Boolean

Algebra & Logic

Gates 1
 Objectives

• Understand the relationship between Boolean logic

and digital computer circuits.
• Learn how to design simple logic circuits.
• Understand how digital circuits work together to
form complex computer systems.

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 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and
“false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and
“off,” 1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR,
and NOT.
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 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are shown
at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

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 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar. It is sometimes
indicated by a prime mark
( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().

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 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.

• It produces an output that is also a member of

the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering

system is so handy in digital systems.

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 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.

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 Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product)

form as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our
identities using both forms. Our first group is rather
intuitive:

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 Boolean Algebra

• Our second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar to you from your study of algebra:

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 Boolean Algebra

• Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the

most useful.
• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.

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 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a

circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement
the function directly.
• DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding
the complement of a Boolean function.
• Recall DeMorgan’s law states:

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 Logic Gates

• We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract

terms.
• In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
– In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but
digital designers think of them as a single unit.
– Integrated circuits contain collections of gates
suited to a particular purpose.

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 Logic Gates

• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.

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 Logic Gates

AND GATE OR GATE

1 AND 0 = 0 1 OR 0 = 1 14
 Logic Gates

• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR)

gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

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 Logic Gates

XOR GATE XOR GATE

1 XOR 0 = 1 1 XOR 1 = 0 16
 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR are

two very important
gates. Their
symbols and truth
tables are shown
at the right.

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 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR are

known as universal
gates because they
are inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

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 Logic Gates

• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than

one output.
– A second output can be provided for the
complement of the operation.
– We’ll see more of this later.

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 Digital Components

• The main thing to remember is that

combinations of gates implement Boolean
functions.
• The circuit below implements the Boolean
function:

We simplify our Boolean expressions

so that we can create simpler circuits.
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 Combinational Circuits

• We have designed a circuit that implements the

Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified
output (almost) at the instant when input values
are applied.
– In a later section, we will explore circuits where this
is not the case.

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 Combinational Circuits

• Combinational logic circuits

give us many useful devices.
• One of the simplest is the
half adder, which finds the
sum of two bits.
• We can gain some insight as
to the construction of a half
adder by looking at its truth
table, shown at the right.

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 Combinational Circuits

• As we see, the sum can be

found using the XOR
operation and the carry
using the AND operation.

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Combinational Circuits

Half Adder
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 Sequential Circuits

• To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely

on feedback.
• Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output
is looped back to the input.
• A simple example of this concept is shown below.
– If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be
1. Why?

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 Sequential Circuits

• You can see how feedback works by examining

the most basic sequential logic components, the
SR flip-flop.
– The “SR” stands for set/reset.
• The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below,
along with its block diagram.

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 Sequential Circuits

• The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by

a characteristic table.
• Q(t) means the value of the output at time t.
Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock
pulse.

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 Sequential Circuits

SR flip-flop SR flip-flop
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 Sequential Circuits

• The SR flip-flop actually

has three inputs: S, R,
and its current output, Q.
• Thus, we can construct
a truth table for this
circuit, as shown at the
right.
• Notice the two undefined
values. When both S
and R are 1, the SR flip-
flop is unstable.

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 Sequential Circuits

• If we can be sure that the inputs to an SR flip-flop

will never both be 1, we will never have an unstable
circuit. This may not always be the case.
• The SR flip-flop can be modified to provide a
stable state when both inputs are 1.
• This modified flip-flop is
called a JK flip-flop,
shown at the right.
- The “JK” is in honor of
Jack Kilby.

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 Sequential Circuits

• At the right, we see

how an SR flip-flop
can be modified to
create a JK flip-flop.
• The characteristic
table indicates that
the flip-flop is stable
for all inputs.

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 Sequential Circuits

• Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D

flip-flop, shown below with its characteristic table.
• You will notice that the output of the flip-flop
remains the same during subsequent clock pulses.
The output changes only when the value of D
changes.

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 Sequential Circuits

• The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of

computer memory.
– D flip-flops are usually illustrated using the block
diagram shown below.
• The next slide shows how these circuits are
combined to create a register.

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 Conclusion

• Computers are implementations of Boolean logic.

• Boolean functions are completely described by
truth tables.
• Logic gates are small circuits that implement
Boolean operators.
• The basic gates are AND, OR, and NOT.
– The XOR gate is very useful in parity checkers and
adders.
• The “universal gates” are NOR, and NAND.

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 Conclusion

• Computer circuits consist of combinational

logic circuits and sequential logic circuits.
• Combinational circuits produce outputs (almost)
immediately when their inputs change.
• Sequential circuits require clocks to control their
changes of state.
• The basic sequential circuit unit is the flip-flop:
The behaviors of the SR, JK, and D flip-flops are
the most important to know.

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End

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