Water and the environment in Ethiopia

Mateos Mekiso
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract
It is generally recognised that fresh water is regarded as one of the most important natural
resources for all socio-economic development and a basic input for environmental
management. Failure to successfully develop and appropriately utilise this resource leads to
a progressively declining economy and degraded environment.
In Ethiopia, despite the huge potential of fresh water resources, recurrent droughts and
rapidly progressing desertification have disrupted food and fibre production systems. Food
shortage and starvation is ever increasing. The national economy is either stagnant or
declining while population size is rapidly increasing. Domestic water supply is at its infancy.
Potentials in irrigation and hydropower are also hardly exploited. The cumulative effect of
these has reflected on overall poverty and associated environmental degradation.
In view of the above-mentioned issues, the need to develop and utilise the available
water resource in the country is discussed in this paper. The discussion is focused on the
relationship between water resources, the environment and poverty.

Introduction and background

Water is a precious natural resource, vital for life, development and the environment. It can
be a matter of life and death, depending on how it occurs and when it occurs and how it is
managed.
Irrespective of how it occurs, if properly managed, water can be an instrument for
survival and development. It can be an instrument for poverty reduction. Access to safe
water and sanitation to meet human and livestock needs is a prerequisite for sustainable
development.
However, when inadequate in quantity and quality, it can rather serve as a limiting
factor in poverty reduction and overall national development, resulting in poor health and
low productivity, food insecurity and constrained economic development. It is therefore
imperative that the linkages between water development initiatives in the agriculture, food,
energy, health, education and decentralised governance sectors be clearly understood and
carefully managed to benefit from the inherent synergies and to minimise or avoid negative
cross-sectoral impacts.
It is on this basis that water is one of the most essential substances for the sustenance of
life. It is generally recognised that fresh water is the most important natural resource in all

MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 113

Mateos Mekiso

socio-economic development endeavours and indispensable input for environmental

management. It is an important component of every type of environment where life is
found. Successful management of the environment, therefore, can never be achieved in
isolation from appropriate management of water resources. Water is a product of the
environment, and vice versa, as it comes as rain from the environment and goes through
land, which is the major component of the human environment and ends up in the sea or in
the land. Managing water is thus intimately linked with managing the environment—all
terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric resources including human welfare.
Based on the bond between water resources and the environment, integrated water
resources management is gaining paramount importance worldwide. In pursuit of
integrated solutions, it is observed that decision-makers and planners tend to be oriented
towards the management of water while preserving the environment through appropriate
legal tools and sustainable actions of development.
Integrated management of water resources entails co-ordinated development of water,
land and related resources to maximise socio-economic benefits and preserve the
sustainability of the ecosystems. Being viewed as comprising an ecological system of
interdependent components, the water system interacts with land, environment and other
related political and economic systems. The whole process should be directed towards the
assessment of water needs, sources, the causes of water related problems, and means to
optimise the utility and equitability among stakeholders throughout the water system
management.
Although implementing water resources in an integrated manner is important, its
management is complex. The complexity also differs across place and time because the
integration entails needs and equitable distribution of water for all domestic utilisation and
agricultural and industrial use together with the need for ecosystem management. These
require co-ordination, harmonisation and reducing temporal availability constraints and
situational pressure. Effective co-ordination and integration between the water system and
other systems require efficient decision and controlling mechanisms that are based on
knowledge of water acquisitions, development and efficient allocation to different
socio-economic and ecosystems management activities. The need for such connection in
the water system is due to the fact that water has economic, ecological, social, cultural and
religious value.

The state of water resources in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has 12 major river basins/valleys, 11 lakes, 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12
major swamps. The total mean annual flow from all the 12 river basins is estimated to be
123.25 billion m3. Based on this information, it is always stated and often quoted that
‘Ethiopia is the water tower of East Africa’. The country can only be a water tower in terms of
receiving ample water and donating it to neighbouring countries but not in terms of ample
water resources that is readily available for use. This is because, most of the major rivers have
created deep gorge in the country and the water they contain passes to neighbouring
countries, thus constraining development and utilisation of the water resources in the

114 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop

 Water and the environment in Ethiopia

country. In addition, uneven spatial and temporal distribution of the available water
resources either demand huge investment to develop and extend to the water scarce areas or
constrained the utility at required time and place. This is again due to the fact that most
perennial springs and streams exist only in the highlands comprising just over 40% of the
country’s geographic area, whereas there is hardly any surface runoff and perennial springs
and streams in areas below 1500 metres above sea level (masl) that comprise over 55% of the
country. Even the country’s estimated 2.6 billion m3 ground water which, fairly distributed
in the lowlands, could not be appropriately developed and utilised because of financial and
capacity problems. Such failures in developing and utilising the country’s water resources
and mismanagement to the sparsely available water have already been reflected as a root
cause for overall environmental degradation.

Problems associated with water management and

the environment
Environmental risks and/or benefits are often related to the way natural resources are
managed. Environment is defined as related to a range of natural resources it contained, the
interactions between the different resources and the state of resources in space and time. All
living organisms and their habitats are dependent on the availability and quality of water
resources. Therefore, there is no such thing as managing environment without managing
water resources and vice versa. We therefore could conclude that environmental risks and
benefits are often related to the way in which natural resources, in general, and water
resources, in particular, are managed.
The important interacting variables in environmental management is the water
management system we choose; the use we make of the water; the quality and quantity of the
water; and the nature and quality of the environment. The interactions between these
variables often emanate problems in water resources management and utilisation because
the process of water resources management and utilisation would modify the natural water
systems. The process may also affect the quality and quantity of the water at the envisaged
users level.
The water resources management, therefore, has to consider the heterogeneous nature
of the environment, i.e. the nature of changing from place to place, that is spatial and
temporal, or fragility of resources’ associations and their environment. Different
environmental issues would demonstrate this idea. For example, irrigation often causes
severe salinity in arid lowlands while its environmental and socio-economic benefit in the
humid areas is far greater than its adverse impact on the environment, with the assumption
that the design and management of the irrigation in both areas are similar. However, good
designs and pre-informed management actions avoid the adverse impact at any place.
Similarly, mass deforestation of an area creates adverse impacts on water resources quality
and quantity and the environment. It leads to soil system impediment and adversely affects
the process of infiltration creating temporal floods, soil erosion and general environmental
degradation. Reforestation and increased organic contents in soil acts inversely. They

MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 115

Mateos Mekiso

increase water infiltration rates; create clear and sufficient water; improve general
environmental conditions in which diversity of terrestrial and aquatic organisms flourish.
The water management and utilisation problems as related to the environment in
Ethiopia are not limited to uneven distribution of water resources and human actions.
Natural calamities have also posed severe problems. Ethiopia and its eastern neighbouring
countries were severely stricken by recurrent droughts from 153 to 242 BC, during which
water flow in the river Nile was tremendously reduced. These droughts, however, affected
small portion of the country and imposed less famine in Ethiopia. The extent and frequency
of the famine has gradually grown until 1975, when thousands of people lost their lives.
This called not only for national attention but also for global attention that after then some
actions on the idea of conserving and managing environment and water resources has
emerged. By the time, however, the water systems and the environment in most parts of the
country had lost or severely reduced their resilience that the resources were susceptible for
slight touches. The emerged actions have not been able either to reverse or stop the resource
degradation and climate problems such that currently aridity has widened its scope in the
country. Now it is estimated that 65 to 70% of the country’s total geographic area fall under
the United Nations’ definition of desertification.
Although desertification is degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid
areas, the main element of desertification is unavailability of water resources. This renders
the ecosystems in the affected areas fragile. Desertification does not refer only to the
expansion of already existing desert but also over-exploitation and inappropriate use of
resources in dry ecosystems. Deforestation, overgrazing, misdesigned and mismanaged
irrigation practices, poverty, political instability and inappropriate macro policy directions
can all adversely affect natural resources and land productivity leading to desertified
environment. The results are often loss in biological productivity, disturbed and
deteriorated water cycling, and loss in economic productivity, famine, starvation and
general poverty ranging from household to national level. Thus poverty goes back to further
over-utilisation of resources including water, and to environmental deterioration creating
vicious circle to the process.
The above stated environmental problems have already taken place in Ethiopia.
Clearing of forests, over-grazing and other reductions in the vegetation of the country has
increased considerably during recent years. Increased silt and nutrient load of the
watercourses due to increasing populations and the above-stated negative environmental
products have posed serious socio-economic and environmental problems. The episodes
that encourage soil erosion (depleted forest, inadequate plant cover, poor soils, improper
farming methods etc.), and inappropriate management systems of water resources (at
micro-level) have alarmingly taken place and most of the water systems and the environment
have suffered from the consequences of the linked processes (Zinabu 1998).
The overall product of the problems is poverty. Of a total population of about 67 million
people, it is estimated that close to 30 million live in absolute poverty. A report prepared for
the ‘World Summit on Sustainable Development’ reveals that the household income,
consumption and expenditure survey conducted in 1995/96 and published in 1999,
estimated that:
i. forty-six percent of the population subsists below the poverty line

116 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop

 Water and the environment in Ethiopia

ii. although poverty is widespread in the country, it is more prevalent in the rural areas
where 47% of the population is poor compared with 33% in the urban areas
iii. average per capita income (US$ 167) obtained from the survey is very close to the
national poverty line (US$ 165) indicating that the whole nation is on the verge of
poverty.
Several indicators raise the alarm that poverty is further deepening. For example, per
capita food production has been declining since the 1960s indicating that the ability of the
rural population to feed itself has been deteriorating. The average annual yield of cereals in
the years from 1980 to 1995 showed no improvement showing that agricultural
performance was stagnant throughout the 1980s and most of the 1990s while population
growth is increased by 3% annually. Furthermore, the number of relief recipients is
increasing tremendously both in the urban and rural areas. Poverty also hampered the
provision of social services. The level of satisfaction in the basic needs such as water supply
and sanitation, health, education and even shelter is low. For instance, only less than a
quarter of the rural population has access to drinking water supplied from protected
sources. Electricity is used as a source of energy for cooking by only 0.38% of the
households. The rest depend on woody biomass, crop residues and cow dung. These had
multiple adverse impacts both on water resources management and the environment.

Actions taken to reverse the trend

Policies and strategies
Although the severe poverty at micro-level creates problems on wise management and use of
natural resources, the Government of Ethiopia is well aware of the problems. Accordingly,
the constitution and many sectoral and cross-sectoral policies have given due attention to
sustainable development, in which the management of natural resources and the
environment are focus areas. A couple of policies and strategies are raised as example.
The constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) set clear
economic development policy in general and gave due consideration to environmental and
socio-economic issues in particular. All sectoral and cross-sectoral policies developed and
legislation enacted have been based on the general statements in the constitution.
The economic policy emphasises sustainable development that shall be based on
integrated approach to rural development. It clearly states that all development actions
should consider the wise management of natural resources and the environment. It pays
due attention to water resource development and management with statement ‘without
water agriculture is unthinkable’. It further states that if the supply of water is higher or less
than the required amount or if it is not available at the right time, production would
significantly decrease or even be zero.
Environment policy and conservation strategies of Ethiopia on their part provoke
people-centred and environmentally sustainable development. The policy affirms the need
to ensure sustainable use and management of environmental resources and the wise use of

MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 117

Mateos Mekiso

non-renewable resources. It cautions stakeholders to the extent possible when managing the
trade-off between short-term economic growth and long-term environmental protection.
Additionally, it underscores the need to correct for market failures, and ensure social equity
in the use of environmental resources. It further advises that regular and accurate
assessment and monitoring of environmental conditions be conducted and the public be
duly informed on the outcome. On the investment side, the environmental rights are
safeguarded by a legal requirement that deploys the Investment Authority to ensure that the
intended investment activity complies with conditions in the environment protection laws.
As regards to water resources management, comprehensive and considerate of all sector
and cross-sector development water policy or strategy and 15 years development and
management programme have been prepared that are now ready for action. The water
resources management policy reinforces the prosperity, harmony and environmental health
elements of the unstated vision through the policy’s fundamental principles, which
recognise that water is a commonly owned economic and social good that should, as much
as possible, be accessible to all in sufficient quantity and quality to meet basic human needs.
The principles further emphasise, among others, the need for a rural-centred, decentralised,
integrated and participatory water management system. They also emphasise the
attainment of social equity, economic efficiency, empowerment of water users,
sustainability of water management, promoting self-financing and cost recovery. In using
water resources, ensuring environmental soundness of all water resources development
activities, and ensuring sound water governance regimes at all levels of governance are
further required.

Conservation and development

Many different environmental management actions including forest resources
management and development, soil and water conservation, dry lands water and pasture
resources development and management etc. received attention since the 1970s. The
actions were conducted in isolation from each other that integrated management systems
were not designed and developed. The failure to design and implement actions in an
integrated manner has contributed to less than effective actions.
Currently, however, an integrated approach to resource development and
environmental management has been designed into the River Basin Master Plans. Resource
inventories have been conducted for most of the river basins and compiled at individual
river basin levels. The compilations indicate the state of all resources including land, water,
floristic and faunistic resources and existing management options and constraints. Based
on the knowledge of resources, management constraints and options, long-term (30–50
years) priority areas of intervention have been proposed in each master plan from which
priority actions have already been adopted in the so far prepared water sector development
programme. Again, the water sector development programme considers integrated
socio-economic development with water resources playing a major role in development.
Furthermore, the Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme
Ethiopia calls for the water supply coverage of urban, rural and country level at 82.5, 31.4

118 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop

 Water and the environment in Ethiopia

and 39.4%, respectively, from 2002–05. The programme has planned to annually increase
urban sewerage coverage by 3.5% from its current level of 7%. It has further planned to
develop irrigation schemes that cover 29,043 ha and small-scale irrigation that cover 23,823
ha with expected total beneficiaries of 207,900 households.

Conclusions
Different natural resources in Ethiopia complement one another. Any successful
management of the environment depends on the management and utilisation of other
resources, especially water resources. Again, water resources cannot be successfully
managed in isolation from other resources. Integrated approach to the resources
management is indispensable for sustainable management of all individual resources
including water resource in particular and the environment in general. The approach in the
River Basin Master Plans is encouraging and it should be strengthened.
The country has enacted a number of legal tools that are very important for the
successful management of water resources and the environment. The major drawback is
failure in implementation of the prepared programmes, policies and strategies, which are
based on dependable information and deep consultative processes.
Furthermore, poverty affects not only socio-economic performance and human welfare
but also the natural environment at large. Combating poverty has already received attention
from the Government of Ethiopia and a poverty reduction strategy and programme has
already been prepared. One among many issues of the strategy and the programme is water
resources development for irrigation and other uses. This is basic for countries like Ethiopia
that are frequently stricken by droughts.
However, although all scales of irrigation are important for Ethiopia’s agricultural
productivity and production, planning for the irrigation development should consider
short- and long-term irrigation components. In the short-term, small-scale irrigation,
especially those, which complement local knowledge and affordability, should receive
greater attention for many different reasons including the system efficiency and
environment friendliness.
One, therefore, strongly argues that the water resources management process should be
started and strengthened at the grassroot/community level because local people understand
that water is a precious natural resource, vital for life. Attention should, therefore, be given
to small-scale irrigation, which is already known and practised by the local communities.
The only need is to encourage and strengthen the practice and avoid possible conflicts
during irrigation water use. Furthermore, small-scale irrigation is efficient in water resource
utilisation (less evaporation and percolation wastage, less salinity to soil and ground water,
less conflict arising with down-stream users, environmentally friendly in general etc.). The
short-term food production programme and water resources management programme thus
should consider small-scale irrigation in all possible vicinities.
In addition, there should be a greater effort to expand capacity and satisfy energy needs,
at least in urban areas, so as to reduce fuel wood pressure from woody biomass, crop residues
and cow dung that should be returned to the soil and enhance land productivity and

MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 119

Mateos Mekiso

production. Water resources, as far as financial resources allow, should primarily play this
role.

Reference
Zinabu G. 1998. Human interactions and water quality. In: Proceedings of the 1997 AAAS (American
Association for the Advancement of Science) symposium on emerging water management issues,
Philadelphia, USA. AAAS, Philadelphia, USA.

120 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop