MINERAL CHEMISTRY

Mineral chemistry as a study can be adequately appreciated if

the concept of minerals is clearly understood. In its modest form, a mineral is
defined as any naturally occurring inorganic and crystalline solid that is
characterized by a definite chemical composition (variable only within specified
limits). The definition calls for some further explanations.
First, a mineral must be a homogeneous substance, even when a little
size of it is viewed under a microscope. Secondly, it must have a definite
chemical composition, thus, capable of expression by a chemical formula.
Therefore, ‘Basalt’ which seems homogenous to the eyes shows to be
constituted of diverse substances of unique (distinctive or matchless) features
when thin sections from it are viewed under a microscope is not a mineral.
Similarly, the obviously homogeneous volcanic glass, ‘Obsidian’ which is not
described by a composition corresponding to any chemical compound. In
addition, substances produced through the agency/ metabolic activities of living
organisms like the pearl of an oyster, honey and opal-silica (tabasheer)
respectively secreted by the bee and bamboo as well as urinary calculi and
oxalate crystals in certain plant tissues and shells of marine molluscs are not
considered as minerals. It therefore means that mercury (Hg) that crystallizes at
−39°C, water (H2O) that solidifies below 0°C or converts into gaseous steam by
boiling at 100oC and heterogeneous crude oil (petroleum), consisting of several
hydrocarbon compounds are not minerals.
Minerals are a critical part of our daily life. Besides usage in civil
engineering constructions and fabrication of machines, minerals are used to
fertilize crops, produce energy for home and industry uses, flavour foods and
prepare many pharmaceuticals and medicines used by man.
History of Mineralogy
Mineralogy as a study began in Europe and the Middle East about
77AD when Elder Pliny discussed and described the properties and uses of
minerals. He laid the basis of crystallography in his discussion about crystal
habit. In early 16th century, however, the 1530 records by Georgius Agricolain,
The German Scientist became accredited as the official establishment of the
study of modern mineralogy. Agricolain’s works earned him the posthumous
title of the "Father of Mineralogy".
Although the oldest literary listing of minerals dates back to the 4 th century
in ancient China, America’s J. D. Dana’s Manual of Mineralogy, published in
1848 is recognized as the most influential mineralogy text of the 19 th and 20th
centuries. Early writings on mineralogy which were largely on gemstones are
credited to ancient Babylonia and China as well as the Sanskrit manuscripts
from primordial India and the Islamic World but systematic scientific studies
about minerals and rocks were developed in Europe. Today’s study of
mineralogy was established on the principle of crystallography resulting from
the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in
the 17th century.
Today’s study of mineralogy started with the 17th century invention of the
microscope and establishes on the principle of crystallography resulting from
the microscopic study of rock sections.
Early in the study, mineralogy was much concerned with the
naming and categorization of rock forming minerals. To this end, the world's
premier standard body, The International Mineralogy Association (IMA), an
organization whose members represent mineralogists in member countries is
involved with activities about managing the naming of minerals (thru the
Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known
minerals, etc. As of November 2018, nearly 5,413 mineral species had been
reportedly identified by the IMA, out of which 150 are considered as common,
another 50 designated as occasional and the rest classified as rare and extremely
rare. Specific studies in mineralogy study include the processes of mineral
origin and formation, development/scope and classification as well as their
geographical distribution and areas of exploitation.

Scope of Mineralogy
Mineralogy can be studied at 6 different levels of: physical
mineralogy, chemical mineralogy, descriptive mineralogy, optical mineralogy,
biomineralogy and crystal structure.

1. Physical Mineralogy
Physical mineralogy describes the physical features of a mineral
which depend upon cohesion and elasticity, density, weight, light, heat,
electricity etc. Description of physical features offers the simplest way to
identify and categorize minerals and the methods to accomplish this include:
evaluation of the crystal structure and habit, twinning (pairing and matching),
cleavage (fracture, splintering or splitting, lustre (shiny/glossy/possesses sheen
or appears glossy), diaphaneity (transparency), colour, streak (thin
stripe/line/band of contrasting colour, usually silvery, yellow, sea blue or green,
grey etc.), hardness and specific gravity.

2. Chemical Mineralogy

Chemical mineralogy uses a mineral’s chemical composition to

identify and categorize and find beneficial uses for the mineral. Apart from few
minerals like sulphur (S), copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) which are
elements, the vast majority of minerals are chemical compounds. Chemical
mineralogy explores the characteristics of the chemical compound in the
mineral specie and creates/ institutes the methods for the analyses of the
mineral.
3. Descriptive Mineralogy
Descriptive mineralogy reviews the results of systematic studies
carried out on a mineral. It is the scholarly and scientific method of
authenticating the identity and category of minerals, their properties and
uses. Classifications in descriptive mineralogy include: native elements,
sulphides, oxides and hydroxides, halides, carbonates, nitrates and borates.
Others are sulphates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates, phosphates,
arsenates and vanadates and silicates as well as organic minerals. Descriptive
mineralogy helps to classify minerals and compare individual specie and
varieties with other closely related ones in terms of occurrence, structure,
physical features, chemical characteristics etc.

4. Crystal Structure
Crystallography examines the crystal structure of a mineral in
general and determines the structure-property relationship of such mineral
using X-ray analytical techniques like: X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence
and X-ray phosphoresecence.

5. Optical Mineralogy
Optical mineralogy is an aspect of mineralogy that uses light sources
as a means to identify and classify minerals.

6. Biomineralogy

Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between (a collaborative study

team involving) mineralogy, palaeontology (science of fossils) and biology. It is
the study of how living organisms stabilize minerals under biological control
and the sequence of the replacement of the minerals after deposition.
Biomineralogy uses the techniques of chemical mineralogy especially that of
isotopic studies to determine growth forms in living organisms and the native
mineral content of fossils.

Characterization of Minerals
Minerals are commonly described or classified on the basis of their
chemical composition (which could vary within specified limits). Even though
some minerals like graphite and diamond are made up of predominantly a single
element (carbon, in this instance), most minerals occur as ionic compounds
consisting of an ordered arrangement of cations and anions and possessing a
unique crystalline structure determined by the size and charge of individual
ions.
When minerals form, ions of similar size and electrical charge like Ca 2+ and
Mg2+ substitute for each other and are be found in the mineral in amounts that
depend on the proportions that were present in the solution or melt (liquid
magma) from which the mineral formed. The phenomenon, known as solid
solution is the reason why many minerals are said to exist as solid solutions and
described as such. Rock salt, for example contains the mineral, NaCl in its pure
form but sylvinite contains 42.7% KCl and 56.6% NaCl. Also, rutile and
ilemenite ore respectively are impure minerals containing 95 and 45-60% TiO 2.
Minerals may be characterized by the fundamental patterns of their
crystal structure. A crystal structure is commonly identified by its repeating
unit. Crystal structures can be divided into crystal systems which are subdivided
into crystal classes. There are 32 crystal classes, also referred to as Point
Classes.

Classification of Minerals
 Dana and Strunz represent the 2 common mineral classification systems
and rely on the composition of significant chemical groups and structure. In the
more popular Dana classification system, a 4-part number is assigned to a
mineral species with the 1st number indicating the mineral’s composition, the 2nd
revealing the ratio of the cations to the anions in the mineral and the last two
numbers signify the structural similarities between the mineral and others in the
same class. The less commonly used Strunz classification system uses a
modified Dana system that combines both the chemical composition and the
structural similarities but with great emphasis on and highlighting the
distribution of chemical bonds in the mineral species.

Rock-forming Minerals
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks and because they are naturally
occurring, abundance of minerals tends to reflect the abundance of elements
present in the Earth crust. Although about 4,000 minerals have been named,
only 40 are commonly found and these are referred to as the rock-forming
minerals. Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. Therefore, mineral
identification is also a crucial part of of the classification of rock.

Chemistry of Minerals

The most abundant element is oxygen (O) which makes up about 45 %

by mass of the Earth crust. It is followed by silicon (Si), accounting for 27 % by
mass with both totalling nearly 72 % of the Earth crust. The next 6 most
abundant elements in order of abundance are aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) which collectively
comprise about 26 % leaving only about 2 % for all the other elements. In
classifications involving the arrangements of minerals in the order of the
abundance of their anions, silicates, which possess anions that are in polyatomic
combinations of O and Si are reputed as the commonest mineral.

The Science of Mineralogy

Mineralogy is the study of the physics and chemistry of natural, solid
and crystalline materials. Unlike fluids, minerals preserve the records of the
Earth's history and contain the wealth or the natural resources of the planet.
Therefore understanding the physics and chemistry of the planet’s solid
minerals is central to the understanding of the Earth sciences.

Physical Properties of Minerals

A. Crystal Form
It is the shape of a mineral that forms regular geometric patterns when
it is bounded by smooth and planar surfaces. Crystal form is used to
determine the amount of symmetry present in the crystalline structure of a
mineral.

B. Hardness
It is a measure of the ability of a mineral to resist abrasion or scratch.
Hardness reflects the strength of the bonds between the atoms within a
mineral’s crystal structure. MOH's (measure of hardness) scale which is a
relative but not an absolute scale of mineral hardness is described below.
1. Talc
2. Gypsum----------------Fingernail (2.2)
3. Calcite-----------------Copper penny (3.1)
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite-----------------Glass (5.5)
6. Orthoclase------------Steel (6.5)
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum and (10). Diamond
C. Breakage

Breakage can be discussed in two categories of cleavage or fracture.

Cleavage
Is the tendency of a mineral to break along a natural plane of
weakness (cleavage planes) determined by the internal crystal lattice of the
mineral. Cleavages result (occur) from weak bonds that occur along certain
planar directions within the mineral.* The number of cleavage planes and the
angles between them are important characteristics for identifying minerals
(example: - micas are characterized by excellent cleavage in 1 direction;
halides, by good cleavage in 3 directions; each at 90 o to each other and
sphalerite, in 6 good directions at 60o).
*Difference between cleavage and crystal form: Crystal form is only an
external reflection of atomic structure that is lost when the crystal is broken
whereas cleavage is related to planes (trails) of weaknesses which are found
throughout the mineral. Cleavage planes will form no matter how finely the
crystal is broken.

2. Fracture
It is a type of breakage that occurs where there is an absence of planar
surfaces. Minerals that display fracture break like glass (ex.- quartz with
conchoidal fracture).

D. Specific Gravity
 It is the comparison of a mineral's density with the density of water.
Specific Gravity = density of the mineral/density of equal vol. of water = X/1
gr. /cm3.
E. Colour
It is useful to characterize some minerals (ex. olivine is always
green) but commonly too variable for most (ex. quartz can be almost any color).
F. Lustre
It is the appearance of a mineral in reflected light. Lustre can be
described as metallic or non-metallic. Submetallic is further described as
vitreous (glassy) or non-vitreous.
G. Streak
It is the coloured line or band (usually flashy) that is found in a
mineral when it is cut. It is also described as the colour presented by a
mineral when it is a powder. The streak helps to eliminate surface effects
like weathering. A white unglazed porcelain plate is normally used to grind
mineral into a powder.

H. Other Properties
Magnetism (magnetite), taste (halite) and fluorescence (some fluorites).

Dr Theresa Orieji Uchechukwu