EXPERIMENT NO- I (A)

Aim : To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by

obtaining the image of a distant object.

Apparatus : A concave mirror, white screen or a white sheet of

paper, a meter scale.

Theory : 1. A distant object which is many time the focal

length of the mirror is regarded as an object at
infinity.

2. Rays coming from the object form a set of parallel

rays.

3. Parallel rays coming from the object after

reflection meet in the focal plane of the mirror and
forms a real, inverted and diminished image.

From distance pole — Focal plane

M'

Fig. I(a).1. Image of a distance object formed in the focal plane of the
concave mirror. F = PF.
12/85

Procedure :
1. Hold the concave,mirror in your hand and select any object at a far
distant outside the classroom. The object (say tree OF house) at a

Id be visible to our naked eyes.

distance of your concave mirror with the white

o that a clear image can be formed,

concave mirror and the white screen

far distance shou

7. Then adjust the

screen or paper S
3, Measure the distance between

using meter scale.

4, Repeat the experiment three times.

Observation: |. fi=_-cm 2. f>=___cm

Average focal length (f) = a = __ cm
Result : The focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

Precautions :
1. The distant object should be clearly visible.

2. A clear image of the object should be obtained on the white screen

3. en raging ra the distance between the mirror and the image

eter scale should be : ’
horizontal ground. kept horizontally and parallel to the
EXPERIMENT NO - I (B)

AIM :To determine the focal length of a convex lens by

obtaining the image of a distant object.

Apparatus: A convex lens, white sheet/ cardboard, meter scale.

Theory :1. An object is at many times the focal length ‘f of the

lens. It is regarded as an object at infinity.

2. Rays coming from the object form a set of parallel rays

3. Parallel beam of rays often refracted through convex

lens, it converges at one point in the focal plane

Rays from tree (at infinity)

Convex Lens

Focal plane

Fig 1(b).1. Rays from a distant object like the top of a tree outside the
school laboratory converge in the focal plane of the lens.

Procedure:

1. Hold the convex mirror in your hand and select any object at a far
distant outside the classroom.
17/85

2. The image of an object is obtained clearly on a white sheet/

cardboard which is inverted.

3. Measure the distance between the convex lens and the white sheet/
cardboard using a meter scale.

Observation : l. f\= cm 2. f= cm

Average focal length (f) = ae cm

Result: The focal length of the given convex lens = cm
Precautions:

1. The object should be clearly visible.

2. Lens should be held properly and firmly so that it faces parallel to

the screen.

3. While measuring the distance between the optical centre and the

focal plane, the meter scale should be kept parallel to the

principal axis.

LL hazLlhaweeemao
Aim

EXPERIMENT NO -2

: To trace the path of a ray of light through a rectangular

glass slab and measure the angle of incidence and the
angle of emergence.

Apparatus : Drawing board, white sheet of paper, drawing pins,

glass slab, protractor, pencil and scale.

Theory : 1. A ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a

denser medium bends towards the normal.

2.A ray of light, travelling from a denser to rarer

medium bends away from the normal.

3. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of

emergence.

Procedure :

Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of

drawing pins.

Place a glass slab on the paper. Draw the boundary of the glass
slab (ABCD) with a pointed pencil and then remove it.

Take a point O on the side CD of the slab and draw normal N,N?
with the protractor.

Draw a straight line PO at any angle, the angle N,OP is then the
angle of incidence ( 21).

Keeping the eye towards CD look through the glass slab at the
two pins ‘W’ and ‘X’.

Fix another pin ‘Y’ such that the eye and the feet of all the pins
are in the same pins.

|
7. Now fix another pin ‘Z’ keeping the eye in line with the feet or
all the four pins.

Remove the glass slab and the pins.

9. Mark the pin points W, X, Y and Z with a pencil encircling them.

10. Joint YZ and produce the line on both sides, Emergent ray RS
is obtained.

11. Draw normal N3N, at a point R. Measure angles of incidence

and angle of emergence.

12. Repeat the whole experiment by changing angles of incidence.

Incidentray p

~ Lateral Displacement

Fig. 2.1 Refraction through a glass slab.

Table 2.1

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl. No Angle of Incidence Zi Angle of emergence Ze
l 30°
2 35°
3 40°
4 45°
5 50°
6 55°

Result : From the above informations it is found that :

. Angle of incidence 21 is equal to the angle of emergence Ze.

2. The incident ray (PQ) and the emergent ray (RS) are parallel to

each other.

3. The incident ray bends towards the normal as it travels from

rarer medium (air) to denser medium (glass slab) and it bend

away from the normal as it travels the glass to air.

Precautions :

ai

. Glass slab should be clean.

The eye must be in line with the feet of the pins while fixing
pins for emergent ray.

The distance between the pins on the incident ray or the

emergent ray should not be less than 10 cm.

We must look at the feet of the pins from a minimum distance

of 25 cm

The angle of incidence should be taken between 30° to 70°.

Measure the angles exactly, do not use approximation.
AIM:

EXPERIMENT NO-4

(a) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the

following salt solutions.

I. ZnSOg (aq)
2. FeSO, (aq)
3. CuSO, (aq)

4. Alo(SOx4); (aq)

(b) To arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing

order of reactivity based on the above result.

Requirements : Solutions of Zinc Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Copper

Sulphate, Aluminium Sulphate, Test tubes, pieces of metals namely-
Zinc, Iron, Copper and Aluminium, Marker and Test Tube stand.

Basic Principles involved :

(A) Onginal colours of various solutions

Sl. | Name of Substance Formula of Original Colour

No Substance of Solution
1 | Zine Sulphate Zn SOx Colourless
2 | Ferrous Sulphate Fe SO, Light Green
3 | Copper Sulphate Cu SO, Blue
4 | Aluminium Sulphate Al (SO4)s Colourless
(B) Reactivity of Metals :

(i) If Metal X replaces metal Y from its aqueous solution, then

a) Metal X is more reactive than metal Y.
b) Metal Y is less reactive than metal X

(ii) If metal Y replaces metal X from its aqueous solution, then

a) Metal Y is more reactive than metal X
b) Metal X is less reactive than metal Y
1.(A) Procedure for the Interaction of Metals with Zinc Sulphate
Solution

Take four clean test tubes and paste a strip of paper no each one.
Mark the test tubes as A, B, C and D respectively.

Take Zinc Sulphate Solution in each test tube.

Dip a clean piece of Zinc metal in the solution of test tube A.

Dip a clean nail of iron in the solution of test tube B.

Dip a clean wire of copper in the solution of test tube C.

Dip a clean wire of aluminium metal in the solution of test tube D.

Record your observations as shown in the table.

SSN Sw Ne

Interaction of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al Metals with Zinc Sulphate

Solution

SLNo| Experiments Observations Inference

A. | Solution of Zinc | There is no There is equilibrium

Sulphate + Zinc | change between Zn” and Zn.
Metal

B. | Solution of Zinc | There is no Iron is less reactive

Sulphate + Iron | change than Zinc ( or Zinc is
Metal more reactive than

iron

C. | Solution of Zinc | There is no Copper is less

Sulphate + change reactive than Zinc (or
Copper metal Zinc is more reactive

than Copper ).

D. | Solution of Zinc | There isanew | Aluminium is more

Sulphate + coat on reactive than Zinc
Aluminium Metal | Aluminium

Metal

Conclusions : From this set of experiment it is concluded that :

|. Fe is less reactive than Zn or Zn is more reactive than Fe.
2. Cu is less reactive than Zn or Zn is more reactive than Cu.
3. Al is more reactive than Zn
1(B): Procedure for the Interaction of Metals with Ferrous

Sulphate Solution

1. Take four clean test tubes and paste a strip of paper on each one.
2. Mark the test tube as A, B, C and D respectively.

3. Take ferrous Sulphate Solution in each test tube.

4. Dip aclean piece of Zinc metal in the solution of test tube A.

5. Dip a clean nail of Iron metal in the solution of test tube B.

6. Dip a clean wire of copper metal in the solution of test tube C.

7. Dip a clean wire of aluminium metal in the solution of test tube D.
8. Record your observations as shown in the table.
Interaction of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al Metals with Ferrous Sulphate
Solution

Sl. No | Experiment Observation Inference

A | Solution of The original green Zn” ions replace

ferrous colour of the Solution | Fe’ ions from the
sulphate + fades and finally solution. Thus Zn
Zinc metal becomes colourless. | is more reactive

There is grey deposit | than Fe.

on zinc metal.

B | Solution of There is no change There is

ferrous equilibrium
sulphate + between Fe”* and
Iron metal Fe.

C | Solutionof | There is no change in | Copper is less

ferrous the original colour of | reactive than iron.
sulphate + the solution
Copper metal

D | Solution of The original green Al** ions replace

ferrous colour of the Solution | Fe** ions from the
sulphate + fades and finally solution. Thus Al
Aluminium becomes colourless. | is more reactive
metal There is grey deposit | than Fe.

on aluminium metal.
Conclusions : From the experimental observations of the interactions
of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al with FeSO, (aq), it is concluded that :

|. Zn is more reactive than Fe.

2. Cu is more reactive than Fe.

3. Alis more reactive than Fe.

1(C): Procedure for the Interaction of metals with Copper

Sulphate Solution
Take four clean test tubes and paste a strip of paper on each one.

Mark the test tube as A, B, C and D respectively.

Take Copper Sulphate Solution in each test tube.

Dip a clean piece of Zinc metal in the solution of test tube A.

Dip a clean nail of Iron metal in the solution of test tube B.

Dip a clean wire of copper metal in the solution of test tube C.

Dip a clean wire of aluminium metal in the solution of test tube D.
Record your observations as shown in the table.

SNnAWhwWN >

Interaction of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al Metals with ferrous Sulphate

Solution

Sl. Experiment Observation Inference

No
A | Solution of Blue colour of Zn” ions replace
Copper sulphate | original solution Cu”* ions from the
+ Zinc metal fades and finally solution. Thus Zn
becomes is More reactive

colourless. There is | than Cu

brown coat on zinc.

B | Solution of The Solution Fe’? ions replace

Copper sulphate | changes from blue | Cu** ions from the
+ Iron metal to light green. solution. Thus, Fe
There is brown is more reactive

coat on iron. than Cu.

SL. Experiment Observation Inference
No

C | Solution of There is no change | There is

Copper sulphate equilibrium
+ Copper metal between Cu** and

Cu.

D | Solution of Blue colour of AFP *ions replace

Copper sulphate | original solution Cu** ions from the
+ Aluminium fades and finally solution. Thus Al
metal becomes is more reactive

colourless. There is | than Cu.

brown coat on
Aluminium.

Conclusions : From the experimental observations of the interactions

of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al with CuSO, (aq), it is concluded that :

|. Zn is more reactive than Cu.

2. Fe is more reactive than Cu.

3. Al is more reactive than Cu. 34/85

1(D): Procedure for the Interaction of metals with Aluminiun.

Sulphate Solution

Take four clean test tubes and paste a strip of paper on each one.

Mark the test tube as A, B, C and D respectively.

Take Aluminium Sulphate Solution in each test tube.

Dip a clean piece of Zinc metal in the solution of test tube A.

Dip a clean nail of Iron metal in the solution of test tube B.

Dip a clean wire of copper metal in the solution of test tube C.

Dip a clean wire of aluminium metal in the solution of test tube D.

Record your observations as shown in the table.

PASAY SYN
Interaction of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals with Aluminium sulphate
solution.

SLNo. Experiments Observations Inference

A | Solution of There is no Zinc is less reactive

Aluminium sulphate | change than aluminium
+ Zinc metal

B_ | Solution of There is no Iron is less reactive

Aluminium sulphate | change than aluminium.

+ iron metal

C_ | Solution of There is no Copper is less

Aluminium sulphate | change reactive than
+ copper metal aluminium.

D | Solution of There is no There is equilibrium

Aluminium change between Al*' and Al
sulphate +
Aluminium metal

Conclusion : From this set of experiment it is concluded that :

1. Al is not replaced by Zn, Fe and Cu. Therefore, these metals are

less reactive than aluminium.

Decreasing order of Reactivity of Metals based on the results
of above experiments

2. Zinc replaces iron ions from ferrous sulphate ( FeSO.) solution and
copper ions from copper sulphate (CuSO,) solution. Therefore,
Zinc is more reactive than iron and copper.

Zn > Fe> and Zn > Cu.

Iron replaces copper ions from copper sulphate (CuSO,) solution.

Therefore, iron is more reactive than copper.

Fe >Cu
Interaction of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals with Aluminium sulphate
solution.

SI.No. Experiments Observations Inference

A | Solution of There is no Zinc is less reactive

Aluminium sulphate | change than aluminium
+ Zinc metal

B | Solution of There is no Iron is less reactive

Aluminium sulphate | change than aluminium,

+ iron metal

C | Solution of There isno —_| Copper is less

Aluminium sulphate | change reactive than
+ copper metal aluminium.

D | Solution of There isno | There is equilibrium

Aluminium change between Al** and Al
sulphate +
Aluminium metal

Conclusion : From this set of experiment it is concluded that :

1]. Al is not replaced by Zn, Fe and Cu. Therefore, Ise

less reactive than aluminium. 35/85 oe

Decreasing order of Reactivity of Metals based on the results
of above experiments

2. Zinc replaces iron ions from ferrous sulphate ( FeSO,) solution and
copper ions from copper sulphate (CuSO,) solution. Therefore,
Zinc is more reactive than iron and copper.

Zn > Fe > and Zn > Cu.

Iron replaces copper ions from copper sulphate (CuSO,) solution.

Therefore, iron is more reactive than copper.

Fe >Cu
EXPERIMENT NO-5
Aim: To prepare temporary mount of a leaf peel to show its stomata.

Material Required: Leaf of a plant like Lily, Petunia, Bryophyllum

or Tradescantia, forceps, watch glass, slide, coverslip, brush, needles,
safranine, glycerine and compound microscope.

Basic Principle involved: Stomata (singular stoma) are minute

aperture (openings) present on the surface of a leaf. They are generally
more on the lower epidermis. Each stoma is surrounded by two bean-
shaped cells called guard cells These cells have differential thickenings
ie. thicker inner wall facing the stoma and thinner outer wall. The
turgidity of guard cells controls the opening and closing of stomata.
Stomata help in exchange of gases and water vapour between the
atmosphere and leaf.

Procedure:

1. Peel off the leaf from the under surface and put the peel in a watch
glass containing water

2. Adda few drops of safranine stain into the watch glass to stain the
peel

3. After staining put the peel ona clean slide and cut it in a rectangular
or square shape

4. With the help ofa filter paper, remove the excess of stain and water

5. Puta drop of glycerine on the slide over the peel, gently put the the
coverslip and observe under the microscope.

Observation:

1. Epidermis consist of a single layer of cells which are irregular in

outline and without inter cellular spaces

2. Minute apertures are seen wchich are embedded in the epidermal

cell
Result:
The minute apertures seen in the mount are stomata. Each stoma is
surrounded by two bean-shaped cells called guard cells.

Precautions:

The epidermal peel should be taken from a freshly plucked leaf

Always hold the slide by its edges to avoid making the slide dirty
Always use a brush to transfer the peel from petri dish to the slide.
The peel should be cut to a proper size and its curling must be
avoided.

The peel shluld be mounted in the centre of the slide.

The peel should not be allowed to dry.

Always keep the coverslip gently to avoid the entry of air bubbles
Oozing of glycerine should not be there

fwne

oom A

(a) Taking a leaf peel form a leaf

Nucleus

Stomatal aperture (opened)

Stomatal aperture (closed)
Epidermal cells

Guard cells

(b) Leaf peel with open stomata (c) Leaf peel with closed stomata
Fig. 5.1 Experiment to prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to
show its stomata
EXPERIMENT NO - 6

Aim: To study the dependence of current (I) on the potential difference

(V) across a resistor and to determine its resistance. Also plot a graph

between V and I.

Apparatus: A D.C. voltmeter of 1.5 V range, given resistor (i.e. a

resistance wire, say constant wire of unknown resistance), an ammeter
(1.5 ampere range), a rheostat (of about 10 ohm), plug key, dry cell or
an accumulator and connecting wires.

Theory: According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference V

developed across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the
current I flowing through it. Symbolically,

V «lil
Or V=RI ...... (1)

Where R is the constant of proportionality and is known as the

resistance of the conductor. Relation (1) can also be put in the form,

_V
RT escsstscessetnneen (2)

When V is measured in volt, I in ampere then resistance R is expressed

inOhm(Q ).

To study the dependence of current on potential difference (p.d.),

different values of potential difference V are applied across the ends
of the conductor. The corresponding values of current | are recorded
using an ammeter. The ratio of . is determined in each case. It will

be found that the ratio : is found to be the same in each set of

observation. The mean value of : gives the resistance R of the

conductor.
The variations of V vs | are represented by plotting V along X-axis and
I along Y-axis. The graph will be found to be a straight line.

Procedure:
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram on your notebook as shown in the
Figure.

+E - K Rh
+——C_> AN AV
rt a,
. R
a AVAVAY
A
Vv

Fig. 6.1 Circuit diagram

2. Arrange the apparatus on the working table in the laboratory and

make the circuit connections as shown in the figure. Ammeter is
connected in series with the given resistor and voltmeter is
connected in parallel, ie. across it. Record the zero errors in
ammeter and voltmeter, if any.

3. Insert the plug-key, K and adjust the rheostat (Rh) to pass a small
current through the given resistor. Note the ammeter and voltmeter
readings.

4. Increase the current step-by step by adjusting the slider of the

rheostat and take about 5 or 6 sets of readings. Note carefully the
ammeter and voltmeter readings in each set.
5. Tabulate the observations as given in the table.

6. Find © ratio for each set of observations and record it in the

1

observation table.

Dry cell Resistance wire

Connecting

Ammeter Voltmeter

Fig. 6.2 Arrangement diagram for the study of dependence of current

(I) on potential difference (V) for the given resistor.

7. Draw a graph by plotting ammeter readings (I) along “the =,

corresponding voltmeter readings (V) along x-axis a S th 8g
figure

Observations and calculations

Least count of the ammeter .. amp
Least count of the voltmeter =......... volt

Il

Range of the ammeter = ....amp

Zero error of the ammeter = ....amp
Range of the voltmeter = .. volt

Zero error of the voltmeter = .........Volt

Note
If the zero error of the instrument is negative, then it must be added to
the observed value to get the corrected value and vice versa.

Table 6.1
Obs. | Ammeter readings (I) | Voltmeter readings (V) | V _p
No | Observed | Corrected | Observed | Corrected | I
(amp) (amp) (amp) (amp) (Ohm)
L.
2.
3.
4.
5:
6.
Mean a=Re . ohms
A | fee ie a7
i i at
i a aa eG
iia Ser i
i BAA Th
fet pfs aaa
a a
new
yi
BIE
via
naaG
i ne (el Gt is sa | | 43/85 oe
v oo
< ¥ (volt >
Fig. 6.3 V-I graph is a straight line which means V « 1.
Graph

The plot of V and I is a straight line passing through the origin as

shown in the figure. To determine the resistance R from the graph, read
the current value, in amperes corresponding to a given voltmeter
reading and take the ratio “. Thus the resistance of the conductor AB

is determined in ohms.

Result:

1) The straight line graph between | and V shows that the potential
difference developed across ends of a conductor (or resistor) is
directly proportional to the current flowing through the conductor.

2) The resistance of the given resistor is ........ Q.

*
Beasannwtliases
EXPERIMENT NO -7(A)

Aim: To study the properties of an acid (for example, dilute HCl) by

its reactions with
(i) Litmus solution or paper (blue and red)
(ii) Zinc metal
(iii) Solid sodium carbonate

Materials required:

(a) Apparatus: Litmus solutions or paper (blue and red), test tubes
and dropper

(b) Chemicals: Hydrochloric acid, litmus solutions or paper (blue and

red), zinc metal, sodium carbonate, test tubes, droppers.

Basic Principles

Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus to red litmus but it does not affect
red litmus.
1. When zinc metal is added to hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is

liberated.
Zn(s) + 2HCI(aq)— H2(g) + ZnCl(aq)

2. Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen with a pop sound.

2H2(g) + O2(g) —2H20(1)

3. Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium carbonate so that carbon

dioxide gas (COQ>) is liberated.
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) —2NaCl(aq) + H2O0(1) + CO2(g)

4. Carbon dioxide gas tums lime water milky due to the formation of
calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO(g) —CaCO,(s) + H20(1)
Procedure:

S.No. | Experiments with Observations | Inference

L. Litmus solutions
a) Take | ml of HClin | Blue litmus HCI has acidic
a test tube and adda _ | tums red. character.
few drops of blue
litmus solution.
b) Take | ml of HClin | There is no HCl is an acid as
a test tube and adda _ | change in the | it does not affect
few drops of red colour of red | red litmus.
litmus solution. litmus.
2. Zinc metal
a) Take about 2ml of Small bubbles | Zinc reacts with
hydrochloric acidin | ofhydrogen | HCI to liberate
aclean test tube and | gas are H2.
add two or three formed.
pieces of zinc metal.
3. Sodium carbonate
b) Take solid sodium Brisk Sodium carbonate
carbonate in a dry effervescence |reacts with HCI to
test tube and add is produced. produce CO2.
hydrochloric acid
drop wise. 47/85
c) Pass the gas through | Lime water CO2 ica with
lime water. turns milky. lime water and

forms calcium
carbonate.
Conclusions:

1) Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus red but it does not affect red
litmus.

2) Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal liberating hydrogen gas

and zinc chloride is also formed.

3) Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium carbonate and it liberates

carbon dioxide.

4) Hydrochloric acid (HCI) has acidic nature.

Precautions:

1) Hydrochloric acid should be handled with care because it can burn

skin and clothes.

2) Only small quantity of chemicals should be used. 48/85

3) Hands must be cleaned properly after completing th, © «em
EXPERIMENT NO - 7(B)

Aim: To study the properties of a base (for example, dilute solution of

NaOH) by its reaction with

(i) Litmus solution (blue and red)

(11) Zinc metal

(111) Hydrochloric acid

Materials required:
(a)Apparatus: Test tubes, litmus solutions (blue and red) and
droppers
(b)Chemicals: A_ dilute solution of sodium hydroxide,
hydrochloric acid and zinc metal

Basic Principles

1) Sodium hydroxide turns red litmus blue but it does not affect blue
litmus.

2) When zinc metal is added to sodium hydroxide hydrogen gas is

liberated. This gas burns with a pop sound.

3) Hydrochloric acid neutralizes sodium hydroxide so that the pink

colour of phenolphthalein is discharged.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) — NaCl(aq) + H2O(1)

Procedure:

S.No. | Experiments with | Observations Inference

1. | Litmus solutions

a) Take | ml of Red litmus blue. NaOH has

NaOH (aq) ina basic character.
test tube and add
a few drops of
red litmus
solution.
S.No. | Experiments with | Observations Inference

b) Take I ml of There isnochange | NaOH isa

NaOH (aq) ina | in the colour of blue | base as it does
test tube and add | litmus. not affect blue
a few drops of litmus.
blue litmus
solution.

2. | Zine metal

a) Take about 2 ml | Small bubbles of Zinc reacts

of NaOH (aq) in | hydrogen gas are with NaOH to
a clean test tube | formed. liberate Hp.
and add two or
three pieces of
zinc metal.

b) Bring a burning | The gas burns with a | The gas

match stick to pop sound. liberated is a
the mouth ofa hydrogen gas.
test tube.

3. | Hydrochloric acid

a) Take 2 ml of The solution of Sodium

NaOH (aq) ina | sodium hydroxide hydroxide is
clean test tube turns pink. alkali.
and add two
drops of
phenolphthalein.

b) Add Pink colour Hydrochloric

hydrochloric disappears. acid
acid to the above neutralizes
pink solution. NaOH.
Conclusions:

1) Sodium hydroxide turns red litmus blue but it does not affect blue
litmus.

2) Sodium hydroxide reacts with zinc metal and liberates hydrogen

gas. During the reaction sodium zincate is also formed.

3) Sodium hydroxide is neutralized by hydrochloric acid.

4) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a base.

Precautions:
1) Sodium hydroxide should be handled with care because it can burn
skin and clothes.
2) Only small quantity of chemicals be used.
3) Hands must be washed properly after completing the experiment.

K hailhawmna a
EXPERIMENT NO-8

Aim: To study the following properties of acetic acid

CH3COOH(Ethanoic acid)
1. Odour.

2. Solubility in water.
3. Effect on litmus.

4. Reaction with sodium bicarbonate.

Materials Required

Apparatus: Test tubes, blue litmus paper, dropper,

(Thermometer: for optional experiments).

Chemicals: Sample of acetic acid, water, sodium bicarbonate,

freshly prepared lime water cold water and ethyl alcohol for
optional experiments).

Basic principles involved:

bBwWh—

Acetic acid has vinegar like smell.

Acetic acid is highly soluble in water.

Acetic acid tums blue litmus red.

Acetic acid produces effervescence with sodium bicarbonate

liberating carbon dioxide gas.

Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky due to the formation of

insoluble calcium carbonate.

Pure acetic acid freezes at 16.6° C.

Acetic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol in the presence of

sulphuric acid so that ethyl acetate is formed. This reaction

is called Esterification.

Ethyl acetate 1s an ester and it has fruity smell.

Steps of Experimental Procedure to study the properties of Acetic

Acid:
Experiments Observations Inference
1, Odour of acetic
acid.
a) Take the given It smells like Acetic acid has

sample in a test
tube and smell it
carefully.

vinegar.

vinegar like odour.

2. Solubility of
acetic acid in
water.

a) Take 2ml of water

in a test tube. Add
10 drops of acetic
acid and shake it
carefully.

b) Add more acetic

acid into the same
test tube.

A homogenous
solution is formed.

It also dissolves

Acetic acid Is
soluble in water.

Acetic acid is-

highly soluble in
water.

3. Effects of acetic
acid on litmus
paper.

a) Place a strip of
blue litmus paper
on a dry and
clean tile and put
two drops of
acetic acid
solution on it.

b) Place a strip of red

litmus paper on a
dry and clean tile

Blue litmus turns

red.

There is no changes
in the colour of red
litmus.

Acetic acid shows

acidic character.

Acetic acid has

acidic character.
8:24 © fie hE Tin at Ged
Experiments Observations Inference
and put two drops
of acetic acid
solution on it.

4. Reaction of acetic
acid with sodium
bicarbonate.

a) Take 2ml Effervescence is Acetic acid

solution of acetic | produced. liberates carbon
acid in a clean dioxide with
test tube and add sodium
a pinch of bicarbonate.
sodium
bicarbonate.

b) Pass carbon Lime water turns CO2 forms calcium

dioxide gas milky. carbonate with lime
through lime water.
water.

Optional Experiments:
Experiments Observations Inference

1. Freezing of acetic acid.

Take about 2ml of pure | Acetic acid | Freezing _ point

acid in a clean and dry test | begins to solidy at| of pure acetic
tube and introduce a _| about 16.6°C. acid is 16.6°C.
thermometer in it. Keep the
test tube in the ice cold water
and wait for some time.

55/85 —-
Experiments Observations Inference
2. Esterification of acetic acid
with ethyl alcohol.

Take 2ml of pure acetic | As.reaction takes | Acetic acid

acid ina test tube, add 2 ml of, | place fruity smell | reacts with ethyl
ethyl alcohol and 4 drops of | is felt coming out | alcohol and an
Conc. H2SO,. Heat the test | of the test tube. ester is formed.

tube in a water bath.

Results and Conclusions:

1) Acetic acid has vinegar like smell.

2) Acetic acid is highly soluble in water.

3) Acetic acid changes blue litmus red.

4) Acetic acid liberates carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate.

5) Acetic acid forms ester with ethyl alcohol.

Precautions:

1) Acetic acid should be handled with care.

2) The vapour of the chemicals should not be inhale ©

3) Carbon dioxide should be passed through fres 56/85

water only for a short duration.

4) Every care should be taken while using concentrated sulphuric acia.

5) Mixture of acetic and ethyl alcohol should never be heated directly

on the flame. It should be heated in a water bath.
EXPERIMENT NO -9

Aim : To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during

respiration

Material required : Test tube, bent tube, lime water.

Basic Principle involved :

During respiration oxygen is inhaled in the form of air and carbon
dioxide is exhaled which turns lime water milky.

Procedure :
1. Take a test tube and keep lime water in it.

2. Insert a bent tube in the lime water.

3. Blow air into the bent tube as shown in the figure and observe the
result.

Observation :
Lime water turns milky after blowing air into the test tube.

Result:
The turning of lime water to milky shows that carbon dioxide is given
out during respiration

Precaution :

|. Do not suck back lime water while blowing

2. Do not blow in excess. If CO, is passed through lime water in excess

the solution becomes clear due to the conversion of CaCO; into
soluble calcium bicarbonate.

3. Lime water should be freshly prepared.

Tf

<< Tube

<——.__ Test tube containing

lime water

NY

Fig. 9.1 Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is given out during
respiration

Khaikhawmna

He experiment hi kawng dang, sei zawk leh chipchiar deuh zawkin a

tih theih tho va. Geeta Publishing Company lehkhabu leh Class X
Science Practical Manual dangah pawh chutiang chu tarlan a ni.

Tuna kan han tarlan hi a awlsam a, result a chiang bawk a. Chu bakah.

hmanraw hman tur a ngai tlemin hmuh mai tur a awm 59/85
experiment awlsam leh tha tak a ni.

Test tube-ah lime water dah a, bent tube pawh ngai lovin tube
pangngaiin ham mai theih a ni a, lime water a lo pawt (milky) veleh
duhtawk tur a ni.

Lime water hi siam sa a awm loh chuan chinaiah tui leih la, chawk la,
thlifim (filter) la chu chu lime water chu a ni.
Mil

EXPERIMENT NO - 10

Aim : To study a) Binary Fission in Amoebaand b) budding in

yeast with the help of prepared slide

Materials required : Microscope, prepared slides of binary fission

of Amoeba and budding in yeast.

Basic Principle involved :

Reproduction ts a process by which a living organism can produce

more of its own kind.

It is of two types.

A. Asexual Reproduction : It is a common type of reproduction in

lower plants and some animals. In this type only one organism
is involved and all divisions are amitotic or mitotic. Is it rapid
mode of multiplication in which new organisms produced are
genetically identical to the parent. It is of various types as listed
in the following table.

(a) Binary fission

(b) Multiple fission

(c) Budding

ie omeenl? ei (d) Fragmentation and regeneration

(Apomixis) (c) ein ;
(f) Vegetative propagation
> (1) Root
. \—»(i) Natural > (2) Leaf
Reproduction Le» (3) Stem
—» (1) Cutting
i» (2) Grafting
—»(ii)Artificial —+-» (3) Layering
» (4) Tissue Culture

L_» (B) Sexual reproduction

Table 10.1 An outline classification of reproduction

B. Sexual Reproduction : It is a type of reproduction present in higher
plants and most of the animals. In this type two organisms are
involved. Meiosis occurs in this type of reproduction and organisms
produced are not genetically identical to the parents.

Procedure :

1. Focus the slides under microscope and observe carefully under low
power then under high power objective lens

2. Note down their features, compare with the figure 4.1 and 4.2 for
identification and draw diagrams in practical record file.

Observation :

Binary Fission

|. It is a type of asexual reproduction in which two individuals are

formed from a single parent and parental identity is lost.

2. Here, nucleus divides amitotically into two, which ts follwed by the

division of cytoplasm

3. Observe the various stages of dividing nucleus and cytoplasm.

4. This type of reproduction is common in unicellular organisms like

Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena etc.

Fig. 10.1 Binary Fission in Amoeba

Budding
1. It is a type of asexual reproduction in which a bulb like projection
or outgrowth arises from the parent body called bud.
2. The nucleus divides by mitosis and one of the daughter nuclei passes
into the bud.

3. The bud is ultimately detached from the parent cell, grows to full
size and forms a new individual. In budding, parental identity is
maintained.

4, This type reproduction is common in Yeast, Hydra etc.

Fig. 10.2 Budding in Yeast

Result :
The given slides show binary fission in Amoeba and budding in Yeast.

Precautions :

1. First observe the slide under low power, then hig 62/85

2. Always draw the labelled diagrams, first by obsiving the .

under the microscope, then compare them with the diagrams given
in the book.
EXPERIMENT NO - 11

Aim : To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors

connected in series.

Apparatus : Two given resistors of unknown resistances, an ammeter,

a voltmeter of suitable range, rheostat of about 10 Q resistance, an
accumulator or a dry cell, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Theory: Two resistors are said to be connected in series if they are

connected end as shown in the figure. The equivalent resistance of the
series combination, i,e, R is given as

R=r+n

Where r and r are the individual resistances of the resistors connected

in series as shown in the Figure

ry r,

VW VV

B C

Fig 11.1. r; and r2 are connected in series.

Procedure

1. Determine the individual r; and r2 of the given resistors by

following the circuit diagram and procedural steps of Experiment
No. 4.

2. Study the following circuit diagram for series combination of r;

and r2 as given in the Figure. Make the connections of various
pieces of apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram given in the
Figure.

fF ASOLR
+—- K
+=) AAV AV
Rh
ry ry
<OD——/\/\—2 VV
A D
V

Fig 11.2. Circuit diagram to determine the equivalent resistance of

two resistors connected in series.

Connecting
wire

Ammeter Voltmeter
Fig. 11.3 Arrangement diagram for series combination of the given
two resistors.

[I
O
A
3. Insert the key (K) and adjust the rheostat (Rh) for a small current
as indicated by ammeter A. Record the ammeter and voltmeter

readings.

4. Increase the current by adjusting the position of slider of the

rheostat and note down the corresponding readings of ammeter
and voltmeter. Thus take three sets of observations and determine
mean value of the equivalent resistance R of the series

combination.

5. Record the observations as detailed below :

Observations
Zero error of voltmeter =....... Volt
Zero error of ammeter = eee amp
Least count of the voltmeter = .. Volt
Least count ofthe ammeter =....... amp
Range of ammeter = ....... amp
Range of voltmeter =....... Volt

Note

If the zero error of the instrument is negative then it must be added to

the observed value to obtain the corrected value and vice versa.

Table 11.1
R Voltmeter reading) Ammeter reading Resistance| Mean
esistance | Obs. (V) i) =VA |resistance
(Ohm) | No. |Observed| Correct| Observed|Corrected (ohm) ‘ahm)
(volt) | (volt) | (amp) | (amp) =
66/85

vl

= | iw | bh |

2
tad | Bo] ee | le | Bo

R
Calculations
Resultant resistance of the resistors in Series
(i) By experiment, R=....... ohm
(b) By calculations, R=nt+r =...... ohm
Result

Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental value of F is

equal to its calculated value. Thus the relation R = r, + r2 for series
combination is verified.

Precautions
1. Draw a circuit diagram as given in the book and get it checked
by your teacher.

2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires by sand paper and then
make neat, clean and tight connections.

3. Get your circuit connections checked by your teacher before

passing current.

4. Close the key (K) only when you are taking readings.

5. Take care that the source of current, i.e. dry cell is not short
circuited.

6. not the zero errors and the ranges of the ammeter and voltmeter.

67/85
EXPERIMENT NO - 12

Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors

connected in parallel.

Apparatus

Two given resistors of unknown resistances, an ammeter, a voltmeter

of suitable range, rheostat of about 10 Q resistance, an accumulator or
dry cell, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Theory
Two resistors are said to be connected in parallel if one end of each
resistor is connected to one common point A and the other end of each
resistor is connected to another common point B as shown in the
Figure.

r,

Fig. 12.1 Parallel combination of resistors r, and 12

The equivalent resistance F of the parallel combination is given by

the relation

a oe

—= — + —

Ron pr
Procedure
1. Determine the individual resistances r; and r> of the given
resistors following the procedural steps and circuit diagram of
the experiment No.4.

2. Study the circuit diagram for parallel combination of r; and ras

given in the Figure. Make the connections of various pieces of
apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram given in the next
Figure.

3. Insert the key (K) and adjust the rheostat (Rh) for a small current
as indicated by ammeter A. Note the ammeter and voltmeter

readings.
+ - K
@) AN NAV
I+ ed
Rh

ry

AY NSPS
42
A 2
eD
V

Fig 12.2 Circuit diagram for parallel combination of r, and 12

70/85 os
ePrereeceer PCr eee

Fig 12.3 Arrangement diagram for parallel combination of 1 and 12.

4. Increase the current by adjusting the position of the slider of the

rheostat suitably. Record the corresponding readings of
ammeter and voltmeter. Take three sets of observations and
determine the mean value of the equivalent resistance R of the
parallel combination.

5. Record your observations as given below :

Observations

Zero error of the voltmeter =...volt

Least count of the voltmeter =....volt
Zero error of the ammeter =...amp
Least count of the ammeter =...amp

Note
If the zero error of the instrument is negative, then it must be added
to the observed value to get the corrected value and vice versa.

Table 12.1

ResistanceDbs. Pb ni Ammeter Reading (1) eae ead

(Ohm) \No. Observed Corrected Observed | Corrected (Ohm) | (Ohm)
(Volt) (Volt) (amp) (amp)
I
ri 2
3
I
r 2
3
1
R 2
3

Calculations : Resultant Resistance of Resistors in Parallel

(i) By experiment R=....ohm

Ili 4
(ii) By calculation ae (ohm) or R=....ohm

Result

Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental value of R

equals the calculated value of R.
EXPERIMENT NO - 13

Aim: To find the pH of the following samples using pH paper/

Universal indicator.

(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid

(11) Dilute solution of sodium hydroxide

(ui) Dilute solution of ethanoic acid

(iv) Lemon juice

(v) Water

(vi) Dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.

Materials Required

Apparatus: Test tubes, pH paper (or Universal indicator), droppers,

white tile.

Chemicals: Samples of dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of

sodium hydroxide, dilute solution of ethanoic acid, lemon juice, water
dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate,

Basic Principles
1. pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration [H*] of a
solution.

2. For an acidic solution [H*] > 10°’. Therefore, its value is less
than seven (pH < 7). For example, the pH values of dilute
hydrochloric acid, ethanoic acid and lemon juice are less than 7.

3. For a basic (alkaline) solution [H*] < 10°’. Therefore, its pH

value is greater than seven (pH > 7). For example, the pH value
of dilute solution of NaOH is greater than 7.

4. For a neutral solution [H*] = 10°’. Therefore, its pH value is

equal to seven (pH = 7). For example, the pH value of
pure/distilled water is 7 at 298 K.

5. The pH of a sample can be measured by the use of pH paper or

universal indicator.
Procedure
(i) Take the given solutions in separate clean test tubes and mark
them as A, B, C, D, E and F respectively.

(ii) Place a strip (test strip) of the pH paper on a clean and dry
glazed white tile.

(iii) Withdraw the solution from test tube A in a clean dropper

and put two drops of it on the pH paper.

(iv) Compare the colour developed on the test strip with the
colour given on the chart of the pH paper.

(v) Record the pH value corresponding to the colour.

(vi) Perform similar experiments with the other solutions and

record your observations as indicated in the table.

Dropper

AHBHcCHDU EHF \
ZA

i ee

. trip of pH paper

Fig. 13.1 Experimental steps to measure the pH of different samples

(a) HCI (b) NaOH (c) Ethanoic Acid

(d) Lemon Juice (e) Water (f) Sodium Bicarbonate

Observations:

Colour pH
S.No. Name of Sample developed | value | Nature of
onpH | (from | samples
paper | chart)
|__| Dilute hydrochloric acid Acidic
7 Dilute solution of sodium Basic
hydroxide
Dilute solution of _
3 ethanoic acid Acidic
4 | Lemon juice Acidic
5 | Water Neutral
6 Dilute solution of sodium Basic
bicarbonate
Results:

In the given samples we have observed that:

1. The pH values of dilute hydrochloric acid, solution of ethanoic

acid and lemon juice are less than 7. Therefore, these have acidic

character.

2. The pH values of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide and dilute

solution of sodium bicarbonate are more than 7. Therefore, these

have basic character.

3. The pH of distilled water is 7. Therefore, it has a neutral

character.

Precautions

1. The pH paper should not be touched with unclean and wet

hands.

2. Clean the dropper removing each solution for testing.

3. One strip of pH paper may be divided into thrr

for judicious measure.

*p

76/85