpart between two flat dies

➢ Similar to compression test when workpart has cylindrical

cross section and is compressed along its axis

✓ Deformation operation reduces height and increases

diameter of work

✓ Common names include upsetting or upset forging

Open-Die Forging
Open-Die Forging

✓ Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work,

resulting in barreling effect

✓ In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat

transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its

resistance to deformation
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
Open-Die Forging: Examples

Fullering: accomplished by dies with convex surfaces.

Open-Die Forging: Examples

Edging: dies have concave surfaces

Open-Die Forging: Examples

Cogging: consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the

length of a workpiece to reduce cross section and increase length
Open-Die Forging: Examples

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTU0Z-FkhtU
Impression-Die Forging
Impression-Die Forging

Figure 19.14 Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior

to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
between die plates.
Impression-Die Forging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-w7E88zox6w https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFODkp50
Impression-Die Forging
Impression-Die Forging
Impression-Die Forging
Impression-Die Forging
▪ Advantages of impression-die forging compared to machining
from solid stock:

▪ Higher production rates

▪ Less waste of metal

▪ Greater strength

▪ Favorable grain orientation in the metal

▪ Limitations:

▪ Not capable of close tolerances

▪ Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features

needed
Flashless Forging
Flashless Forging

Figure 19.17 Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final punch and die
closure.
Flashless Forging
Flashless Forging

Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does

not allow for flash
✓ Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within
very close tolerance

✓ Process control more demanding than impression-die forging

✓ Best suited to part geometries that are simple and

symmetrical

✓ Often classified as a precision forging process

Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two opposing rolls

Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

➢ Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between workpart and rolls
➢ Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section
Types of Rolling

➢ Based on workpiece geometry :

✓ Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section

✓ Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape such as an

I-beam
Types of Rolling

Hot rolled steel is steel that has been roll-pressed Typically harder and stronger than standard hot
at very high temperatures rolled steels.
A scaled surface—a remnant of cooling from Better, more finished surfaces with closer
extreme temperatures tolerances
Less precise finishing
Often have well-defined edges and corners
> Used for strip & sheets making
Rolled Products Made of Steel

Bloom has a square cross section 150mm x 150mm (6 in 6

in) or larger.

Slab rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular

cross section of width 250mm (10 in) or more and
thickness 40 mm (1.5 in) or more..
Rolled Products Made of Steel
Rolling Mills

➢ Equipment is massive and expensive

➢ Rolling mill configurations:

✓ Two-high – two opposing rolls

✓ Three-high – work passes through rolls in both directions

✓ Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls

✓ Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls

✓ Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills

Two-High Rolling Mill

Disadvantage:

Disadvantage is that the rolls must be stopped,

reversed, and then brought back up to

rolling speed between each pass.

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high rolling mill.
Three-High Rolling Mill

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (b) 3-high rolling mill.
Four-High Rolling Mill

✓ A small roll diameter is advantageous

because less roll is in contact with the
material, which results in a lower force and
power requirement.

✓ The problem with a small roll is a reduction of

stiffness, which is overcome using backup
rolls.

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (c) four-high rolling mill
Cluster Rolling Mill

Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Tandem Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands in sequence

Thread Rolling

Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling

them between two dies

✓ Important commercial process for mass producing bolts and screws

✓ Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

✓ Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

✓ Higher production rates

✓ Better material utilization

✓ Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work hardening

Thread Rolling

Figure 19.6 Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.
Ring Rolling
Ring Rolling

Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a

thin-walled ring of larger diameter

✓ As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing diameter of ring

to be enlarged

✓ Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings for
pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery

✓ Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold working
Structure Modification