EXPERIMENT NO- 1

Aim : To determine the focal length of a concave mirror

by obtaining the image of a distant object.
Apparatus: A concave mirror, white screen or a white sheet of
paper, a meter scale.

Fig.1(a).1.Imageofadistanceobjectformedinthefocalplaneofthe concave
mirror. F = PF.

1
 Procedure:
1. Hold the concave, mirror in your hand and select any object at a
far distant outside the classroom. The object (say tree or house)
at a far distance should be visible to our naked eyes.
2. Then adjust the distance of your concave mirror with the white
screen or paper so that a clear image can be formed,
3. Measure the distance between concave mirror and the white
screen using meter scale.
4. Repeat the experiment three times.

Observation:1.f1=cm2.f2=cm
f +f +f
Average focal length(𝑓)= 1 2 3= cm
3
Result :The focal length of the given concave mirror= cm
Precautions:
1. The distant object should be clearly visible.
2. A clear image of the object should be obtained on the white screen.
3. While measuring the distance between the mirror and the image,
the meter scale should be kept horizontally and parallel to the
horizontal ground.

EXPERIMENT NO - 2

AIM : To determine the focal length of a convex lens by obtaining the

image of a distant object.

2
Apparatus: A convex lens, white sheet/ cardboard, meter scale.

Procedure :
1. Hold the convex mirror in your hand and select any object at a far
distant outside the classroom.7
2. The image of an object is obtained clearly on a white sheet/ cardboard
which is inverted.
3. Measure the distance between the convex lens and the white sheet/
cardboard using a meter scale.
Observation : 1. f1=______cm 2. f2=______cm
Average focal length (𝑓𝑓) =
(f1+f2+f3 )/3
= _______cm
Result: The focal length of the given convex lens =_____cm
Precautions:
1. The object should be clearly visible.
2. Lens should be held properly and firmly so that it faces parallel to the
screen.
3. While measuring the distance between the optical centre and the
focal plane, the meter scale should be kept parallel to the principal axis.

3
 EXPERIMENT NO – 3

Aim : To trace the path of a ray of light through a rectangular glass slab and
measure the angle of incidence and the angle of emergence.

Apparatus : Drawing board, white sheet of paper, drawing pins, glass slab,
protractor, pencil and scale.

Procedure :
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of drawing pins.

2. Place a glass slab on the paper. Draw the boundary of the glass slab (ABCD)
with a pointed pencil and then remove it.

3. Take a point O on the side CD of the slab and draw normal N1N2 with the
protractor.

4. Draw a straight line PO at any angle, the angle N1OP is then the angle of
incidence (∠i).

5. Keeping the eye towards CD look through the glass slab at the two pins ‘W’
and ‘X’.

6. Fix another pin ‘Y’ such that the eye and the feet of all the pins are in the
same pins.10

7. Now fix another pin ‘Z’ keeping the eye in line with the feet or all the four
pins.

8. Remove the glass slab and the pins.

9. Mark the pin points W, X, Y and Z with a pencil encircling them.

10. Joint YZ and produce the line on both sides, Emergent ray RS
is obtained.

11. Draw normal N3N4 at a point R. Measure angles of incidence

and angle of emergence.

12. Repeat the whole experiment by changing angles of incidence.

4
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No Angle of Incidence<i Angle of emergence<e

1 30°
2 35°
3 40°
4 45°
5 50°
6 55°

Result : From the above informations it is found that :

1. Angle of incidence ∠i is equal to the angle of emergence ∠e .

2. The incident ray (PQ) and the emergent ray (RS) are parallel to each other.

3. The incident ray bends towards the normal as it travels from rarer medium
(air) to denser medium (glass slab) and it bend away from the normal as it
travels the glass to air.

Precautions :

1. Glass slab should be clean.

2. The eye must be in line with the feet of the pins while fixing pins for
emergent ray.

3. The distance between the pins on the incident ray or the emergent ray
should not be less than 10 cm.

4. We must look at the feet of the pins from a minimum distance of 25 cm

5. The angle of incidence should be taken between 30° to 70°.

6. Measure the angles exactly, do not use approximation.

5
 (Air)

Experiment-4
Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale,
protractor, drawing board.

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base.
Trace the outline of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also
draw a straight line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60°
as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown
in the figure, later mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of
the prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at
R and S appear to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of
the pins P and Q when viewed through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at
point F.

6
 9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also
extend (backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at
a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of
emergence ∠e and ∠D as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between
30° and 60°.

Glass Prism Experiment Class 10 Observations

1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on
refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal
because it travels from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle
to the direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of
deviation (∠D).

Conclusion

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it
gets refracted in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away
from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of
incidence ∠i. It attains a minimum value then increases with further
increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions

7
 1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they
are removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept
at a distance from the pins so that all of them can be seen
simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the four pins can be confirmed by
moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them. They all
appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and
emergent ray.

EXPERIMENT NO - 5
Aim: To study the dependence of current (I) on the potential difference
(V) across a resistor and to determine its resistance. Also plot a graph
between V and I.
Apparatus: A D.C. voltmeter of 1.5 V range, given resistor (i.e. a
resistance wire, say constant wire of unknown resistance), an ammeter
(1.5 ampere range), a rheostat (of about 10 ohm), plug key, dry cell or
an accumulator and connecting wires.

Procedure:
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram on your notebook as shown in the Figure.

2. Arrange the apparatus on the working table in the laboratory and make the
circuit connections as shown in the figure. Ammeter is connected in series with
the given resistor and voltmeter is connected in parallel, i.e. across it. Record
the zero errors in ammeter and voltmeter, if any.
3. Insert the plug-key, K and adjust the rheostat (Rh) to pass a small current
through the given resistor. Note the ammeter and voltmeter
readings.

4. Increase the current step-by step by adjusting the slider of the rheostat and
take about 5 or 6 sets of readings. Note carefully the ammeter and voltmeter
readings in each set.

5. Tabulate the observations as given in the table.

8
6. Find V/I ratio for each set of observations and record it in the observation
table.

7. Draw a graph by plotting ammeter readings (I) along y-axis and the
corresponding voltmeter readings (V) along x-axis as shown in the
figure
Observations and calculations
Least count of the ammeter = ……...amp
Least count of the voltmeter = ….…..volt
Range of the ammeter = ……...amp
Zero error of the ammeter = ……...amp
Range of the voltmeter = .……. volt
Zero error of the voltmeter = ……...volt

Obs. Ammeterreadings(I) Voltmeterreadings(V) V

RI
No Observe Corrected Observe Corrected
(Ohm)
d (amp) d (amp)
(amp) (amp)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Result:
1) The straight line graph between I and V shows that the potential
difference developed across ends of a conductor (or resistor) is
directly proportional to the current flowing through the conductor.
2) The resistance of the given resistor is ……..Ω.
Precautions:
1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections and get
it checked by the teacher.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires by sand paper and then
make neat, clean and tight connections.
3. Get your circuit connections checked by the teacher before passing
the current.
4. Close the key only when you are taking readings.
5. Take care that the cell is not short-circuited because by doing so,
a heavy current is suddenly drawn from the cell due to which the

9
plates of the cell may be damaged.
6. Note the zero errors and the ranges of the ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected
to the positive pole of the cell and the higher potential terminal of
the resistor AB respectively.
8. A low resistance rheostat should be used in order to change the
current smoothly.
9. The voltmeter must be of high resistance.
10. Excessive current should not be passed in the resistor otherwise
due to large heating its temperature may increase. Due to increase
in temperature the ratio V/I may not remain constant.

EXPERIMENT NO – 6
Aim : To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in
series.
Apparatus : Two given resistors of unknown resistances, an ammeter, a
voltmeter of suitable range, rheostat of about 10 Ω resistance, an
accumulator or a dry cell, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Procedure:
1. Determine the individual r1 and r2 of the given resistors by
following the circuit diagram and procedural steps of Experiment
No. 4.

10
2. Study the following circuit diagram for series combination of r1 and r2 as
given in the Figure. Make the connections of various pieces of apparatus as
shown in arrangement diagram given in the diag.
3. Insert the key (K) and adjust the rheostat (Rh) for a small current
as indicated by ammeter A. Record the ammeter and voltmeter
readings.
4. Increase the current by adjusting the position of slider of the
rheostat and note down the corresponding readings of ammeter
and voltmeter. Thus take three sets of observations and determine
mean value of the equivalent resistance R of the series
combination.
5. Record the observations as detailed below :
Observations
Zero error of voltmeter = ……. volt
Zero error of ammeter = ……. amp
Least count of the voltmeter = ……. Volt
Least count of the ammeter = ….... amp
Range of ammeter = ….... amp
Range of voltmeter = ….... volt

Voltmeterreadi Ammeterreadi
ng (V) ng (I) Resistanc Mean
Resistan Obs
Observe Correc Observe Correcte e resistan
ce . =V/I ce
(Ohm) No. d t d d
(volt) (volt) (amp) (amp) (ohm) (ohm)
1
2
r1 3
r2 1

11
 2
3
1
R 2
3

Calculations
Resultant resistance of the resistors in Series
(i) By experiment, R = …….ohm
(b) By calculations, R = r1 + r2 = ……ohm
Result
Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental value of F is
equal to its calculated value. Thus the relation R = r1 + r2 for series
combination is verified.
Precautions
1. Draw a circuit diagram as given in the book and get it checked
by your teacher.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires by sand paper and then
make neat, clean and tight connections.
3. Get your circuit connections checked by your teacher before
passing current.
4. Close the key (K) only when you are taking readings.
5. Take care that the source of current, i.e. dry cell is not short
circuited.
6. not the zero errors and the ranges of the ammeter and voltmeter.7. Positive
terminals of ammeter should be connected to the
positive pole of the cell.
8. The positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to
the higher potential ends of the resistors r1 and r2 in series
combination.
9. A suitable rheostat of about 10 Ω should be used to change the
current smoothly.
10.Excessive current should not be passed, otherwise due to
excessive heating, temperature increases. With increase in
temperature the resistance of the resistor changes.

EXPERIMENT NO – 7
Aim: To find the pH of the following samples using pH paper/
Universal indicator.

12
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid
(ii) Dilute solution of sodium hydroxide
(iii) Dilute solution of ethanoic acid
(iv) Lemon juice
(v) Water
(vi) Dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.
Materials Required /Apparatus: Test tubes, pH paper (or Universal indicator),
droppers,
white tile.
Chemicals: Samples of dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of sodium
hydroxide, dilute solution of ethanoic acid, lemon juice, water dilute solution
of sodium bicarbonate.
Procedure
(i) Take the given solutions in separate clean test tubes and mark
them as A, B, C, D, E and F respectively.
(ii) Place a strip (test strip) of the pH paper on a clean and dry
glazed white tile.
(iii) Withdraw the solution from test tube A in a clean dropper
and put two drops of it on the pH paper.
(iv) Compare the colour developed on the test strip with the
colour given on the chart of the pH paper.
(v) Record the pH value corresponding to the colour.
(vi) Perform similar experiments with the other solutions and
record your observations as indicated in the table.

Observation:

Colour pH
develope value Natureof
S.No. Name of Sample
d on pH (from samples
paper chart)
1 Dilutehydrochloricacid Acidic
Dilutesolutionofsodium
2 Basic
hydroxide
Dilutesolutionof
3 Acidic
ethanoic acid
4 Lemon juice Acidic
5 Water Neutral
Dilutesolutionofsodium
6 Basic
bicarbonate

13
Results:
In the given samples we have observed that:
1. The pH values of dilute hydrochloric acid, solution of ethanoic
acid and lemon juice are less than 7. Therefore, these have acidic
character.
2. The pH values of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide and dilute
solution of sodium bicarbonate are more than 7. Therefore, these
have basic character.
3. The pH of distilled water is 7. Therefore, it has a neutral
character.
Precautions :
1. The pH paper should not be touched with unclean and wet
hands.
2. Clean the dropper removing each solution for testing.
3. One strip of pH paper may be divided into three or more parts
for judicious measure.

EXPERIMENT NO - 8
Aim: To study the properties of an acid (for example, dilute HCl) by
its reactions with
(i) Litmus solution or paper (blue and red)
(ii) Zinc metal
(iii) Solid sodium carbonate
Materials required:
(a) Apparatus: Litmus solutions or paper (blue and red), test tubes
and dropper
(b) Chemicals: Hydrochloric acid, litmus solutions or paper (blue and
red), zinc metal, sodium carbonate, test tubes, droppers.

Conclusions:
1) Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus red but it does not affect red
litmus.
2) Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal liberating hydrogen gas
and zinc chloride is also formed.
3) Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium carbonate and it liberates
carbon dioxide.
4) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) has acidic nature.

Precautions:

14
1) Hydrochloric acid should be handled with care because it can burn
skin and clothes.
2) Only small quantity of chemicals should be used.
3) Hands must be cleaned properly after completing the experiment.

EXPERIMENT NO – 9
AIM : (a) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt
solutions.
1. ZnSO4 (aq)
2. FeSO4 (aq)
3. CuSO4 (aq)
4. Al2(SO4)3 (aq)

(b) To arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity
based on the above result.

Requirements : Solutions of Zinc Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Copper Sulphate,

Aluminium Sulphate, Test tubes, pieces of metals namelyZinc, Iron, Copper and
Aluminium, Marker and Test Tube stand.

Procedure for the Interaction of Metals with Zinc Sulphate

Solution
1. Take four clean test tubes and paste a strip of paper no each one.
2. Mark the test tubes as A, B, C and D respectively.
3. Take Zinc Sulphate Solution in each test tube.
4. Dip a clean piece of Zinc metal in the solution of test tube A.
5. Dip a clean nail of iron in the solution of test tube B.
6. Dip a clean wire of copper in the solution of test tube C.
7. Dip a clean wire of aluminium metal in the solution of test tube D.

Conclusions : From this set of experiment it is concluded that :

1. Fe is less reactive than Zn or Zn is more reactive than Fe.
2. Cu is less reactive than Zn or Zn is more reactive than Cu.
3. Al is more reactive than Zn

Conclusion : From this set of experiment it is concluded that :

1. Al is not replaced by Zn, Fe and Cu. Therefore, these metals are less reactive
than aluminium.

15
Decreasing order of Reactivity of Metals based on the results of above
experiments
2. Zinc replaces iron ions from ferrous sulphate ( FeSO4) solution and copper
ions from copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution. Therefore, Zinc is more reactive
than iron and copper. Zn > Fe > and Zn > Cu.

3. Aluminium replaces Zinc ions from zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) solution, iron ions
from iron sulphate ( Fe SO4) solution and copper ions from copper sulphate (
CuSO4) solution. Therefore, aluminium is more reactive than Zinc, iron and
Copper. Al > Zn > Fe > Cu

EXPERIMENT NO – 10
Aim: To study the following properties of acetic acid CH3COOH(Ethanoic acid)
1. Odour.
2. Solubility in water.
3. Effect on litmus.
4. Reaction with sodium bicarbonate.
Materials Required : Test tubes, blue litmus paper, dropper,
(Thermometer: for optional experiments).

Chemicals: Sample of acetic acid, water, sodium bicarbonate, freshly prepared

lime water cold water and ethyl alcohol for optional experiments).

Results and Conclusions:

1) Acetic acid has vinegar like smell.
2) Acetic acid is highly soluble in water.
3) Acetic acid changes blue litmus red.
4) Acetic acid liberates carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate.
5) Acetic acid forms ester with ethyl alcohol.

Precautions:
1) Acetic acid·should be handled with care.
2) The vapour of the chemicals should not be inhaled.
3) Carbon dioxide should be passed through freshly prepared lime
water only for a short duration.
4) Every care should be taken while using concentrated sulphuric acid.
5) Mixture of acetic and ethyl alcohol should never be heated directly
on the flame. It should be heated in a water bath.

16
 EXPERIMENT NO – 11
Aim : To study a) Binary Fission in Amoeba and b) budding in
yeast with the help of prepared slide
Materials required : Microscope, prepared slides of binary fission
of Amoeba and budding in yeast.

Procedure :
1. Focus the slides under microscope and observe carefully under low
power then under high power objective lens
2. Note down their features, compare with the figure 4.1 and 4.2 for
identification and draw diagrams in practical record file.
Observation :
Binary Fission
1. It is a type of asexual reproduction in which two individuals are
formed from a single parent and parental identity is lost.
2. Here, nucleus divides amitotically into two, which is follwed by the
division of cytoplasm
3. Observe the various stages of dividing nucleus and cytoplasm.
4. This type of reproduction is common in unicellular organisms like
Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena etc.

Procedure :
1. Focus the slides under microscope and observe carefully under low
power then under high power objective lens
2. Note down their features, compare with the figure 4.1 and 4.2 for
identification and draw diagrams in practical record file.
Observation :
Binary Fission
1. It is a type of asexual reproduction in which two individuals are
formed from a single parent and parental identity is lost.
2. Here, nucleus divides amitotically into two, which is follwed by the
division of cytoplasm
3. Observe the various stages of dividing nucleus and cytoplasm.
4. This type of reproduction is common in unicellular organisms like
Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena etc.

17
 EXPERIMENT NO - 12
Aim :To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during
respiration

Material required : Test tube, bent tube, lime water.

Procedure :
1. Take a test tube and keep lime water in it.
2. Insert a bent tube in the lime water.
3. Blow air into the bent tube as shown in the figure and observe the
result.

Observation :
Lime water turns milky after blowing air into the test tube.

Result:
The turning of lime water to milky shows that carbon dioxide is given out
during respiration

Precaution :
1. Do not suck back lime water while blowing
2. Do not blow in excess. If CO2 is passed through lime water in excess
the solution becomes clear due to the conversion of CaCO3 into
soluble calcium bicarbonate.
3. Lime water should be freshly prepared.

Experiment-13

Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red
kidney bean).

Materials Required
Water soaked seeds of pea, gram or red kidney beans, petridish, forcep,
needle, brush and simple microscope and slide.

Procedure

18
 1. Take 8-10 soaked seeds of pea/gram/red kidney beans, place them on
wet cotton in petridish overnight. The seed coat becomes soft which
helps in the opening of the seeds.
2. With the help of forcep, slowly remove the seed coat and study different
parts of seed embryo.
3. Now, slowly remove the embryo axis with needle and place it on the
slide.
4. Observe these three parts of the seed obtained, record your observations
and draw diagrams.

Observations

1. The seed has a small pore called micropyle.

2. It is a dicot seed, i.e., the seed has two cotyledons.
3. The embryo axis shows radicle and plumule, (as shown in the figure), the
radicle is future root and the plumule is future shoot.
4. The food is stored in cotyledons.

Conclusion
The different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed were identified as plumule
(future shoot), radicle (future root), seed coat (outer covering) and cotyledons
(food store)

Precautions

1. The best quality seeds should be used for study.

2. Soak the seeds overnight to make the seed coat soft.
3. Observe the parts under simple microscope/lens and record your
observations.
4. Remove the seed coat very gently.

EXPERIMENT NO - 14

19
Aim: To prepare temporary mount of a leaf peel to show its stomata.

Material Required: Leaf of a plant like Lily, Petunia, Bryophyllum

orTradescantia, forceps, watch glass, slide, coverslip, brush, needles,

safranine, glycerine and compound microscope.

Procedure:

1. Peel off the leaf from the under surface and put the peel in a watch glass
containing water

2. Add a few drops of safranine stain into the watch glass to stain the peel

3. After staining put the peel on a clean slide and cut it in a rectangular or
square shape

4. With the help of a filter paper, remove the excess of stain and water

5. Put a drop of glycerine on the slide over the peel, gently put the the
coverslip and observe under the microscope.

Observation:

1. Epidermis consist of a single layer of cells which are irregular in outline and
without inter cellular spaces

2. Minute apertures are seen wchich are embedded in the epidermal cell

Result: The minute apertures seen in the mount are stomata. Each stoma is
surrounded by two bean-shaped cells called guard cells.

Precautions:

20
1. The epidermal peel should be taken from a freshly plucked leaf

2. Always hold the slide by its edges to avoid making the slide dirty

3. Always use a brush to transfer the peel from petri dish to the slide.

4. The peel should be cut to a proper size and its curling must be

avoided.

5. The peel shluld be mounted in the centre of the slide.

6. The peel should not be allowed to dry.

7. Always keep the coverslip gently to avoid the entry of air bubbles

8. Oozing of glycerine should not be there

General Instruction: For Practical File like Classmate

1. Use Pencil for blank page and Blue pen for two line page.

2. Write Aim, Material required both on Blank and two line page.

3. Write Observation, Diagram, Result on Blank Page.

4.Write Procedure, Precautions, Result on Two line Page.

21