COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 1
Comparative politics
 The study and comparison of domestic politics across countries
 Can be contrasted with IR: while CP looks at the politics inside countries
(elections, political parties…), IR concentrates on relations between countries
(foreign policy, war, trade…)
 Three basic categories:
o Analytical concepts  assumptions & theories that guide our research, can
help ask questions about cause & effect
o Methods  ways to study & test those theories
o Ideals  beliefs & values about preferred outcomes

Institutions  organizations or activities that are self-perpetuating & valued for their own
sake, play an important role in defining & shaping what’s possible & probable in political life
by laying out the rules, laws, & structures in which we live. It’s something so embedded in
people’s lives as a norm or value that it’s not easily dislodged or changed.

Politics  the struggle for any group of power that will give one or more persons the ability
to make decisions for the larger group. Related to power  ability to influence others or
impose one’s will on them

What’s CP?
 In political science, CP is a subfield that compares this pursuit of power across
countries

Comparative Method
 Comparative method  a way to compare cases and draw conclusions
 Inductive reasoning  the means by which we go from studying a case to
generating a hypothesis, starts with the evidence as a way to undercover a
hypothesis
 Deductive reasoning  starting with a puzzle & from there generating some
hypothesis about cause & effect to test against a number of cases, starts with the
hypothesis & then seeks out the evidence
 Correlation  apparent association between certain factors or variables
 Causal relationship  find cause and effect

7 challenges in trying to examine political features across countries:

1. Political scientists have difficulty controlling the variables in the cases they study,
hard to control a large number of variables.
2. Concerns the interactions between the variables themselves, even if we can control
our variables in making comparisons, there’s the problem that many of these
variables are interconnected and interact  multicausality (many variables are
tied together to produce particular outcomes)
3. Involves the limits to our information & information-gathering, limited number of
cases to research
4. Concerns how we access the few cases we do have, limited access to information
from cases, much information isn’t easy to acquire
 5. Even when comparativists do widen their range of cases, their focus tends to be
limited to a single geographic region, uneven research across cases and regions 
area studies (regional focus).
6. The problem of bias makes it even harder to control for variables and to select the
right cases, cases selected on the basis of cause and not effect  selection bias
7. Deals with the heart of political science: the search for cause and effect, variables
may be either cause or effect  endogeneity (which variable is cause & which
one is effect?, not clear)

Can we make a science of CP?

All the challenges make it difficult to generate any kind of political science theory (integrated
set of hypothesis, assumptions, and facts)
Aristotle departed from the traditional emphasis on political ideals to conduct comparative
research on existing political systems. It didn’t immediately lead to any systematic study of
politics

Major thinkers that took up comparative approach to the study of politics

 Hobbes & Locke
 Rousseau & Montesquieu (study on the separation of power)
 Marx & Weber (analyses of the nature of political & economic organization &
power)

The 2WW and the CW marked a turning point in political science and CP
1. Need to apply more rigorous methods to studying human behavior (in
sociolinguistics, economics, or politics)
2. WW raised serious questions about the ability of scholars to meaningfully
contribute to an understanding of world affairs
3. The CW made understanding CP seem a matter of survival (SU armed + ideology)
4. Postwar period ushered in a wave of technological innovation that could solve
many social problems

The subject of investigation shifted away from political institutions (constitutions) & toward
individual political behavior  behavioral revolution (hoped to generate theories &
generalizations that could help explain & even predict political activity)
Modernization theory  set of hypotheses about how countries develop. But it increasingly
failed to match politics on the ground
Behavioralism  set of methods with which to approach politics
Both approaches are attempts to study politics more scientifically to achieve certain policy
outcomes.

Lack of consensus lead to several main divisions and lines of conflict

1. One area of conflict is over methodology: how best to gather and analyze data
a. Qualitative method  study through an in-depth investigation of a limited
number of cases (interviews, observations, archival). Often narrowly
focused, typically inductive: beginning with case studies to generate theory
b. Quantitative method  study through statistical date from many cases,
wider use of cases unbound by area specialization, greater use of statistical
analysis, and mathematical models. More of a deductive reasoning: starting
with a theory that political scientists can test with an array of data.
 2. Another problem concerns the theoretical assumptions of human behavior  are
human beings rational?
a. Some scholars say yes, they use rational choice or game theory to study
the rules & games by which politics is played. Such models can eventually
lead to prediction (moreover than explanation). This theory is associated
with quantitative methods

A guiding concept: Political Institutions

 People see an institution as central to their lives, &, as a result, the institutions
commands & generates legitimacy. It embodies the rules, norms, & values that
give meaning to human activity.
 Formal Institutions  institutions usually based on officially sanctioned rules
that are relatively clear (constitution)
 Informal Institutions  institutions with unwritten and unofficial rules
(baseball), still important!!
 Institutions are organizations or patterns of activity that are self-perpetuating and
valued for their own sake; embody norms and values that are considered central to
people’s lives and thus not easily dislodged or changed; set the stage for political
behavior by influencing how politics is conducted; vary from country to country;
are exemplified by the army, taxation, elections and the state.

A guiding ideal: reconciling freedom & equality

 Freedom  ability of an individual to act independently, without fear of
restriction or punishment by the state or other individuals or groups in society.
 Equality  a shared material standard of individuals within a community, society
or country
 Both are tightly interconnected, & the relation between the 2 shapes politics,
power & debates over justice.
 A focus on equality may erode freedom and same the other way around
 In short, politics is driven by the ideal of reconciling individual freedom &
collective equality.

In sum: looking ahead and thinking carefully

 Politics is the pursuit of power in any organization, & CP is the study of this
struggle around the world
 Political institutions can help us organize this task
 The most fruitful approach to CP is to be skeptical not simply of others but also of
what we believe and take for granted.

MACHIAVELLI  THE PRINCE

Chapter 15: ‘Concerning things for which men, and especially princes, are praised or blamed’
 Men can’t entirely nor possess every good quality that exists because human
condition doesn’t allow it, it’s necessary for them to be prudent, to avoid reproach
of those vices which would lose him his state, virtue can be a man’s ruin and vice
its security and prosperity????

Chapter 16: ‘Concerning liberality and meanness’

  Good to be reputed liberal but need to bring reputation, otherwise would injure
you (you have to not be too honest)  shouldn’t be afraid the reputation of being
mean, he’ll be more recognized than if he was liberal.
 ‘Therefore, anyone wishing to maintain among men the name of liberal is obliged
to avoid no attribute of magnificence’
 There’s nothing wastes so rapidly as liberality, for even whilst you exercise it you
love the power to do so, & thus you become mean = better to have a reputation of
being mean

Chapter 17: ‘Concerning cruelty and clemency, and whether it is better to be loved than
feared’

 Every prince ought to desire to be considered clement & not cruel, & he ought to
take care not to misuse this clemency  a prince, so long as he keeps his subjects
united & loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty; because he’ll be more
merciful than those who, through too much mercy, allow disorders to arise.
 Is it better to be loved than feared or feared than loved?  best would be both, but
impossible, so safer to be feared than loved. Nevertheless, a prince ought to inspire
fear in such a way that, if he doesn’t win love, he avoids hatred.

Chapter 18: ‘Concerning the way in which princes should keep faith’

 It’s praiseworthy for a prince to keep faith and to live with integrity.
 2 ways of contesting (‘striving for mastery’)
o The one by the law, proper to men, but no sufficient
o The other by force, proper to beasts, necessary to have recourse to this one
because the ‘one by the law’ is insufficient in itself. Prince needs to
understand how to use both ways of contesting
 It’s unnecessary for a prince to have every good quality, but it’s necessary to
appear to have them.

Chapter 19: ‘That one should avoid being despised and hated’

 Makes him hated to be rapacious, to be a violator of men’ and women’ properties

& honors, need for him to be in agreement with its subjects.
 A prince ought to have 2 fears:
o One from within, on account on his subjects, fear of secret conspiration
o The other from without, on account on external powers. He can defend
itself with arms

Chapter 20: ‘Are fortress, & many other things to which princes often resort, advantageous or
hurtful?’

 If people were unarmed, a prince ought to arm them, because it would make the
them faithful, prince’s adherents.
 Princes become much stronger when they overcome the difficulties by which they
are confronted
 New princes find more fidelity and assistance in those men who at start of their
rule were distrusted than among those who at start were trusted.
  Custom for princes to build fortress to make their state more secure.

Chapter 21: ‘How a prince should conduct himself as to gain renown?’

 Needs to instore great enterprises & setting a fine example, he ought to show
himself a patron of ability, & to honor the proficient in every art. He should
encourage his citizens to be peaceful (in commerce and agriculture). He ought to
entertain his people with festivals & spectacles, he ought to hold different bodies
of his society in esteem.

Chapter 22: ‘Concerning the secretaries of princes’

 ‘The choice of servants is of no little importance to a prince, & they are good or
not according to the discrimination of the prince. And the first opinion which one
forms of a prince, & of his understanding, is by observing the men he has around
him; & when they are capable & faithful, he may always be considered wise,
because he has known how to recognize the capable & to keep them faithful. But
when they are otherwise one cannot form a good opinion of him, for the prime
error which he made was in choosing them.’
 Secretaries have to always make prince’s wills before their own

Chapter 23: ‘How flatterers should be avoided’

 A wise prince ought to hold a third course by choosing the wise men in his state &
giving them only the liberty of speaking the truth to him, & then only of those
things of which he inquires, & of none others. He also needs to listen to their
opinions & form his own conclusions. A prince ought always to take counsel but
only when he wishes.

Chapter 24: ‘Why the princes of Italy have lost their states?’

 Don’t let our princes accuse fortune for the loss of their principalities after so
many years’ possession, but rather their own sloth

Chapter 25: ‘What fortune can effect in human affairs and how to withstand her?’

 ‘Fortune is the arbiter of one-half of our actions, but that she still leaves us to
direct the other half, or perhaps a little less.’
 Fortune being changeful & mankind steadfast in their ways, so long as the two are
in agreement men are successful, but unsuccessful when they fall out.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS  O’NEILL

Chapter 2: States
Defining the state
  State  the organization that maintains a monopoly of force over a given
territory; a set of political institutions to generate & execute policy regarding
freedom & equality. (state, regime, government). Identity matters.
 Sovereignty  the ability of a state to carry out actions or policies within a
territory independently from external actors or internal rivals.
 State must be armed (external threat) & also has a police force (internal threat)
 State is made up of a large number of institutions that are engaged in the process of
turning political ideas into policy
 Regime  the fundamental rules & norms of politics, embodying long-term goals
regarding individual freedom & collective equality, where power should reside,
and the use of that power.
 Democracy  a political system in which political power is exercised either
directly or indirectly by the people. Rules & norms of politics give the public a
large role in governance.
 Non-democratic regime  a political regime that is controlled by a small group
of individuals who exercise power over the state without being constitutionally
responsible to the public. Limits public participation & favors those in power
 Regimes don’t easily or quickly change, although they can be transformed or
altered, usually by dramatic social events (revolutions, national crises)
 A regime is: norms and rules regarding individual freedom and collective equality,
the locus of power, and the use of that power; institutionalized, but can be changed
by dramatic social events; categorized as the most basic level as either democratic
or authoritarian; often embodied in a constitution
 Government  leadership that runs the state. Democratic & non-democratic
government must confront the existing regime that has built up over time. Due in
part to the power of regimes, governments tend to be weakly institutionalized.
Gives some direction within the regime.
 A government is: the leadership or elite in charge of running the state; weakly
institutionalized; limited by the existing regime; often composed of elected
officials, such as a president or PM, or unelected officials, such as a monarch
 Country  term used to refer to state, government, regime & the people who live
within that political system.

The origins of political organization

 The combination of linking political state, regime & government is relatively new
in human history
 First form of human organization was around 200,000 years ago  families &
tribes, African (100,000)
 By 8,000 bce, agriculture, animal domestication & sedentary communities
emerged in the ME  more complex political systems
 From about 4,000 bce, cities of thousands of people emerged
 Human innovations like technology, trade & agriculture probably first led to
conflict between the individual & the collective  who gets what? Who has the
right to do what?
 We don’t really know how early states developed; states appear to have emerged
from the history of violence
 Complex organizations began to emerge about 8,000 years ago in the ME
(taxation, bureaucracy, laws, military force and leadership)
 Emergence of city-states in Greece around 2,700 years ago. Agricultural
production was the basis of economic relations, borders weren’t well defined at
that time.
 2 paths of political organization:
o Consensus  individuals band together to protect themselves & create
common rules; leadership chosen among people, security through
cooperation = democratic rule
o Coercion  individuals are brought together by a ruler, who imposes
authority & monopolizes power; security through domination =
authoritarian rule
 The rise of the modern state  first took shape in Europe. 2,000 years ago, Europe
was dominated by the Roman Empire, until the 5th century. With its disappearance,
the complex political institutions etc. also disappeared, security, knowledge
disappeared = anarchy. But this period of anarchy is believed to have set the stage
for the creation of the modern state  new political organizations started to
emerge, in constant competition with their rivals (constant warfare seems to have
generated a kind of rapid organizational evolution). History & geography played a
role in the rise of the modern state. China had a strong centralized state but lacked
major competitors
 3 important advantages of the first modern states over alternative forms of political
organization:
o States encouraged economic development  property rights
o States encouraged technological innovation  stimulation of the economy
o Domestic stability  increased trade & commerce = development of
infrastructure
 By around 1,500 modern states covered 20% of the world, soon changed,
organizational structure of the state was imposed around the world by force
Comparing state power
 Legitimacy  a value whereby an institution is accepted by the public as right &
proper, thus giving it authority & power. It’s widely accepted & recognized by the
public, confers authority & power, 3 types according to Weber:
o Traditional legitimacy  legitimacy that accepts aspects of politics
because they have been institutionalized over a long period of time. Often
embodies historical myths and legends & continuity between past &
present.
o Charismatic legitimacy  legitimacy built on the force of ideas embodied
by an individual leader. Not institutionalized, thus fairly tenuous, but can
be transformed into traditional legitimacy through the creation of rituals &
values. (Putin, SU & Lenin)
o Rational-legal legitimacy  legitimacy based on a system of laws &
procedures that are highly institutionalized. The world of modern states is
built on a rational-legal legitimacy, even though the 2 other types of
legitimacy haven’t disappeared. Even leaders have to respect the law.

Type Characteristics example

Traditional legitimacy Built by habit & custom Monarch  Queen
over time, stressing history; Elizabeth II
strongly institutionalized
Charismatic legitimacy Built on the force of ideas & Revolutionary hero 
the presence of the leader; Vladimir Lenin
weakly institutionalized
Rational-legal legitimacy Built on rules & procedures Elected executive  Barack
and the offices that create Obama
and enforce those rules;
strongly institutionalized

 Centralization & decentralization: states are defined by different distributions of

power
o Federalism  a system in which significant state powers, such as taxation,
lawmaking & security are devolved to regional or local bodies. Examples:
states in the US, Länder in Germany & provinces in Canada
 Federalism needs not be uniformed: asymmetrical federalism:
when power is divided unevenly between regional bodies (for ex,
sole regions are given greater power over taxation or language
rights than others – a more likely outcome in a country with
significant ethnic divisions). Examples: Spain, Russia, India
o Unitary states  a state in which most political power exists at the
national level, with limited local authority. Examples: China, Japan, France
 In recent years, many states wanted decentralization, process is called devolution
 a process in which political power is ‘sent down’ to lower levels of state &
government. Popular for different reasons:
o Devolution viewed as a way to increase state legitimacy by moving
political power closer to the people
o Devolution seen as a way to resolve problems like ethnic or religious
differences by giving greater local powers to regions where they are
predominant.
 Power, autonomy & capacity: difference between strong & weak state:
o Strong state  a state that is able to fulfill basic tasks, such as defending
territory, making & enforcing rules, collecting taxes, & managing the
economy.
o Weak state  a state that has difficulty fulfilling basic tasks, such as
defending territory, making & enforcing rules, collecting taxes, &
managing the economy. There’s tax evasion, rebel movements, organized
crime. In general, weak states aren’t well institutionalized & lack authority
& legitimacy  failed state: a state so weak that its political structures
collapse, leading to anarchy and violence.
 CP builds on the categories of weak & strong states through the use of 2 other
terms:
o Capacity  ability of a state to wield power to carry out basic tasks, such
as defending territory, making & enforcing rules, collecting taxes, &
managing the economy.
o Autonomy  the ability of a state to wield its power independently of the
public.

HIGH AUTONOMY LOW AUTONOMY

HIGH CAPACITY State is able to fulfill basic State is able to fulfil basic
tasks, with a minimum of tasks, but public plays a
public intervention; power direct role determining
 highly centralized; strong policy and is able to limit
state state power and scope of
activity
DANGERS Too high a level of capacity State may be unable to
& autonomy may prevent or develop new policies or
undermine democracy respond to new challenges
owing to the power or
organized opposition
LOW CAPACITY State is able to function with State lacks the ability to
a minimum of public fulfill basic tasks and is
interference or direct subject to direct public
control, but its capacity to control & interference –
fulfill basic tasks is limited power highly centralized
among state and non-state
actors; weak state
DANGERS State is ineffectual, limiting Too low a level of capacity
development, and slow and autonomy may lead to
development may provoke internal state failure
public unrest

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 3: Nations and Society
Society  complex human organization, a collection of people bound by shared institutions
that define how human relations should be conducted.

Different forms of identification:

Ethnic Identity
 Ethnic identity/ethnicity  specific attributes & societal institutions that make
one group of people culturally different from others.
o Institutions can include language, religion, geographic location, customs,
appearance & history, among other things
o Distinct attributes are passed down from generation to generation 
ascription: the assigning of a particular quality at birth.
o Ethnicity is at its core a social, not a political identity.

National Identity
 Nation  a group that desires self-government through an independent state.
 National identity  a sense of belonging to a nation & a belief in its political
aspirations (self-government, sovereignty)
o Often but not always develops from ethnic identity
o National identity can create nationalism  pride in one’s people & the
belief that they have a unique political destiny.

Citizenship & Patriotism

 Citizenship  an individual’s relationship to the state, wherein citizens swear
allegiance to that state & the state in return is obligated to provide rights to those
citizens. (obey laws, participate in politics, you participate in the society in a
valuable way)
 o Potentially more inclusive or flexible concept than national or ethnic
identity.
o Purely political & thus more easily changed than ethnic identity or national
identity.
o The basis for patriotism  pride in one’s state (flag, important historical
events, wars, anthems)
o Patriotism & nationalism can overlap.

Ethnic Identity, National Identity & Citizenship: Origins & Persistence

 The emergence (reemergence for citizenship) of these identities had much to do
with the formation of the modern-state

Political Attitudes & Political Ideology

Political Attitudes:
 Description of one’s views regarding the speed and methods with which political
changes should take place in a given society. Distinct from political ideologies.
Particularistic: relative to the specific context of a given country. ‘Radical’ in one
country may be conservative in another.
o Categories such as radical, liberal, conservative and reactionary.
 Radicals  those with a political attitude that favors dramatic, often revolutionary
change.
 Liberals  those with a political attitude that favors evolutionary change and
believes that existing institutions can be instruments of positive change.
 Conservatives  those with a political attitude that is skeptical of change and
supports the current order.
 Reactionaries  someone who seeks to restore the institutions of a real or
imagined earlier order.

Political Ideology:
 The basic values held by an individual about the fundamental goals of politics or
the ideal balance of freedom & equality.
  Liberalism  1) A political attitude that favors evolutionary transformation, 2)
An ideology & political system that favors a limited state role in society & the
economy and places a high priority on individual political & economic freedom.
o Different meanings of the term ‘liberalism’:
 As a political attitude: favoring slow, evolutionary change
 As a political economy: favoring a limited state role in the economy
 As a political ideology in North America: favoring a greater state
role in limiting inequality; many outside the region would call this
ideology ‘social democracy’
 As a political ideology outside North America: favoring free
markets & individualism; accepting greater inequality
 Liberal democracy  A political system that promotes participation, competition
and liberty and emphasizes individual freedom and civil rights.
 Communism  1) A political-economic system in which all wealth & property
are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression &, ultimately, the need for
political institutions such as the state. 2) A political ideology that advocates such a
system.
 Social democracy (socialism)  1) A political-economic system in which
freedom & equality are balanced through the state’s management of the economy
& the provision of social expenditures. 2) A political ideology that advocates such
system.
 Fascism  A political ideology that asserts the superiority & inferiority of
different groups of people & stresses a low degree of both freedom & equality in
order to achieve a powerful state.
 Anarchism  a political ideology that stresses the elimination of the state &
private property as a way to achieve both freedom & equality for all.

Religion, Fundamentalism & the Crisis of Ideology

 Fundamentalism  A view that religion as absolute & inerrant that should be
legally enforced by making faith the sovereign authority.
Political Culture
 Culture  basic institutions that define a society.
 Political culture  the basic norms for political activity in a society.
o Determining factor in what ideologies will dominate a country’s political
regime
o Unique to a given country or group
o Distinct from political attitudes & ideologies

Chapter 10
Developing countries

Freedom & Equality in the Developing World

 Developing countries, 2 types:
 Middle income countries  historically less-developed countries that have
experienced significant economic growth & democratization; also known as
Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs).
o Rapid development, democratization, political & social stability (Mexico,
South Korea).
 Lower income countries  countries that lack significant economic development
or political institutionalization or both; also known as Less-Developed Countries
(LDCs).
o Economic & political structures remain weak, slid into poverty, violence
and civil conflict.
Imperialism & Colonialism
 Over the past millennium, Europe, the ME & Asia embarked on a series of
dramatic societal, economic & political changes that formed the outlines of
modern society. The growing power of modern societies was soon projected
outward to conquer & incorporate new lands and peoples = emergence of empires
 a single authority that has under its sovereignty a large number of external
regions or territories & different peoples.
 Imperialism  a system in which a state extends its power to directly control
territory, resources & people beyond its borders.
o Began thousand years ago, but modern imperialism is dated from the 15th
century (military revolution?)
o Important to recognize that the peoples who became subject to modern
imperialism were not a blank slate, without any of their own institutions.
o In the 15th century, Europe began a process of imperial expansion that
would nearly continue for 5 centuries. Motives are economic, strategic,
belief that Christianity & Western culture needed to be brought to the rest
of the world.
 Colonialism  an imperialist system of physically occupying a foreign territory
using military, force, businesses or settlers (military, economic, territorial). Not
always for direct control

Institutions of Imperialism
 Exporting the state
o One of the 1st major effects of imperialism was the transfer of the state to
the rest of the world. European empires incorporated new territories into
these state structures. The borders drawn by imperial states therefore often
reflected the shape of their colonial ambitions rather than existing
 geographic, religious or linguistic realities. Many of these externally
imposed & arbitrary boundaries became the demarcations for independent
countries once imperial rule ended.
o Having conquered these territories, imperial powers went about
establishing state power & authority (creation of bureaucracies).
Individuals under colonial rule were considered subjects, not citizens &
thus had few political rights.
o This imposition on the state had mixed effects. Many peoples had better
education, benefited from basic infrastructures (communication &
transportation). Traditional institutions (local religions and customs) were
ended and replaces by Western practices & institutions.
 Social Identities
o The imposition of organizational forms from outside included various new
identities that often displaced or were incorporated into existing social
institutions (ethnic & national identities). Empires introduced concepts of
ethnicity & nation; national identity helped driving competition between
the industrial powers & in turn advancing the imperialist cause. Empires
viewed the peoples living in their overseas possessions as inferior subjects
and gave them only limited ability to improve their standing within the
empire.
o Colonialism also affected gender role in the colonies (women could benefit
some freedom, equality & autonomy but debatable). The economic systems
imposed by the colonizers marginalized women in many ways.
 Dependent Development
o Economic change occurred in a dramatic and uneven way.
o First important change was  replacement of a traditional agricultural
economy with one driven by the needs of the industrializing capitalist
home country (cash-based economy)
o Second  transformation of economic production (using a mercantilist PE
system, search of profits
o Third  free trade was often suppressed as colonies were forced to supply
goods only to the imperial country, creating extractive economies in the
colonies.

The Challenges of Post-Imperialism

 Empires’ powers came eventually to an end, numerous independent movements
emerged within the Asian & African colonies, some empires resisted (Portugal).
For the most part, however, colonies in Africa & Asia gained independence in the
1950s & 1960s. The elimination of imperialism, however, didn’t bring a sudden
end to the problem of the developing world. These countries have continued to
struggle with political, social & economic challenges to development and stability,
freedom & equality.
 Building State Capacity & Autonomy
o One of the main difficulties of the developing countries has been the
difficulty to create effective political institutions.
o In terms of capacity, DC are frequently weak states.
o Autonomy has been equally problematic in the post-imperialist world
(from domestic sources & by international factors) which have clear
implications for freedom & equality.
 o Where instability is so high often only one institution has a great deal of
capacity and autonomy  the military
o When colonies gained independence, several problems emerged, which
make the creation of a single national identity difficult:
 Group divisions often have economic implications, just as they did
under colonial rule
 Ethnic & religious divisions can similarly complicate politics
 Gender & family identities and roles have been affected by rapid
urbanization & commercialization of agriculture, which often
favored male labor & property rights.
 Arbitrary political boundaries imposed by imperial powers
 Generating Economic Growth
o Neocolonialism  an indirect from of imperialism in which powerful
countries overly influence the economies of less-developed countries.
o Import substitution  a mercantilist strategy for economic growth in
which a country restricts imports in order to spur demand for locally
produced goods
o Export-oriented industrialization  a mercantilist strategy for economic
growth in which a country seeks out technologies & develops industries
focused specifically on the export market.
o Neo-liberalism / Structural-adjustment programs / Washington
Consensus  a policy of economic liberalization adopted in exchange for
financial support from liberal international organizations; typically includes
privatizing state-run firms, ending subsidies, reducing tariff barriers,
shrinking the size of the state & welcoming foreign investment.

Puzzles & Prospects for Democracy & Development

Puzzles & Prospects for Democracy & Development

 Foreign States  the view of the state as an aid or obstacle to development in the
post-colonial world has shifted over time. For developing countries that already
have a reasonable degree of capacity & autonomy, improving governance may be
 achieved by focusing on the rule of law. But such reforms & policy makers
confuse cause & effect
 Building Society  small-scale organizations can improve governance &
contribute to social stability, need civil society
 Promoting Economic Prosperity  informal economy: a segment of the economy
that isn’t regulated or taxed by the state. Middle income trap: a situation where
countries experience economic growth but are unable to develop at a speed
necessary to catch up with developed countries.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 6
Nondemocratic regimes

Defining Nondemocratic Rule

 Authoritarianism  a political system in which a small group of individuals
exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the
public.
 Non-democratic regime  a political regime that is controlled by a small group
of individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally
responsible to the public.
o Various kinds of non-democratic regimes
o A small group of individuals exercises power over the state, government
isn’t constitutionally responsible to the public, public has little or no role in
selecting leaders, individual freedom is restricted, non-democratic regimes
may be institutionalized & legitimate

Totalitarianism & Nondemocratic Rule

 Totalitarianism  a non-democratic regime that is highly centralized, possessing
some form of strong identity that seeks to transform and absorb fundamental
aspects of state, society, and the economy, using a wide array of institutions.
o Seek to control & transform all aspects of the state, society, and economy;
use violence as a tool for remaking institutions; have a strong ideological
goal; have arisen relatively rarely.

Origins & Sources of Nondemocratic Rule

 Modernization & nondemocratic rule
 Elites & nondemocratic rule
 o Resource trap  theory of development in which the existence of natural
resources in a given state is a barrier to modernization & democracy
 Society & nondemocratic rule
o Populism  a political view that doesn’t have a contingent ideological
foundation, but that emphasizes hostility toward elites & established state
& economic institutions & favors greater power in the hands of the public.
 IR & nondemocratic rule
 Culture & nondemocratic rule

Nondemocratic Regimes & Political Control

 Coercion & surveillance
 Co-optation: corporation & clientelism  corporatism: a method of co-optation
whereby authoritarian systems creates or sanction a limited number of
organizations to represent the interests of the public & restrict those not set up or
approved by the state. Clientelism: a process whereby the state co-opts members
of the public by providing specific benefits or favors to a single person or a small
group in return for public support. Kleptocracy: ‘rule by theft’, where those in
power seek only to drain the state of assets and resources.
 Personality cult

Models of Nondemocratic Rule

 Personal & monarchical rule  patrimonialism: an arrangement whereby a ruler
depends on a collection of supporters within the state who gain direct benefits in
return for enforcing the rulers’ will.
 Military rule  bureaucratic authoritarianism: a system in which the state
bureaucracy & the military share a belief that a technocratic leadership, focused on
rational, objective & technical expertise, can solve the problems of the country
without public participation.
 One-party rule
 Theocracy
 Illiberal & hybrid regimes  illiberal/hybrid regime: rule by an elected
leadership through procedures of questionable democratic legitimacy.

In Sum: Retreat or Retrenchment for Nondemocratic Regimes?

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 9
Communism & Post-communism

Communism, equality & the nature of human relations

 Communism  1) a political-economic system in which all wealth & property are
shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, & ultimately, the need for
political institutions such as the state. 2) a political ideology that advocates such a
system.
o Marx
 o
o Base  the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the
means of production) & class relations between people (the relations of
production).
o Superstructure  all non-economic institutions in a society (religion,
culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the & and
serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation.

Revolution & the ‘Triumph’ of Communism

 Bourgeoisie  the property-owning class
 Dialectical materialism  process of historical change that isn’t evolutionary but
revolutionary; the existing base & superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict
with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing
order (antithesis) – this would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base
& superstructure (synthesis).
 Proletariat  the working class


 Putting Communism into Practice
 Vanguard of the proletariat  Lenin’s argument that an elite communist party
would have to carry out revolution, because as a result of false consciousness,
historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.
 Nomenklatura  politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or
economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party.


 Politburo  the top policy-making and executive body of a communist party
 Central Committee  the legislature-like body of a communist party.

Communist Political Economy

 Central planning  a communist economic system in which the state explicitly
allocates resources by planning what should be produced & in what amounts, the
final prices of goods, and where they should be sold.
o Markets & property are wholly absorbed by the state;
o Central planning replaces the market mechanism;
o Individual property rights, individual profit, unemployment, competition
between firms, and bankruptcy are all virtually eliminated;
o Most of the nation’s means of production are nationalized;
o The economy functions in essence as a single large firm whose sole
employees are the public;
o The state provides extensive goods & social services, including universal
systems of public education, health care, and retirement

Societal Institutions under Communism

 

The Collapse of Communism

 Glasnost  literally, openness; the policy of political liberalization implemented
in the SU in the late 1980s.
 Perestroika  literally, restructuring; the policy of political and economic
liberalization implemented in the SU in the late 1980s.


The Transformation of Political Institutions
 Reorganizing the state & constructing a democratic regime
 Evaluating political transitions

The Transformation of Economic Institutions

 Privatization & marketization  transfer of state-held property into private hands
& the re-creation of the market forces of supply & demand
 Evaluating economic transitions

The Transformation of Societal Institutions

 Re-creating identities
 Evaluating societal transitions

In Sum: The Legacy of Communism

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 7
Political Violence

What’s Political Violence?

 Political violence  violence outside of state control that is politically motivated.
o Phenomenon that operates beyond state sovereignty, neither war nor crime,
& that seeks to achieve some political objective through the use of force

Why Political Violence?

 Institutional explanations  self-perpetuating organizations or patterns of activity
that are values for their own sake, they define and shape human activity, &
institutional explanations argue that their specific qualities or combination are
essential to political violence (it may be that institutions contain values or norms
that implicitly or explicitly encourage political violence). Institutional explanations
can be seen as a quest for a ‘root source’ for violence, a necessary condition for
violent actions to take place, & a presumption that changes in the institutional
structure would eliminate the motivation of violence.
 Ideational explanations  ideational: having to do with ideas. Ideas may be
institutionalized (rooted in political organization or religion for example) but they
are also un-institutionalized (with no real organizational base). Ideas play an
important role in political violence in the way they set out a worldview, diagnose a
set of problems, provide a resolution, and describe the means of getting there.
What matters is that the relation between the content of the ideas to the domestic
political status quo.
 Individual explanations  centers on those who carry out the violence, personal
motivations, psychological factors. Not only poverty, combination of different
things
Presidentialism  US & Turkey: before PM, parliamentary system, big parties, coalitions.
With replacement to presidential system, president has all power. Trump  democrats feel
excluded, president has lots of power. Political violence  minority groups that have been
excluded, police violence.

Comparing Explanations & Political Violence

 How they approach free will, to what extent people are the primary actors in
political violence
o Institutional explanations  often quite deterministic
o Individual explanations  focus on people, they are the primary markers
of violence because they choose to be
o Ideational explanations  lie somewhere in-between
 Concerns universal v. particularistic explanations
o Institutional explanations  more particularistic
o Individual explanations  center on those personal and psychological
attributes common to all humans that can lead to violence
o Ideational explanations  lie somewhere in the middle

Forms of Political Violence

 Revolution  term revolution has many connotations: can be used for much more
indiscriminately purpose (any dramatic kind of change; positive =
‘counterrevolution’). Here revolution: public seizure of the state in order to
overturn the existing government & regime. Different factors: revolutions involve
some elements of public participation & the people involved are working to gain
control of the state. Revolutions can but also can’t necessarily be violent. What
causes revolution?  no agreement, psychological approach known as the relative
deprivation model: model that predicts revolution when public expectations
outpace the rate of domestic change (revolutions are less a function of specific
conditions than of the gap between actual conditions & public expectations).
Social revolutions require a very specific set of conditions (competition between
rival states; as a result of this competition, weaker states often seek reform to
increase their autonomy & capacity which can be good but can also threaten the
status quo). Institutional, individual & ideational explanations (p. 216-8).
 Impacts of revolutions are very important  often reverse result as what was
wanted at first & sometimes high human cost.

 Terrorism  different meanings, always carries a stigma. Terrorism: the use of

violence by non-state actors against civilians in order to achieve a political goal.
Non-state actors because when states use violence against civilian populations, we
speak of war crimes or human rights violations. Also, state-sponsored terrorism:
terrorism supported directly by a state as an instrument of foreign policy. The
targets of terrorism are civilians, it’s intentional. Difference between terrorism &
guerrilla war: a conflict whereby non-state combatants who largely abide by the
rules of war target the state. Terrorism has some political objective (it’s not simply
a crime or a violent act without a larger purpose). Causes of terrorism are hard to
find (institutional, individual & ideational explanations, p. 223-5). Effects of
terrorism are harder to discern than those of revolutions, terrorists are mostly
unsuccessful in achieving their stated long-term outcomes. Terrorism can affect
politics (counter-terrorism, security). Nihilism: a belief that all institutions &
values are essentially meaningless and that the only redeeming value is violence.
Terrorism & Revolution: Means & Ends

Political Violence in Context: Faith, Terrorism, and Revolution

Countering Political Violence

In Sum: Meeting the Challenge of Political Violence

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 5
Democratic Regimes

Defining Democracy
 Word democracy has inherently a positive connotation but isn’t very true in
reality. Comes from the Greek words demos (common people) & kratia (power or
rule).
 Democracy  a political system in which political power is exercised either
directly or indirectly by the people.
o Keeping with ideology of liberalism, emphasis on individual rights &
freedoms
 Liberal democracy  a political system that promotes participation, competition,
and liberty and emphasizes individual freedom and civil rights.
o Emphasis on political system

Origins of Democracy
 Liberal democratic institutions and practices have their roots in ancient Greece and
Rome, where each country contributed to modern democracy in different ways.
 o Greeks  concept of public participation, it allowed the public to
participate directly in the affairs of the government, choosing policies and
making governing decisions: the people were the state
o Roman Empire  concept of republicanism (indirect democracy that
emphasizes the separation of powers within a state & the representation of
the public through elected officials), which emphasized the separation of
powers (the clear division of power between different branches of
government & the provision that specific branches may check the power of
other branches.
o 13th century Britain  Magna Carta: No freeman shall be taken,
imprisoned, . . . or in any other way destroyed . . . except by the lawful
judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. To no one will we sell, to
none will we deny or delay, right or justice.

Contemporary Democracy
 Modernization & democratization  some say democratization is correlated with,
is not caused by, modernization. Modernization theory suggests that as societies
become better educated and more economically sophisticated, they need and desire
greater control over the state to achieve & defend their own interests. Theory has
risen, fallen, risen again….
 Elites & democratization  role of those in power (political elites). Central to
modernization theory is the idea that a middle class is essential for
democratization. Similarly, poverty can be an obstacle to democracy. But the
distribution of wealth may be more important, where those in power have all the
money, much less likely that there’ll change (Nigeria, Saudi Arabia)
 Society & democratization  elite-based theories can give us a sense of why
leaders may be more or less willing to surrender power to the public, but not why
the public would demand power in the first place. Importance of public
organization: civil society (organizations outside of the state that help people
define and advance their own interests), de Tocqueville called it the ‘art of
association’, it can be environmental groups, churches, sports teams, fraternal
organizations. Democratization is more likely where there’s civil society because it
provides ideas and tools of political action & mobilization.
 IR & democratization  international community also plays a role in less obvious
ways: modernization resulting from foreign investment, globalization & trade may
push democratization forward + international pressure & incentives may cause
elites to favor democracy. Civil society can be strengthened by transmission of
ideas across borders by education, media & nongovernmental organizations.
 Culture & democratization  differences in societal institutions (norms & values)
are shaping the landscape of political activity. Political culture may influence the
preference for certain kinds of policies & particular relationship between freedom
& equality.
Institutions of the Democratic State
 Executives: head of the state and head of government 
o Executive  the branch of government that carries out the laws & policies
of a state
o Head of state  the executive role that symbolizes & represents the
people both nationally & internationally
o Head of government  the executive role that deals with the everyday
tasks of running the state, such as formulating and executing policy.
Usually called prime ministers.
o Foreign policies???
 Legislatures: unicameral and bicameral
o Legislature  the branch of government charged with making laws
o Bicameral systems  a political system in which the legislature comprises
2 houses
o Unicameral systems  a political system in which the legislature
comprises 1 house.
 Judiciaries and judicial review
 o Rule of law  a system in which all individuals & groups, including those
in government, are subject to the law, irrespective of their power or
authority.
o Constitutional court  the highest judicial body in a political system that
decides whether laws and policies violate the constitution
o Judicial review  the mechanism by which courts can review the actions
of government and overturn those that violate the constitution.
o Concrete review  judicial review that allows the constitutional court to
rule on the basis of actual legal disputes brought before it
o Abstract review  judicial review that allows the constitutional court to
rule on questions that don’t arise from actual legal disputes

Models of Democracy: Parliamentary, Presidential, and Semi-Presidential Systems

 Parliamentary systems
o Parliamentary system  a political system in which the roles of head of
state and head of government are assigned to separate executive officers
o Vote of no confidence  vote taken by a legislature as to whether its
members continue to support the current PM; depending on the country, a
vote of no confidence can force the resignation of the PM and/or lead to
new parliamentary elections.
 Presidential systems
o Presidential system  a political system in which the roles of head of
state and head of government are combined in one executive office
 Semi-presidential systems
o Semi-presidential systems  an executive system that divides power
between 2 strong executives, a president and a prime minister
Parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential systems: benefits & drawbacks

Political Parties
 Electoral system  a set of rules that decide how votes are cast, counted, and
translated into seats in legislature

Electoral Systems
 Constituencies  a geographical area that an elected official represents.
 Single-member district (SMD)  an electoral system with 1 seat.
 Proportional representation (PR)  an electoral system in which political
parties compete in multi-member districts; voters choose between parties, and the
seats in the district are awarded proportionally according to the results of the vote
 First pass the post system  an electoral system in which individual candidates
compete in single-member districts; voters choose between candidates, and the
candidate with the largest share of vote wins the seat
 Multi-member districts (MMDs)  an electoral district with more than 1 seat
  Mixed electoral system  an electoral system that uses a combination of single-
member districts and proportional representation

Referendum & Initiative

 Referendum  a national vote called by a government to address a specific
proposal, often a change to the constitution
 Initiative  a national vote called by members of the public to address a specific
proposal

Civil Rights & Civil Liberties

 Civil rights  individual rights regarding equality that are created by the
constitution and the political regime
 Civil liberties  individual rights regarding freedom that are created by the
constitution and the political regime.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 8
Developed Democracies

Defining Developed Democracy

 Developed democracy  a country with institutionalized democracy & a high
level of economic development & prosperity.
 In the past, we talked about ‘first world’ (economically developed countries),
‘second world’ (communist states), & ‘third world’ (less-developed countries).
 Here we use ‘developed democracies’, ‘communist & post-communist countries’
& ‘developing countries’  change can happen within those countries.
o In the area of democracy  we can look at the degree &
institutionalization of participation, competition & liberty in each
o In the area of economic development and prosperity  we can look at
private property, open markets, level of GDP and PPP (purchasing power
parity) & the output of wealth by looking at the overall well-being of
society (HDI).

Freedom & Equality in Developed Democracies

 Developed democracies achieve a balance between freedom & equality by being
institutionalized liberal democracies, by private property, by free markets, by a
high level of economic development based on industry & services.
o Countries can have different approach to reconcile freedom & equality.
 Despite variation, these countries are united by common democratic & economic
institutions:
o Role of freedom  all developed countries are institutionalized liberal
democracies, they share the belied in participation, competition & liberty
(yet they can define these terms differently & different level of public
participation for example). They are politically diverse
o Developed democracies share a similar approach to equality that
emphasizes capitalism  private property & free markets. Yet, also
poverty & inequality. Difference in equality is in part a function of the role
of the state
Developed Democracies Today & Contemporary Challenges for Developed Democracies
 Modern  characterized as secular, rational, materialistic, technological,
bureaucratic & placing a greater emphasis on individual freedom than in the past.
o Developed democracies aren’t only diverse but also dynamic, their
institutions can change under the influence of domestic & international
forces.
 Post-modern  characterized by a set of values that centre on ‘quality of life’
considerations & give less attention to material gain. Health, environment utility,
leisure time, immaterial prosperity.

Political Institutions: Sovereignty Transformed?

 European Council (charge with setting the ‘general direction and priorities’ of the
EU & with helping member states resolve the complex or sensitive issues that arise
between them), European Commission (body made up of 28 members, each
responsible for some specific policy area), European Parliament (it passes
legislation proposed by the commission).
 The EU: integration, expansion & resistance
o European integration  inter-governmental system (a system in which 2
or more countries cooperate on issues); supranational system (an inter-
governmental system with its own sovereign powers over member states).
 Other projects such as monetary union (1/1/99)  euro & on 1/1/2002, all EU
member states that joined the monetary union withdrew their own currencies
from circulation and replaces them by the euro, under control of the European
Central Bank. Some countries (UK, Sweden, Denmark) didn’t join the
monetary union because of the loss of sovereignty. Still produces some
problems, one solution might be fiscal integration  the EU needs to have
more sovereignty over the budgets and broader economic policies of the
member states.
o European expansion  from 1951 to 2004, the EU grew from 6 to 15
member states. Between 2004 and 2013, it became 28 countries in the EU
= total population of the EU to half billion. The EU’s growth has created
some issues & concerns: some countries are poorer. Enlargement has been
a key factor in the development of EU authority. A lot of countries are in
the negotiation process or interesting in beginning negotiations to join the
EU in the next decade (Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia)
o European resistance  the EU stays uncertain where it may be heading.
 Devolution & democracy
o Devolution is seen a way to counteract this distrust by bringing government
closer to the public, thereby increasing local control and participation. It
can also give voice to more-marginal communities. It takes place through
the transfer of responsibility & funds to local authorities  when local
institutions have more control & responsibility, they can craft policy to
meet their own particular conditions. It also takes place through creating
 wholly new political institutions to provide a greater level of public
participation. The EU has encouraged devolution
o Means of devolution  transfer of policy-making responsibility to lower
levels of governments; creation of new political institutions at lower levels
of government; transfer of funds & powers to tax to lower levels of
government, affording them more control over how resources are
distributed.

Societal Institutions: New Identities in Formation?

 Post-modern values & organization  modern view was put into question
(science, economic development & its costs, etc.). As said before, postmodern is
characterized by a set of values that centre on ‘quality of life’ considerations &
give less attention to material gain.
 Diversity, identity & the challenge to post-modern values
o Immigration = issues of assimilation & multi-culturalism = xenophobia =
anti-immigration & nationalist movements.
o Issue of societal institutions  new waves of immigrants will affect
relations between the developed democracies.

Economic Institutions: A New Market?

 Post-industrialism  economies based not on the manufacture of tangible goods
but on the service sector (education, health care, etc.). It’s fuelled by globalization.
 Maintaining the welfare state  benefits but also costs & controversies (very
expensive, all population are growing elderly & shrinking young population that
has to pay for it), solutions aren’t easy to find.

In Sum: The Developed Democracies in Transition

COMPARATIVE POLITICS -> O’NEILL

Chapter 11
Globalization & the Future of Comparative Politics

What’s Globalization?
 Globalization  the process of expanding & intensifying linkages between states,
societies & economies.
o Extent to which the battle over freedom & equality is becoming
international, no longer a concern to be solved by each country in its own
way.
o Always form of globalization with long-distance connections & trade for
example.
o When we speak about globalization, we don’t simply mean international
contacts & interaction, which have existed for a long time. Globalization
can be viewed as a process by which global connections grow increasingly
‘thick’, creating an extensive and intensive web of relationships between
many people across vast distances.
o Globalization has a number of potential implications for CP:
  Due to the thickening of connections between people across
countries, globalization breaks down the distinction between IR &
domestic politics, making any aspects of domestic politics subject
to global forces
 Globalization can also work in the other direction 
‘internationalizing’ domestic issues & events, they can have huge
effects throughout the world.
o Globalization is a process that creates intensive & extensive international
connections, changing traditional relationships of time & space.

Institutions & Globalization

 Globalization can change the institutions of economics, politics & society.
Globalization is associated. With the growing power of a host of non-state or
supra-state entities. 3 different categories:
o Multinational corporations (MNCs)  firm that produces, distributes &
markets its goods or services in more than one country.
o Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)  a national or international
group, independent of any state, that pursues policy objectives & fosters
public participation.
o Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)  group created by states to
serve certain policy ends.
 International regime  the fundamental rules and norms that link states together
& shape their relationships to one another, usually regarding some specific issues
(greenhouse or trade for example). Technology-driven organizations can also play
a role in globalization, development of the internet.

Political Globalization
 At the core of the debate is the fact that globalization & globalized institutions
complicate the ability of states to maintain sovereignty (can be intentional or not).
That means, theoretically, that states would become bound to numerous
international institutions that will take on many of the tasks that states normally
conduct. With this diffusion of responsibility, sovereignty would decline.
 It has also been argued that globalization will change not only the utility of force
but also the nature of public participation & democracy. Others see political
 globalization not as a pathway to peace & participation but as a source of
dangerous fragmentation & weakened democracy (ex: globalized criminal
organizations & terrorist groups).
o In their view, violence won’t lose its utility in the international system, it
will simply change form
o Many people question how a more globalized political system can be more
democratic.

Economic Globalization
 Bretton Woods System  an economic regime that manages international
economic relations
o This includes the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
o The World Bank
o The World Trade Organization (WTO), formerly the General Agreement
on Tariffs & Trade (GATT).
o Objective of these institutions were to expand & manage economic
relations between countries
o Globalization of international trade & financial globalization.
 Foreign direct investment  the purchase of assets in a country by a foreign
firm.
 Offshore outsourcing  a process by which a firm moves some of its work to a
secondary business outside the home country that can do the work more efficiently
or cheaply.
 For optimists, economic globalization is a vehicle for global prosperity. Others
view economic globalization with more suspicion

Societal Globalization
 Traditional societal institutions are weakened, creating new identities that don’t
belong to any community or nation.
 Just as the state and domestic economic institutions are being challenged, so too
are traditional identities.
o New technologies  internet
o Waves of migration
o Trade
o Communication
 Societal globalization can engender global multi-culturalism  globalized society
will draw from many sources & that the interconnection of domestic institutions at
the global level will create new values, identities & culture; a process of ‘creative
destruction’ that will enrich all cultures.
o One result from this outcome could be a global cosmopolitanism (a
universal, global or ‘worldly’ political order that draws its identity &
values from everywhere).
o Other result could be global democracy  growing international
connections at the societal level would generate not only of form of
cosmopolitanism but also a civic identity that stretches beyond traditional
barriers & borders.
o These 2 could help facilitate democratic change across countries by
informing & amplifying local political action.
 But critiques:
 o Some contend that globalization overwhelms people with unenumerable
choices, values, ideas & information that they are unable to understand,
evaluate or escape.
o Emphasis not on the reaction to societal globalization but rather its
eventual outcome: societal globalization won’t generate a richer global
culture and cosmopolitanism.

Taking Stocks of Globalization

 Is globalization new?
o Imperialism
o Already in the 20th century, even before WW1
 Is globalization exaggerated?
o The date presents a mixed picture

Is Globalization Inevitable?
 Globalization can be limited or reversed in a number of ways
 Ongoing difficulties may also increase public opposition to globalization
 Whatever the outcome, it seems premature to declare that either a world of states
or globalization has come to an end.

In Sum: The Future of Freedom & Equality

Taggart  Populism & Representative Politics in Contemporary Europe

Populism in Contemporary Europe

Views of Populism
 3 tendencies:
a. Populism is taken as an ‘off the shelf’ concept to describe the specifics of a
particular phenomenon
b. Populism is where there’s an attempt to define different types of populism
and to provide an overall taxonomy
i. Canovan  populist democracy, populist dictatorship, reactionary
populism & politicians’ populism
c. There are common features to populism and identifying these common
features enables to build up a universally applicable approach to populism
 5 characteristics of populism as an ideal type that show how populism is different
from other ideologies:
1. Populism is hostile to representative politics
2. Populists tend to identify themselves with a ‘heartland’ that represents an
idealized conception of the community they serve
3. Populism lacks core values
4. Populism is a reaction to a sense of extreme crisis
5. Self-limiting quality of populism
Populism & Representative Politics

The Politics of the Heartland

The ‘Empty Heart’ of Populism

Populism & the Sense of Crisis

Self-limiting Mobilization