ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
Overview
• Timeframe: 9th-12th century
• Key Features:
o Thick walls, small openings, rubble construction
o Development of barrel and groin vaults
o Semicircular arches and small windows
o Use of piers, columns, and alternating structural systems
o Solidity and Strength
Influences
• Feudalism and the Crusades spurred construction
• Monasteries were cultural and spiritual centers
• Christian militancy shaped architectural designs
Notable Types:
1. Carolingian: Early Romanesque in France and Germany.
2. Ottonian: Influenced by Byzantine and Carolingian styles.
3. Lombard (Italy) & Anglo-Saxon (England): Innovations like ribbed vaults and
adaptations of timber prototypes in stone.
4. Norman: Massive abbeys with decorative motifs.
Characteristics
• Walls – massive with rough stonework
• Piers – vertical supports bearing arches
• Columns – Roman themed
• Capitals – Corinthian design
• Alternation
• Arches & Openings
• Vaults & Roofs
• Domes – crossing towers
Parts of a Church (Symmetrical in configuration)
• Nave: Central part of a church, • Ambulatory: Aisle encircling choir
from narthex to choir. or chancel.
• Aisle: Longitudinal divisions, • Apse: Semicircular church
separated by columns/piers. sanctuary termination.
• Arcade: Series of arches or piers. • Chevet: Rounded east end,
• Chancel: Space near the altar, including apse and ambulatory.
elevated for clergy/choir. • Buttress: External support against
• Triforium: Arcaded story between outward wall thrust.
arches and clerestory. • Clerestory: Raised interior portion
with daylight windows
Architectural Examples:
• Italy: Pisa Cathedral, Basilica di San Zeno
o Cathedrals – Basilica-like churches
o Baptisteries – used during easter, pentecost and the epiphany
o Campaniles – straight tower shafts
• France: Abbey of St. Denis
o Followed the cruciform
• Spain: Santiago de Compostela
• England: Durham Cathedral
o Old Foundation: Secular Clergy
o Monastic: Monks & Canons
o New: Bishops
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
Overview
• Timeframe: 12th-16th century
• Characteristics:
o Vertical emphasis, pointed arches, ribbed vaults
o Stained glass windows (light-filled interiors)
o Flying buttresses and clustered columns
o Highly decorated facades and pinnacles
Development
• Originated in France with Abbot Suger's (Father of Gothic Style) reconstruction of
St. Denis.
• Giorgio Vasari described it as rude & barbaric = Vandal
• Brick Gothic - called "Backsteingotik" in Germany and Scandinavia
Periods:
1. French Gothic: Early, Rayonnant, Flamboyant
2. English Gothic: Early English, Decorated (Geometric & Curvilinear), Perpendicular
3. Central European Gothic: Brick-based designs
4. Italian Gothic: Blended Gothic and Renaissance styles (e.g., Siena Cathedral)
Gothic Arches
• Lancet Arch: Narrow, steeply pointed, grouped in threes or fives.
• Equilateral Arch: Radius equals width; height exceeds semi-circular arch.
• Flamboyant Arch: Flame-like upper arcs; decorative, not for structural vaulting.
• Depressed Arch: Wide and flattened; combines steep and shallow arcs.
Notable Structures:
• France: Amiens Cathedral
• Italy: Siena Cathedral
• England: Westminster Abbey
• Spain: Seville Cathedral
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
Overview
• Timeframe: 14th-16th century
• Core Themes: Humanism, revival of classical antiquity, symmetry, proportion
• Geography: Centered in Florence, Rome, and Venice
• Rinascita = Rebirth
Characteristics
• Use of classical elements: columns, domes, pilasters
• Emphasis on mathematical proportions and harmony (e.g., golden ratio)
• Transition from medieval fortifications to modern layouts influenced by gunpowder
warfare
• Simplicity and Planar Classicism
Periods:
1. Trecento: Stylistic Transition
2. Quattrocento - Early Renaissance (14th-15th centuries): Notable for
Brunelleschi’s Dome of Florence.
3. Cinquecento - CHigh Renaissance (16th century): Emphasis on grandeur and
unified styles.
4. Mannerism (Late 16th century): Experimental and ornate deviations from classical
norms.
• Three: Represents the Trinity.
• Four: Symbolizes the Evangelists, often shown on four surfaces.
• Seven: Days of Creation, depicted as cycles or scenes.
• Eight: Creation days plus Resurrection, tied to octagonal baptisteries.
• Twelve: Reflects the Apostles and tribes of Israel, often depicted on multiple
walls
• Fibonacci Sequence “Golden Ratio”
Architectural Features:
• Churches: Centralized and axial plans with domes (e.g., St. Peter’s Basilica)
• Palaces: Influence of Medici patronage in Florence (e.g., Palazzo Medici)
• Villas: Leisure-focused designs in countryside estates
Notable Architects:
• Brunelleschi:
o Father of Renaissance Architecture
o Single-point linear perspective
o Known for his geometric precision and dome construction.
• Michelozzo:
o More ornate and higher relief with some gothic elements
o Renowned for Palazzo Medici and San Marco Monastery.
o Completed the Florence Cathedral’s Lantern
• Leon Battista Alberti:
Key Treatises:
o De pictura (On Painting): Written in Latin (1435) and translated into Italian
(1436); dedicated to major Florentine artists.
o De statua (On Sculpture): Likely written around 1435, published in 1464;
less influential due to lack of translation.
o De re aedificatoria (On Architecture): First Renaissance architectural
treatise; influenced the use of orders and church design.
o Orders on Façades: First to use orders (engaged columns, pilasters) and
superimposed colonnades (supercolumnation
o Classical Forms: Invented forms combining ancient principles with new
designs.
o Capital Invention: Created new capitals inspired by Roman designs.
o Rustication and Pilasters: Combined at Palazzo Rucellai.
o Triumphal Arch and Temple Front: Incorporated Roman forms into
church façades, e.g., Sant' Andrea.
• Bernardo Rossellino (1409-64): Influential in architecture and sculpture in mid-
15th century.
o Papal Work: Worked for two popes; appointed Master of Cathedral Works in
Florence (1461)
o Tomb for Leonardo Bruni: Defined a new style for funeral monuments.
o Style: Minimal ornamentation, drawing on classical design principles.
o Piazza Pio II
• Giuliano da Sangallo (1443-1516): Oldest and most prominent member of a family
of woodworkers, with three architects.
o Influence of Brunelleschi: Employed pietra serena trim, white walls,
pilasters, and restrained ornamentation.
o Coffering System: Developed interlocking curved terracotta tiles for barrel-
vaulted ceilings, inspired by Roman forms.
o Preferred Forms: Used barrel vaults in Villa Medici and Sacristy of Santo
Spirito; double-urn balusters in Villa Medici and Palazzo Gondi
• Fra Giovanni Giocondo (1433-1515): Franciscan friar, scholar, and architect.
o Scholarship: Edited Latin inscriptions, translated Vitruvius' De architectura
(1511 edition was the first illustrated).
o Architecture: Specialized in engineering, fortifications, hydraulic works, and
structural systems.
o High Renaissance Architecture:
• Bramante: Led with a dynamic design approach, focusing on volumes
and organic flow.
• Leonardo da Vinci: Contributed sketches of centralized buildings,
influencing Bramante’s work.
• Bramante's Influence: Used Vitruvius' orders with minimal
ornamentation, epitomizing Classical purity.
• St. Peter's (1506): Bramante's largest project, influencing many other
structures, including the Chigi Chapel by Raphael.
• Raphael's Influence: Ornamented designs based on Roman imperial
period, more ornate than Bramante’s starker style.
• Donato Bramante (1444-1514): Key figure in High Renaissance architecture, trained
as a painter in Urbino.
o Mathematical Proportions: Used simple ratios, with a foundation in
geometry, depicted by Raphael as Euclid.
o Classicism: Designs followed Vitruvius' principles, treating Roman
architecture as a unified whole.
o Severity: Minimal ornamentation, focusing on the beauty of proportions with
simple Doric order.
o Organic Structure: Emphasized interlocking volumes and harmonious flow
of spaces.
o Plasticity: Derived from the building's form, not surface projections.
• Raphael (1483-1520): Born in Urbino, epitomized High Renaissance harmony and
wholeness in his style.
o Influential Features:
▪ Colored and veined marble for interior walls.
▪ Topographically based villa plans.
▪ Used orders instead of rustication for palace façades.
▪ Villa Madama
• Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536): Sienese painter and architect, influenced by
Francesco di Giorgio. Most of his works are of theatres
o Architectural Style: Creative draftsman, innovated architectural drawing
techniques.
▪ Perspective-Section Combination: Drawings like St. Peter's
combining perspective views and horizontal sections.
▪ Axonometric Projection: Early use of axonometric projection, with
receding lines at 45-degree angles.
▪ Illusionistic Wall Paintings: Mastery of large-scale perspective
illusions, seen in the Villa Farnesina’s Sala delle Prospettive.
• Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1484-1546): Third prominent architect in the
Sangallo family from Florence.
o Distinction: Known as "the Younger" to differentiate from his uncle, Antonio
da Sangallo the Elder.
• Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564): Renowned for excellence in painting,
sculpture, architecture, and poetry.
o Architectural Career: Started architecture in his 40s, mainly in Florence
(1516-1534), contributing to Mannerism.
o Style: Irreverent use of classical forms, creating new arrangements to
enhance beauty and strength.
Architectural Characteristics:
• Optical Approach: Designed buildings based on visual impact, sometimes
using full-scale models.
• Caprice: Freely rearranged classical motifs, unconstrained by traditional rules.
• Dynamism: Organic, fluid, sculptural quality to designs.
• Unity: Buildings conceived as unified wholes with interlinked parts.
• Tactile Contrasts: Shallow spaces with deep recesses, crisp angles with
curvilinear forms.
• Forms Repeated: Use of repeated shapes and designs across various elements.
• Variety and Rhythm: Alternating wide/narrow bays, advancing/receding wall
planes.
• Structural Expression: Projecting pier edges, interlacing vertical and horizontal
lines.
• Massing of Ornament: Focus on ornamentation around doors to create focal
points.
• Unorthodox Surrounds: Non-traditional arrangements of window, door, and
panel surrounds.
• Colossal-order Pilasters: Giant pilasters used in later years, particularly in
Rome.
• Vignola (1507-73): Influential architect known for his treatise and church
designs.
o Stylistic Influence: Inspired by Bramante and Serlio; difficult to classify,
blending Mannerist details with traditional approaches.
o Proto-Baroque: Innovations influenced Baroque, with Il Gesù marking a
starting point for Baroque architecture.
o Vignola's Treatise:
▪ "Regola delle Cinque Ordini d' Architettura": Focused on the
correct use of classical orders, influential in architectural practice.
Notable Works:
o Villa Giulia, Rome (1550-55): Designed by Vignola with a three-part
façade, central bays projecting as a plastic unit, and a semicircular
loggia.
o Other Projects: Worked on St. Peter's and Palazzo Farnese in Rome after
Michelangelo's death.
• Palladio (1508-80): Architect whose influence peaked with the neo-Palladian
revival.
o I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura: Published in 1570: Profound impact on
architecture, especially in England and America.
▪ Book I: Covers materials, construction, the five orders, and
architectural elements.
▪ Book II: Focuses on private houses, both urban and rural.
▪ Book III: Public structures like streets, bridges, and piazzas.
▪ Book IV: Temples as the ancient equivalent of Christian churches.
o Palladian Motif: Vitruvius Description
▪ Arch-and-column Configuration: Trio of openings (arch flanked
by rectangular openings).
o Used Widely: In Venice, "Palladian" or "Serliana" motif; known through
Serlio’s treatise.
o Influence:
▪ Late Renaissance and Post-Renaissance: Used by Vasari and
Vignola, became popular in the 18th century.
▪ Neo-Palladian Movement: Sparked by Inigo Jones in the 17th
century, revived in the 18th century, influencing English architects
like Lord Burlington.
▪ Harmony Based on Proportions: Focused on balanced,
proportional design.
BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE
• Baroque Style: Developed in Italy in the early 1600s, associated with
unpredictability and elaborate detail. The term "baroque" comes from the
Portuguese word "barroco," meaning an irregular pearl.
• Cultural Context: Supported by the Catholic Church post-Council of Trent, aiming
to communicate religious emotion. The aristocracy embraced Baroque for
showcasing power and wealth.
Key Features of Baroque Architecture:
• Dramatic Emotional Appeal: Architecture designed to be emotionally engaging and
visually impressive.
• Baroque Palaces: Grand sequences of courts, staircases, and reception rooms
emphasizing increasing magnificence.
• Materials: Abundant use of marble, gilt, and bronze.
• Decorative Elements: Highly detailed pediments, scrolls, and gilding; ceilings often
feature illusionistic painting techniques.
Distinctive Shapes and Design:
• Oval Shapes: Common use of complex, interlacing ovals for creating open spaces.
Circular domes often placed over oval spaces.
• Illusionism: Ceiling paintings and intricate designs aimed to express emotion and
create dramatic effects.
Periods of Baroque Art and Architecture:
1. Early Baroque (1584-1625): Influenced by Roman architects like Giacomo della
Porta and Carlo Maderno.
2. High Baroque (1625-1675): Dominated by figures like Gian Lorenzo Bernini and
Francesco Borromini, with major works in Rome.
3. Late Baroque (1675-1750): Spread across Europe and colonies, with more classical
designs under Louis XIV in France (e.g., Hall of Mirrors at Versailles).
Leading Architects:
1. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680): Key figure in integrating sculpture, painting, and
architecture.
2. Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669): Known for dramatic fresco ceilings.
3. Francesco Borromini (1599-1667): Revolutionary architect in Rome, known for
innovative forms.
4. Carlo Maderno (1556-1629): Major influence on church facades and early Baroque
design.
Regional Baroque Styles:
• Dutch Baroque: Reflected democratic values with classical references during the
Dutch Golden Age.
• Roman Baroque: Centered in Rome, with a focus on grandeur and drama.
• French Baroque: Evolved during the reigns of Louis XIII, XIV, and XV, often called
French Classicism.
• English Baroque: Developed after the Great Fire of London, blending Baroque
influences with local styles.
• Spanish Baroque: Noted for emotional appeal and intricate decoration
(Churrigueresque).
• Petrine Baroque: Introduced by Peter the Great in Russia, marking a break from
Byzantine traditions.
• Sicilian Baroque: Developed after the 1693 earthquake, known for ornate facades.
• Earthquake Baroque: A style developed in regions like the Philippines and
Guatemala following major earthquakes.
Characteristics of Baroque Architecture:
1. Domes: Often painted with heavenly imagery, symbolizing glory.
2. Quadratura: Illusionistic ceiling painting creating the illusion of depth.
3. Grand Stairways: Dramatic designs central to Baroque buildings, used for
ceremonies.
4. Cartouches: Ornate, three-dimensional framing elements on walls.
5. Mirrors: Enhanced depth and space, especially when combined with windows.
6. Chiaroscuro: Use of light and dark contrasts for dramatic effect.
7. Overhead Sculpture: Figures that appear to float in the air, enhancing the ethereal
quality.
8. Solomonic Columns: Twisted columns giving the illusion of motion.
This style represents an emotional, dramatic, and highly decorative architectural language,
blending art and architecture to evoke powerful reactions from viewers.
ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE
Overview:
• Definition: Rococo, or Late Baroque, is a highly decorative and theatrical style
blending asymmetry, scrolling curves, pastel colors, gilding, and trompe-l'œil
frescoes.
• Origin: Emerged in France in the 1730s as a reaction against the formal Style Louis
XIV, spreading to Europe and influencing other art forms.
• Characteristics: Ornate, fluid, and playful designs with a focus on motion, light,
and drama.
Key Features of Rococo Style:
1. Decoration:
o Asymmetrical curves, shell motifs, floral ornaments, and Far Eastern
influences (e.g., pagodas, dragons).
o Pastel colors with accents of gold and ivory.
o Use of mirrors to create depth and open spaces.
2. Design Elements:
o Interlocking ovals in floor plans for churches and palaces.
o Integrated art forms, including stucco, wood carving, and illusionistic ceiling
paintings.
o Light, delicate ornamentation contrasting with the heavy grandeur of
Baroque.
3. Architecture:
o Simplified exteriors with highly ornate interiors.
o Staircases as central, dramatic features.
o Use of stucco, lacquered wood, and gilded bronze for finishes.
Historical Context:
• Development: Transitioned from Baroque grandeur to more intimate, playful
designs.
• Cultural Shift: Reflects the rise of the bourgeoisie and increased secularism during
the Enlightenment.
• Key Periods:
o Régence (1715-1723): Post-Louis XIV era of political transition in France.
o Late 18th Century: Rococo replaced by Neoclassicism.
Differences Between Baroque and Rococo:
• Symmetry: Rococo favors asymmetry with graceful, flowing lines.
• Mood: Baroque is serious and awe-inspiring; Rococo is light, playful, and secular.
• Color Palette: Baroque uses rich, dark tones; Rococo favors pastel shades with
gold accents.
• Decorative Approach: Rococo includes Chinese/Japanese motifs and floral
ornamentation.
Influence and Legacy:
• Broader Impact: Extended to sculpture, furniture, painting, and decorative arts.
• Art: Softer colors, curved lines, and intimate subject matter.
• Furniture: Curving forms, naturalistic motifs, and porcelain decorations.
• Global Spread: Flourished in Germany, Austria, Central Europe, and Russia.
Rococo remains a defining period in art and architecture, symbolizing the transition to
modernity with its emphasis on elegance, intimacy, and playful creativity.
NEO-CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
Background:
• 18th Century Europe: Known as the Enlightenment; emphasis on critical thinking
and scientific methods.
• French Revolution Impact: Promoted egalitarianism and led to archaeological
studies in Egypt (e.g., Description de L'Égypte).
• Origins: Emerged in the 1700s, inspired by Greek and Roman antiquity.
• Style Features:
o Grandeur in scale, symmetry, geometric simplicity.
o Use of pediments, domes, and dramatic columns.
o Uncluttered designs with blank walls and clear interior spaces.
Neoclassical Movement in France:
• Philosophical Roots: Reaction against Rococo and Baroque ornamentation,
emphasizing rationalism and simplicity.
• Key Advocate: Marc-Antoine Laugier's Essai sur l’architecture advocated functional
design.
• Prominent Architects:
o Jacques-Germain Soufflot: Designed The Pantheon, combining Greek purity
and Gothic daring.
o Etienne-Louis Boullée: Focused on monumental, abstract geometric forms
(e.g., Cenotaph for Isaac Newton).
o Claude Nicolas Ledoux: Known for practical urban projects like Paris
tollgates and Barrière de Villette.
Notable Works:
1. The Pantheon (Paris): Greek cross plan, Corinthian columns, Gothic structural
elements.
2. Cenotaph for Isaac Newton: Unbuilt spherical monument, symbolizing
architecture as pure art.
3. Hotel Brunoy: Central Ionic colonnade with arcaded wings forming a three-sided
court.
Romantic Architecture
Concept and Characteristics:
• Contrast with Neoclassicism: Opposes order, balance, and rationality;
emphasizes individuality, imagination, and emotion.
• Romantic Influence: Inspired cities to revisit their cultural peaks, leading to style
revivals (e.g., Neo-Gothic, Neo-Baroque).
• Global Motifs: Incorporated ornamentation from regions like China and India.
Notable Examples:
1. Strawberry Hill (Horace Walpole):
o Picturesque irregular exterior.
o Gothic-inspired interior elements, adapted authentically.
2. The Royal Pavilion, Brighton (John Nash): Unique blend of romantic and exotic
styles.
3. House of Parliament, London (Charles Barry & A.N. Welby Pugin): Neo-Gothic
design showcasing historical inspiration.
4. The Opera, Paris (Charles Garnier): Opulent and dramatic Neo-Baroque style.
POST COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE
Pre-Columbian Period:
• Mesoamerican and Incan Architecture: Evolved over 1,000 years, varying
regionally due to cultural exchanges.
Colonial Period:
• French Colonial: Stucco-sided homes, two-story porches, no interior halls.
• Spanish Colonial: Adobe or stucco siding, flat or red clay tile roofs, some
Monterey-style porches.
• Georgian Colonial: Symmetrical facades, multi-pane windows, dentil moldings,
and decorative pilasters.
• Garrison Colonial: Overhanging second stories, steep gabled roofs, diamond-
paned windows.
• New England Colonial: Central massive chimneys, unpainted siding, two stories.
• Southern Colonial: Symmetrical shape, brick siding, chimneys on sides.
• Cape Cod Colonial: One or one-and-a-half stories, shingles or clapboard siding, no
dormers.
• Dutch Colonists: Brick stoned with Flemish, barn-like roof
• Colonial Revival: Improved, Neo colonial
Post-Colonial and Eclectic Phases:
Post-Colonial (1790-1820):
• Transitioned to Neo-Classical elements, moving away from Georgian influences.
First Eclectic Phase (1820-1869):
• Greek Revival: Dominant style, uniquely American characteristics.
• Balloon-Frame Construction: Revolutionized timber framing using light sections
and nailed diaphragms.
• Minor Styles: Gothic and Egyptian revivals.
Second Eclectic Phase (1860-1930):
1. Gothic and Romanesque Revival:
o Led by H.H. Richardson, gaining momentum in works of Louis Sullivan.
o Culminated in Frank Lloyd Wright's innovative designs.
2. Academic Revival:
o Inspired by the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, embracing Renaissance, ancient, and
late Gothic styles.
Key Architects and Works:
1. James Hoban: Designed the White House in Palladian style; influenced by Leinster
House, Dublin.
2. H.H. Richardson: Romanesque Revival; Trinity Church, Boston.
3. Frank Lloyd Wright: Modernist innovator; Unity Temple (1905-07), Robie House
(1908), Winslow House (1893).
4. Richard Morris Hunt: Biltmore Estate, influenced by French Renaissance chateaux.
5. Thomas Jefferson: Monticello and Virginia State Capitol, introducing Neo-Classical
elements.
6. McKim, Mead, and White: Boston Public Library, Stoughton House (Shingle Style).
Residential Styles (Timeline):
1. Colonial Revival (1880-1893): Symmetrical, refined revival of early American
colonial architecture.
2. Classic Box (1890-1910): Urban, orderly designs with limited ornamentation.
3. Dutch Colonial: Gambrel roofs and wood shingles.
4. Princess Anne: Simplified version of Victorian Queen Anne, with large porches and
restrained decoration.
5. Bungalow: Single-story, informal, and functional layouts.
6. Semi-Bungalow: Modest second story, broad roofs with natural materials.
7. American Foursquare: Practical, box-like with a hip roof and dormer, often
featuring front porches.
INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
• Origin: Began in Britain in the 18th century due to technological advances,
population growth, and demand for textiles.
• Key Inventions: Steam engine by James Watt (1785), coal-powered machinery, iron
production for cast and wrought iron.
• Transport Advances: Steam locomotives and steamships revolutionized travel and
distribution of materials.
• Infrastructure: Man-made canals linked manufacturing centers to streamline raw
material acquisition.
Architectural Development During the Industrial Revolution:
• Factory Buildings: Rectangular, multi-story brick or stone buildings, powered by
waterwheels and later, electricity.
• Iron Construction: Abraham Darby pioneered smelting cast iron, leading to the first
all-metal bridge (1779).
• Technological Influence: The industrial revolution brought new materials and
manufacturing methods that influenced architecture.
Victorian Architecture:
• Greek Revival: Inspired by classical architecture, enhanced by the importation of
the Elgin marbles (1801-1803).
• Gothic Revival: Influenced by Strawberry Hill and Fonthill Abbey, leading to the
development of Eclectic Architecture.
• Great Exhibition of 1851: Showcase for Victorian arts, including metalwork and
glass.
Beaux-Arts Architecture:
• Characteristics: Grandiosity, symmetry, and elaborate ornamentation; used in
government buildings.
• Key Examples in the U.S.: Union Station (Daniel Burnham), Library of Congress
(Paul Pelz), Grand Central Terminal, Carnegie Hall, New York Public Library.
• Prominent Architects: Richard Morris Hunt, Henry Hobson Richardson, Charles
Follen McKim, Raymond Hood, George B. Post.
Arts and Crafts Movement:
• Origin: Began in England in the 1870s as a response to industrial mass production.
• Philosophy: Focused on craftsmanship, handcrafting utilitarian and decorative
objects.
• Key Figures: Augustus Pugin, John Ruskin, William Morris, and Walter Crane.
• Notable Architects: William R. Lethaby, Charles Voysey, Greene & Greene (U.S.).
• Legacy: Emphasized design in architecture and decorative arts, influencing 19th-
century social and artistic ideals.
Impact on Architecture:
• Industrial Revolution: Led to architectural advancements through the use of iron,
mass production, and new building techniques.
• Victorian and Beaux-Arts Styles: Merged classical and Gothic influences with
industrial advancements.
• Arts and Crafts Movement: Rejected mass production, promoting craftsmanship
and artistic design in everyday objects and buildings.
20TH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
Late Victorian and Beaux-Arts Architecture:
• Spread Across Europe (1890s): Reached Spain, Scotland, Holland, Austria, and
Germany.
• Beaux-Arts Influence in the U.S.: Introduced post-Civil War, influenced by H.H.
Richardson and R.M. Hunt.
• Challenges: Struggled with maintaining original standards; French government
limited experimentation.
Art Nouveau (Late 19th - Early 20th Century):
• Characteristics: Fluid, undulating forms inspired by nature, plant-like motifs.
• National Variants: Known as Jugendstil in Germany, similar to Arts and Crafts in
England, with emphasis on creativity.
• Key Figures:
o Antoni Gaudí: Combined Moorish and Gothic elements with naturalistic
forms.
o Charles Rennie Mackintosh: Scottish adaptation of Art Nouveau, blending
Scottish Baronial and Celtic Arts.
Bauhaus and Art Deco:
• Art Deco (1920s-1930s): Geometric motifs, streamlined forms, bold colors, and
synthetic materials.
o Inspiration: Cubism, Russian Constructivism, Futurism, Egypt, Africa, and
the East.
o Famous Example: Chrysler Building, 1928-1930, by William Van Alen.
• Bauhaus: German movement emphasizing functional design, minimalism, and
geometric forms.
Cubism and Russian Constructivism:
• Cubism: Early 20th-century movement using geometric shapes like cubes and
prisms, creating sculptural facades with angular elements.
• Russian Constructivism: Focused on function over form, with minimal, geometric,
and spatial design; prominent in Moscow, including the Rusakov Workers' Club by
Konstantin Melnikov.
Futurism:
• Origin: Italy, with manifesto by Filippo Marinetti (1909).
• Features: Bold, dynamic cityscapes with verticality, external elevators, and
innovative transportation systems (e.g., Sant’Elia’s futuristic designs).
MODERNIST ARCHITECTURE
Modernity and Birth of Modern Architecture:
• Modernity: Refers to the present, the new, opposed to the past.
• Birth of Modern Architecture: Driven by new materials, technology, and
urbanization.
o Key Changes: Rejection of neoclassical architecture, rise of skyscrapers,
simpler, clean designs focused on function.
o International Style: Characterized by radical simplification, rejection of
ornament, use of glass, steel, and concrete.
Origins of Modern Architecture:
• Materials Revolution: Cast iron, plate glass, and reinforced concrete enabled taller
and lighter buildings.
o Key Developments:
▪ Crystal Palace (1851) used iron and glass.
▪ First steel-frame skyscraper: Home Insurance Building, Chicago
(1884).
▪ Eiffel Tower (1889), a landmark in iron construction.
Early Modernism in Europe:
• Key Early Works:
o Glasgow School of Art (1896-99): Charles Rennie Mackintosh’s large vertical
windows.
o Art Nouveau (1890): Victor Horta in Belgium, influenced by nature with
flowing, organic forms.
o Antonio Gaudí: Combined Moorish and Gothic elements with naturalistic
designs.
o Gothic Revival & Eclectic Architecture: Led by figures like Auguste Perret
and Henri Sauvage.
Arts and Crafts Movement:
• Origin: Developed in Britain around 1880, spreading to America and Europe.
• Philosophy: Rejected mass production, promoted handcrafted goods, and
emphasized social reform.
o Key Principles: Honesty, design unity, regionalism, joy in labor.
o William Morris: Led the movement, advocating for a return to
craftsmanship.
o Key Work: Red House (Philip Webb) exemplified handmade, simple forms
with natural materials.
Art Nouveau (1860-1910):
• Style: Highly decorative, influenced by natural forms like flowers and leaves.
• Key Figures:
o Siegfried Bing: Founder of the movement, promoting craftsmanship and
modern design.
o Key Examples: Horta’s designs in Belgium, Gaudí in Spain, and Mackintosh
in Scotland.
• Philosophy: Sought to integrate craftsmanship and art, rejecting traditional styles.
Early Modernism in Europe and America:
• Peter Behrens: Pioneer in industrial design and modern architecture, AEG turbine
factory (1909).
• Adolf Meyer & Walter Gropius: Fagus factory, representing functional modernist
design.
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Advocated for "organic architecture" to harmonize buildings
with their environment.
Skyscrapers and Chicago School (Late 19th Century):
• Skyscrapers: Developed in response to urban density and new technology (steel
frames, safety elevators).
• Louis Sullivan: "Father of the skyscraper," revolutionized design with steel frames,
emphasizing function over form.
• Chicago School: Promoted steel-frame construction and large glass windows,
emphasizing modern technology in design.
Influential Architects and Characteristics:
• Key Architects:
o Adler, Sullivan, Le Baron Jenney, Burnham
o Known for bold geometric facades, large windows, and decorative terra cotta
ornamentation.
o Features include projecting eaves, pilaster-like mullions, and arched or
vertical windows.
• Modernism Rise (1919-1930):
o Spread through Europe and America.
o Key Figures: Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
o Focus on simple, clean designs, rejecting ornamentation.
o Influential in post-WWI architecture and design.
• Purism (1918-1925):
o Collaboration between Le Corbusier and Amédée Ozenfant.
o Architecture as efficient as factory production, focusing on simplified design
and the absence of ornamentation.
• Bauhaus (1919-1933):
o Founded by Walter Gropius in Germany, combining fine arts and crafts.
o Focus on functionality and modern materials like steel, glass, and concrete.
o Key Characteristics: Smooth surfaces, grid forms, horizontal planes, primary
colors.
• Art Deco:
o Eclectic style, flourishing in the 1920s and 1930s.
o Features bold geometric motifs, aluminum, stainless steel, chrome, and
inlaid wood.
o Notable Buildings: Chrysler Building, La Samaritaine, and Mossehaus.
• Post-WWII Innovation:
o Wartime technology led to the use of new materials like aluminum.
o Prefabricated buildings became common in military and government
sectors.
o Large-scale housing projects were built to address postwar shortages.
• International Style:
o Dominant in 1930s-50s, characterized by rectilinear forms, minimal
ornamentation, and modern materials.
o Notable buildings: Seagram Building (Mies van der Rohe), Farnsworth House
(Mies van der Rohe).
o "Less is more" and "God is in the details" – Mies van der Rohe’s principles.
• Brutalism:
o Flourished from 1950s-1970s, focusing on raw materials like concrete.
o Characterized by massive forms, rough surfaces, and an emphasis on
structure.
o Notable examples: Boston City Hall, Barbican Estate.
• Modern Architecture Characteristics:
o Focus on minimalism, geometric forms, and clean lines.
o Use of new materials like steel, concrete, and glass for open, functional
spaces.
o Emphasis on large windows for natural light and integrating buildings with
their environment.
o Examples: Pyramid of the Louvre, Luis Barragán House, National Gallery of
Art East Wing.
INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
• North America
o International Style I (1929-1940):
▪ European architects (e.g., Marcel Breuer, Walter Gropius) bring
modern ideas to the U.S.
▪ Experimentation with International Style in American skyscrapers.
▪ Notable building: Philadelphia Savings Fund Society (PSFS) Building,
1932.
o International Style II (1945-1970):
▪ Post-WWII expansion of modern architecture in the U.S.
▪ Introduction of major architects: Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright,
Philip Johnson.
▪ Breuer's works, such as the UNESCO headquarters (1952), and
Johnson's Glass House (1949).
• Key Architects in U.S. (Pre- and Post-WWII):
o Marcel Breuer:
▪ Works: Breuer House I (1939), Frank House (1939).
▪ Known for attention to detail and clarity in modern design.
o Philip Johnson:
▪ Renowned for luxurious designs and innovative use of symmetry.
▪ Works: AT&T Headquarters (1984), Crystal Cathedral (1980), 860 Lake
Shore Drive (1951).
▪ Known for pioneering the International Style in the U.S.
o Louis Sullivan & Frank Lloyd Wright:
▪ Promoted organic architecture and the relationship between nature
and structure.
▪ Wright's "Falling Water" (1936), Robie House (1910).
• Tel Aviv (White City):
o Largest collection of Bauhaus-style buildings globally.
o Architects: Arieh Sharon, Zeev Rechter, and others.
o Over 4,000 Bauhaus buildings in Tel Aviv, constructed in the 1930s.
• Modern Architecture Themes:
o Form follows function, simplicity, and the use of industrial materials.
o "Truth to materials" – showcasing the natural appearance of materials.
o Horizontal and vertical lines; emphasis on clean, open plans.
Early Modernism:
• Futurism (Italy):
o Characterized by dynamic lines, speed, and urgency.
o Example: Lingotto factory, Turin (1934).
• Constructivism (Russia):
o Merged advanced technology with Communist ideals.
o Example: Melnikov House, Moscow.
• Expressionism (Western Europe):
o Known for sculptural forms and unusual massing, inspired by nature.
o Example: Second Goetheanum, Basel.
• The Bauhaus Movement (Germany):
o Founded by Walter Gropius, emphasizing functionality, steel-frame
construction, and simplicity.
o Example: Bauhaus building in Dessau.
Later Modern Architecture (Mid-20th Century):
• Brutalism (1950s-1970s):
o Emphasis on raw concrete and sculptural, massive forms.
o Example: Boston City Hall, Government Center.
• Post-Modern Architecture (1970s):
o Reaction to the severe geometry of Modernism, incorporating historical
references.
o Example: Portland Public Services Building (1979-82).
• Neo-modern Architecture (21st Century):
o Reaction against Postmodernism, emphasizing clean modern lines.
o Example: One World Trade Center (2013), Tour First (2011).
• Contemporary Modern Architecture:
o Examples:
▪ Borgata (2003), Trump International Hotel and Tower (2009), Eureka
Tower (2006).
▪ Emphasis on sleek designs, often incorporating glass, steel, and eco-
friendly features.
Sustainability & Innovation:
• Use of advanced materials (glass, steel), energy-efficient designs, and eco-friendly
systems like green roofs and solar panels.
• Example: Pixel Building (Australia), One Central Park (Australia).
CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
• Notable Architects:
o Frank Gehry, Jean Nouvel, Tadao Ando, Shigeru Ban, Santiago Calatrava,
Zaha Hadid.
o Known for innovative, expressive, gravity-defying designs that reshape urban
landscapes.
o Famous works: Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao), Hadid's London
Aquatics Centre, Calatrava’s World Trade Center Hub.
• Frank Gehry:
o Known for bold, sculptural forms; major works include the Guggenheim
Museum and Walt Disney Concert Hall.
o Buildings often use unconventional shapes, materials like titanium, and
create striking visual impacts.
• Tadao Ando:
o Self-taught architect from Japan, blending simplicity with nature, influenced
by Zen philosophy.
o Known for using concrete to create weightless structures; major works
include the Church of the Light and Hill of the Buddha.
• Santiago Calatrava:
o Spanish architect and engineer, famous for sculptural bridges and buildings.
o Notable works: Olympic Sports Complex (Athens), World Trade Center
Transportation Hub (NYC).
• Zaha Hadid:
o Iraqi-British architect, first woman to win the Pritzker Prize.
o Known for fluid, futuristic designs, including the London Aquatics Centre and
Guangzhou Opera House.
• Contemporary Architecture Characteristics:
o Innovation & Technology: Use of advanced materials like steel, glass, and
3D printing for unprecedented forms.
o Sustainability: Focus on eco-friendly materials, energy efficiency, and
reducing environmental impact.
o Design Styles: Features curved lines, open floor plans, asymmetry, green
roofs, and integration with the landscape.
o Global Influence: Not limited to Western countries, with notable works in
the Middle East, Asia, and Europe (e.g., Burj Khalifa, Shanghai Tower).
• Key Concepts in Contemporary Architecture:
o Curved, free-form shapes and asymmetry are common.
o Open, flowing spaces with large windows for natural light.
o Integration with nature through sustainable design elements like living
walls and green roofs..
• Building Techniques:
o Curtain Walls: Glass or metal cladding that allows natural light penetration,
reducing energy use.
o Fagus Works (Germany): Early example of modernist architecture with glass
curtain walls.
o Bauhaus (Germany): Pioneering modern architecture, combining functional
design with efficiency.
• Sustainable Buildings:
o Pixel Building (Australia): First carbon-neutral office building, energy-
efficient with wind turbines and water capture.
o One Central Park (Australia): Features rooftop gardens, green walls, and
energy-efficient design.
o Museum of Tomorrow (Brazil): Sustainable with solar panels and water-
cooling systems.
o Bosco Verticale (Italy): Vertical forest with living greenery to improve air
quality.
o Notable buildings like Burj Khalifa (Dubai) and Shanghai Tower showcase
the global nature of contemporary architecture.
o Emphasis on futuristic, imaginative, and sustainable designs.
