A PIG PRODUCTION MODULE TRAINING MANUAL FOR DILPOMA

STUDENTS

COMPILED BY

MICHAEL MZIREKELENGE NKOSI

(MSc. An.Sc.; BSc. Agric.; DIP. Agric.; Cert. Vet.Sc.)

NATURAL RESOURCES COLLEGE

TRAINING DEPARTMENT
P.O. BOX 143
LILONGWE
MALAWI
TEL: (265) 1 766644

DATE: 19TH AUGUST, 2005

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................II
1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
FACTORS DETERMINING PROFITABILITY OF PIG PRODUCTION.......................................1

POLICY OBJECTIVES FOR THE NATIONAL LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT........................1

TERMINOLOGY.....................................................................................................................................2

REASONS FOR KEEPING PIGS...........................................................................................................2

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION OF PIGS.....................................................................2

PIG POPULATION IN THE WORLD..................................................................................................3

PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA...........................................................................................................3

FACTORS LIMITING PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA..................................................................3

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE GETTING INTO PIG PRODUCTION................................3

MERITS OF PIG FARMING..................................................................................................................4

DEMERITS OF PIG FARMING............................................................................................................5

2. MAJOR PIG BREEDS.........................................................................................................................6

2.1 BREEDING AND SELECTION.......................................................................................................7

2.2 SELECTION.......................................................................................................................................7
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION PROGRESS...........................................................................8
2.3 SELECTION METHODS................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 SINGLE TRAIT METHODS........................................................................................................8
2.3.2 MULTIPLE TRAITS METHODS................................................................................................9
2.3.4 MATING SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................10
2.3.5 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BREEDING STOCK................................................................10
2.3.5.1 SELECTING A SOW..............................................................................................................11
2.3.5.2 SELECTING A BOAR............................................................................................................12
REASONS FOR CULLING THE HERD BOAR................................................................................12
HANDLING A HERD BOAR................................................................................................................13

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE BOAR..................14

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS...........................................................................................14

PROBLEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS.........................................................14
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.......................................................................14
GILT BREEDING MANAGEMENT...................................................................................................14
MANAGEMENT OF GILTS (SIX MONTHS ONWARDS)....................................................................14

PIG PRODUCTION ii
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ONSET OF OESTROUS..................................................................15
SIGNS OF HEAT IN GILTS AND SOWS.........................................................................................16
CARE OF THE PREGNANT GILT / SOW........................................................................................17
CONDUCT PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS:......................................................................................................17
3.1 SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE (TRADITIONAL) BACKYARD OR....................................18
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM (PIGS KEPT AS SCAVENGERS)........................................................................18
3.2 SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM.......................................................................................................19
3.3 OUT-DOOR SYSTEM..................................................................................................................19
3.4 INTENSIVE PRODUCTION........................................................................................................19
4.0 CHOOSING A SITE FOR THE PIGGERY: FACTORS TO CONSIDER................................20

6.0 FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF PIGS..........................................................................................20

FLUSHING AND GESTATION PHASE...........................................................................................21
FEEDING SOW/GILT DURING GESTATION.................................................................................21

DISTRIBUTION OF FEED OVER GESTATION..............................................................................21

ONE THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM...............................................................21
HALF GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM..........................................................................21
TWO-THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM.............................................................21
FLAT RATE FEEDING SYSTEM......................................................................................................21
FEEDING LACTATING SOW...........................................................................................................22
FARROWING PHASE........................................................................................................................22
7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE.....................................................................................23

MANAGEMENT OF THE SOW AND LITTER................................................................................23

PREPARATION FOR FARROWING................................................................................................23
SIGNS OF FARROWING...................................................................................................................24
FARROWING PROCESS...................................................................................................................24
FARROWING PROBLEMS................................................................................................................24
FARROWING FACTS AND FIGURES.............................................................................................25
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ATTENDANT DURING FARROWING............................................25
ARTIFICIAL REARING OF PIGLETS..............................................................................................25
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOSTER MOTHER..................................................................26
IRON DEFICIENCY SYNDROME OF PIGLETS.............................................................................26
PREVENTION OF PIGLET ANAEMIA............................................................................................26
TREATMENT......................................................................................................................................27
FEEDING PIGLETS............................................................................................................................27
FACTORS AFFECTING LITTER SIZE IN GILTS..........................................................................27

FACTORS AFFECTING MILK PRODCUTION IN A SOW OR GILT.........................................28

COMMON CAUSES OF PIGLET MORTALITY..............................................................................28

FEEDING REGIME SOON BEFORE WEANING............................................................................29

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS.....................................................................................31

HOW TO PREVENT PIGS FROM DUNGING IN THE SLEEPING AREA.................................31

CREEP FEEDING...............................................................................................................................33

PIG PRODUCTION iii

9. ANIMAL FEEDS AND FEEDING...................................................................................................35
9.1 UTILIZATION OF ENERGY PRESENT IN THE FEED............................................................35
9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE....................................................................................36
9.3 COMMON PIG FEEDS.................................................................................................................36
TYPES OF RATIONS REQUIRED BY PIGS....................................................................................38
9.4 FEED FORMULATION................................................................................................................39
9.5 METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION.....................................................................................39
EXAMPLES OF ON FARM FORMULATED PIG RATIONS USED AT NRC FARM..................42
FEED MANUFACTURING................................................................................................................43
FEEDMILL OPERATIONS................................................................................................................44
5.0 PIG HOUSING..................................................................................................................................44
FARROWING PEN..........................................................................................................................47
GROWING / FATTENING PENS....................................................................................................47
10. HEALTH AND DISEASES..............................................................................................................47
INFECTIOUS DISEASES...................................................................................................................48
PARASITES.........................................................................................................................................49
UDDER PROBLEMS.............................................................................................................................51

11. PIG IDENTIFICATION & RECORDING SYSTEMS................................................................54

SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................................55
PIG IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS...................................................................................................55
 ELECTRONIC IDENTIFICATION.....................................................................................................57
IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS...................................................................................................................57
TYPES OF RECORDS KEPT AT THE FARM..................................................................................58
12. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PIGS..............................................................................58
SLAUGHTER PROCEDURES...........................................................................................................59
 STUNNING................................................................................................................................59
 BLEEDING................................................................................................................................59
 SCALDING DEHAIRING.........................................................................................................60
 EVISCERATION.......................................................................................................................60
PIG MEAT AS HUMAN FOOD...........................................................................................................60

SYSTEMS OF MARKETING...............................................................................................................60

APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................................61

REFERENCE..........................................................................................................................................61

PIG PRODUCTION iv
1. INTRODUCTION
The Pig was first domesticated by the Chinese in about 4900 BC. The first use Pigs for
food probably occurred in the Neolithic age. Breeds of pigs came from two wild
stocks: the European wild pig (sus scrofa) and the East Indian wild pig (sus vittatus).
Pig production is a big business globally. The uses of improved breeds, good feeding,
management practices and disease control have been important factors in developing
the pig industry.

The major purpose of pig farming is the production of meat (pork, bacon, or fat.) The
secondary reason is the production of pigskin and manure.

What should one know about pigs?

 They are monogastrics
 They have fast growth rate
 They produce more than two litters per year
 The litter size ranges from 5 – 20 piglets
 They show heat signs every 21 days
 They are social animals
 They are fighters
 They are clean animals
 They are homeotherms
 They have little hair
 They have body insulation in fat form
 They are prone to stress

In Malawi, pig production is not a large-scale enterprise because of the following

reasons;

 Feeding is expensive.
 Religious and local beliefs may keep people from raising pigs.
 Diseases and disease control is a problem.

Factors determining Profitability of pig production

 Price of pig meat

 Production costs
 Efficiency levels

Breeding herd performance is the key factor to pig production. The following factors
should be taken care of:

 Conception rate
 Litter size
 Milk production in order to sustain the piglets.

PIG PRODUCTION 1
PIG PRODUCTION POLICY
It states that the government of Malawi wants to improve Pig production by promoting
increased availability of pigs, pig meat and products.

TERMINOLOGY

Sow: A female pig that has given birth to a litter or above.

Gilt/ Maiden: It is a female pig from weaning to time before farrowing or is one
that has never given birth to a litter before.

Boar: It is an uncastrated male pig usually used for breeding purposes.

Farrowing: It is the act of giving birth by a female pig.

Runt: It is the smallest undersized piglet in a litter.

Rig: Male pig with cryptorchidism.

Heavy Hogs: Fattened pigs weighing 120 kg and above live weight.

Barrow/Hog: It is a male pig castrated before secondary sexual characteristics

develop.

Stag: It is a male pig castrated after secondary sexual characteristics

have
developed.

Piglets/ Sucklings: These are young pigs of either sex before weaning.

Pork: Flesh pig meat from porkers weighing about 50- 60 kg live
weight.

Bacon: Salted or smoked (cured) pig meat from baconers weighing about
90
-120 kg live weight.

Creep Feed: Meal in pellet form given to piglets from 10th day.

Service crate: A crate or pen designed specially to accommodate two animals for
mating.

Thermo-neutral or Comfort zone: is the range of effective ambient temperatures

within which an animal does not have to increase normal metabolic heat production to
offset heat loss to the environment. The Thermo-neutral zone varies with livestock
species and may shift up and down as an animal becomes acclimatized to warmer or

PIG PRODUCTION 2
colder temperatures. E.g. as cattle gets accustomed to winter season their thermo-
neutral zone may shift downward as much as 15Oc. Feed efficiency is reduced when
the temperature is outside the animal’s comfort zone.

Upper critical temperature: is the temperature at which animals will show symptoms
of heat stress feed intake is generally lower as animals attempt to reduce the rate of
metabolic heat production.

Lower Critical temperature: is the temperature at which animals will show

symptoms of cold stress, feed intake increases as does metabolic heat production.

REASONS FOR KEEPING PIGS

1. For meat production
2. For manure
3. For production of industrial goods e.g. pig skin for leather; pig hair for brush.
4. For source of income
5. For Medical and Scientific research.
6. For prestige

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION OF PIGS

1. Feed availability for the pigs
2. Social and religious beliefs and customs
3. Climate: In hot areas pigs do not do well because they have no sweat glands.

PIG POPULATION IN THE WORLD

There are 935 million pigs worldwide. This translates into one pig per 7 people.
Europe 205.7 million
Rest of Asia 467.5 million
South America 56.1 million
N & Central America 93.5 million
Africa 18.7 million
Former Soviet Union 93.5 million
World Population 935 million

NB: Denmark and Europe generally has the best pigs in the world.

PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA

 Republic of South Africa
 Madagascar
 Mozambique
 Angola
 Seychelles

Malawi is not a big pigs producer in Africa she has a pig population of only 254,000

PIG PRODUCTION 3
FACTORS LIMITING PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA

1. CLIMATE: Pigs do not do well in very hot areas, as they do not possess sweat
glands.

2. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL BELIEFS: Moslem opposition towards

pigs limits pig industry expansion in Africa.

3. The Nomadic way of life in some parts of Africa

4. The general preference of other meats than pig’s meat.

5. Most governments in Africa do not provide loan schemes for pig production
hence lack of expansion of the pig industry.

6. Disease incidences e.g. African Swine Fever, Foot and Mouth disease.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE GETTING INTO PIG PRODUCTION

1. PROFITABILITY: Compare with other enterprises at the farm.

2. SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT: Is he/she going to use intensive or extensive

systems? Which breeds then, is he / she to use Baconers or Porkers?

3. CAPITAL AVAILABILITY

4. LABOUR SUPPLY

5. Market availability

6. FEEDSTUFFS AVAILABILITY: The Khola should be sited close to the

source of feedstuffs.

7. CLIMATE: consider temperature, rainfall and prevailing winds.

8. LAND AVAILABILITY-for future expansion

9. FARMERS’ EXPERIENCE: Is the farmer experienced in pig production?

Does he/she have technical know how?

MERITS OF PIG FARMING

PIG PRODUCTION 4
  Efficient conversion of animal feed to human feed – The pig is more
superior to beef cattle, goats and sheep when the feed provided is of high
quality. When the feed is of low quality e.g. rice bran, grass hay etc the pig is
not as efficient as ruminant livestock.

 Financially rewarding – The capital invested can be realized and turn over is
within a relatively short time. It takes 6 to 7 months of feeding a weaner pig to
raise it to a market weight of about 80 to 105 kg under average feeding and
management conditions in tropical climates.

 They are omnivores – Pigs are eaters of farm crop waste products and offals
of livestock and poultry that are converted efficiently into pork. Kitchen
leftovers and restaurant refuse can also be converted efficiently into meat. Pigs
can eat farm grain that has been damaged by rain.

 They can tolerate a wide range of feeds – Pigs of all classes of livestock
except young piglets can tolerate all kinds of feeds even to some extent low
quality highly fibrous foods.

 They are highly prolific – Because they are capable of producing large litters
after a short gestation period and have a short gestation interval, and grow
rapidly, they have high output of meat. A sow can easily produce a litter of 8 to
12 piglets after a relatively short gestation period of 112 – 124 days.

 Space requirement is comparatively small – Pigs need only a small space in

which to grow. Unlike beef and dairy cattle that require large area for pastures,
pigs can be raised in small area either in close confinement within a building or
a small area of pasture.

 High percentage of useful products per pig – Finished pigs can yield
between 70 – 75 % of dressed carcass, blood can be used for sausages, the skin
may be cooked to produce crackling which sales high in supermarkets, the
hairs are made into brushes, hoofs are made into glue and bones can be ground
into bone meal for livestock feed.

 They produce meat without contributing to the deterioration of the

natural grazing lands. There is no soil erosion or loss of productive land due
to overstocking and then overgrazing.

DEMERITS OF PIG FARMING

 Pork is not internationally accepted food – Consumption of pork is

forbidden by certain religions and pig production is not encouraged in Muslim
countries, whereas poultry and milk products are generally acceptable.

PIG PRODUCTION 5
  Pollution – Since they tend to be raised close to human habitation, their
effluent may cause pollution problems. With backyard production, pigs tend to
drop manure anywhere thereby making the surrounding of these communities
swarm with flies, which could cause pollution and diseases. To minimize this
pollution, the pig manure could be utilized in the formation of methane gas.

 Susceptibility to parasites and diseases – This is common under traditional

scavenging system of raising pigs. Scavenging pigs are carriers of diseases e.g.
swine cholera, swine fever etc. In tropical countries, the climatic environment
encourages the development and spread of parasites throughout the year. In
temperate countries seasonal climatic changes reduce the overall incidence of
parasites and diseases.

 Competition with people for food grains – Large-scale pig producers use
large quantities of grain because there is a fast turnover of the capital invested
in pig production. As a result, maize and other grains are sometimes hoarded
because they command better prices as pig feeds than as human food.

2. MAJOR PIG BREEDS

 LARGE WHITE or YORKHSIRE

This breed Originated from Yorkshire City. The present Large White breed was
developed in U K by selecting and crossing Yorkshire and White Leicester pigs. Large
White sows are prolific giving large litter sizes with good mothering ability. The Large
White breed is easily recognized by its medium sized head, long disked face and snout
and erect ears. It grows quickly, reaching bacon weight in 180 days or less and convert
feed efficiently. They are white to pinkish coloured. Boars weigh 150 kg and Sows
weigh 125 kg on average. Mature weight 200- 300 kg. Good tempered pigs; high daily
gains they are already 100 kg at six months (therefore they have high feed conversion
efficiency. This breed is ideal for bacon or pork production and for crossbreeding with
Landrace or Hampshire. High prolificacy about a litter of 12, Very hardy breed- can be
kept outdoors or under average management. The major disadvantages of this breed
are heavy shoulders that yield tough meat; the long legs do not put on more meat and
are weak.

 LANDRACE
The breed Originated from Denmark and is characterized by white colour with few
dark spots at times. They have smaller faces with no discs and ears droop forwards and
cover the face. Land races have light shoulders and small head so give good meat.

CONFORMATION:
Land races have longer sides than Large White and have broad with deep hams.

It has normally poor mothering ability e.g. crushing piglets and clumsy, prolific with
good litter size and is good for Bacon. Given proper feeding and management,

PIG PRODUCTION 6
Landrace will grow well in the tropics. The breed is used for crossing with other
temperate type.

The disadvantages range from back problems, Sunburn (photosensitization) to not

hardy so require high management.

 DUROC
The breed Originated from USA, characterized by solid colours that range from a very
golden to dark red that approaches the colour of mahogany. It produces the best
muscle quality and has the lowest incidence of stress mortality. It’s mothering ability
and litter size is average. Its major problem is that of its front legs. It can adapt well to
varied environmental conditions and ability to thrive well even on plain kitchen refuse.
The high rate of pig mortality in the tropics has led to many pig farmers to replace
other temperate breeds with Duroc because of its hardness.

 CHESTER WHITE
The breed Originated from Yorkshire and Linconshire. It is solid white in colour,
large, hardy and fairly good feeder. Farrowing and litter size is similar to Large
White, but with the best conception rate. The growth rate is slow compared to
other breeds.

YORSHIRE CHESTER WHITE

 BERKSHIRE
The breed Originated from England. It is a black breed with a white flash over a
dished face, erect ears and white markings on the feet. Sows are not very prolific, that
is why this breed is not popular.

 HAMPSHIRE
The breed Originated from Wessex in Southern England. As a pure breed, it is not a
prolific breed but when crossed with Large White. Hampshire is a black pig with a
white belt around the forequarter of the body. Other features are a long straight face
with erect ears. They have fairly arched back. They are good for bacon. They are hardy
and do not suffer from sunburn or photosensitization. The major demerits are
nervousness, low prolificacy and difficulty in heat detection hence difficult breeding.

 TRISTAR
They incorporated Landrace, Large White and Duroc breeds to come up with this
breed.
The breed is hardy and adaptable to all environments.

PIG PRODUCTION 7
The breed has excellent maternal characteristics.
The breed has also improved piglet viability.
It is stress free.

2.1 BREEDING AND SELECTION

The goal of pig production improvement is to breed sows that will produce efficiently
under local husbandry and management conditions.

2.2 SELECTION
In order to improve the average level of production in the herd, pigs must be subjected
to selection for one or more traits of economic importance to the farmer. Selection
could be defined as the process of choosing some individuals in preference to others as
the parents of the next generation. Selection is the basic method used by both nature
and humans to change the attributes of animals.

To make the breeding programme succeed:

 The objectives must be realistic (attainable)
 There has to be a commitment to allow a reasonable period of time (several years
usually) for selection to work.

Genetic consequences of selection are that the genes of those selected animals are
preferred. This has the effect of changing the frequency of the alleles carried in that
population.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION PROGRESS

 Selection differential (S), the average superiority of the selected parents relative to
their contemporaries (in the herd, flock or population).

 Heritability (h2), the proportion of the superiority of the selected parents which
appears in the offspring.

 Generation interval (I), the time interval between successive generations in which
selection can be made. It has an important bearing on the rate (speed) of genetic
improvement. The shorter the interval the faster the improvement (if other things
equal) e.g. cattle 4 - 7 years, goats 3- 5 years, pigs 2 – 4 years.

Genetic progress ® = S X h2 = I X SD X h2 to find annual progress divide this by I.

When selecting pigs for breeding, it is important to look only for features that affect
production i.e. good meat quality, litter size.

PIG PRODUCTION 8
2.3 SELECTION METHODS

2.3.1 SINGLE TRAIT METHODS

 INDIVIDUAL SELECTION / PERFORMANCE TESTING / Mass

SELETION

This is the simplest selection method. Animals are chosen on the basis of their own
performance. Animals from different herds and different environments to be tested are
put together under the same conditions of feeding and management. This is called
performance testing. This is used for measuring traits that can be measured such as
growth; efficiency of feed conversion, production etc. This is mostly used for selection
of suitable breeding males.

 FAMILY SELECTION
Selection is on the average value for the family and takes no separate account of
individuals; whole families are chosen or rejected. This has advantages over individual
selection when heritability of the trait under selection is low; resemblance among
family members is not high on account a common environment and the family size is
large.

 Pedigree Selection

A pedigree is a record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its parents. In

this method, selection is based on the ancestors. This method is of value if the pedigree
information is complete. Where individual animal data is not available, pedigree
information is most useful.

 Selection On The Basis Of Collateral Relatives

This is the use of individual’s brothers, sisters, cousins, uncles, aunts, etc in selecting
the individual animal. This is most useful when family size is large, when traits are
highly inherited, when there is close genetic relationship between members of the
family and when generation interval is short such as in poultry.

 Progeny Testing

Selection on this basis means that the breeder makes a decision to cull or keep a sire or
dam based on the average performance of their offspring as compared to the average
performance of the progeny of contemporary sires and dams.

2.3.2 MULTIPLE TRAITS METHODS

There are three methods of including more than one trait in a selection programme:

 TANDEM SELECTION

PIG PRODUCTION 9
Where one trait is improved to the desired level first followed by the next trait, and the
next and so on.
Tandem Selection is a method by which a single trait is used as the selection criterion
for one or more generations. The trait used as the selection criterion in each generation
is rotated among all traits of the selection criteria in successive generations. Each trait
follows in a tandem fashion until all traits have been used as the selection criterion.
For example, a breeder may have an objective of increasing growth rate, decreasing
back fat, and increasing litter size. In the first generation, selection would be for the
fastest growing hogs. This is followed in tandem in the second generation by selecting
the leanest hogs (lowest back fat). In the third generation, hogs from the largest litters
are selected. Then a new round of rotation is started.

Tandem selection is frequently described as a simple method of selection because only

one trait must be evaluated in any generation. The drawback with this method is that
some animals with a greater total number of desirable genes (more closely aligned
with the overall breeding objective) may not be selected because it may be inferior to
other animals in the trait currently being used as the selection criterion. Also, the
greatest response for any trait occurs during those generations when it is the criterion,
hence response is sporadic. In addition, if there are negative correlations among traits,
improvements achieved by selection for one trait in earlier generations may be
cancelled out by correlated losses in subsequent generations. Tandem selection is not a
recommended method of achieving maximum response to selection.

 INDEPENDENT CULLING LEVELS

Whereby a particular performance level is set for each of the traits and no animal is
selected for breeding if it falls below these levels in any of the traits under
consideration.

 INDEX SELECTION
Whereby, the traits are combined to provide a single criterion of overall merit. This is
closer to what the farmers really want. With selection on an index, deficiencies in any
one trait can be compensated for by outstanding good performance in other traits, an
option that is not open in the method of independent culling levels.

2.3.3 TRAITS
These are desirable characteristics of economic importance to the farmer seen in a
particular animal.

They could be classified as Qualitative or quantitative traits.

Qualitative traits are those for which inheritance is usually controlled by one or two
pairs of genes. Quantitative traits are those attributes of animals for which
inheritance is usually controlled by multiple genes.

PIG PRODUCTION 10
2.3.4 MATING SYSTEMS

 INBREEDING

This is the mating of close relatives. To be very correct, it means mating of individuals
that are more closely related in descent than randomly chosen mates. The chance are
that the more the relationship the more the individuals will posses characteristics in
common. Inbreeding increases homozygosity because the number of genes common is
increased in every generation.

 LINE BREEDING

This is the term used to describe the system of inbreeding that ensures that outstanding
traits in one ancestor are transmitted to descendants without the undesirable effects
normally associated with inbreeding.

 CROSSBREEDING

The system of mating of unrelated livestock is called crossbreeding. One can use criss
cross or back crossing methods in cross breeding. The crossbred progeny are better
than the parents in production, health, and hardness. This is called heterosis or hybrid
vigour.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSSBREEDING

 Indigenous low producing livestock can be upgraded by continuously

backcrossing them to more highly exotic breeds.

 Crossbreeding indigenous and exotic breeds after mating several generations

creates new and more productive breeds.

 Heterosis is realized.

 UPGRADING

This is used when a livestock owner wishes to change the characteristics of his
animals or a system used to change a population quickly from one breed type to
another. After four generations, there is little difference between the graded up and the
superior pure breed.

2.3.5 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BREEDING STOCK

Breeding stock are animals solely kept for breeding purposes. A planned selection and
breeding program results in more of the meatier pigs, that are demanded the most in
today’s markets. Meatier pigs are profitable. They reach the right kind of finish at
market weights. A certain criterion has to be used to identify suitable breeding stock.

PIG PRODUCTION 11
PARTS OF A PIG
LIVE PIG: To describe a pig it is necessary to know the parts of the pig: tail, rump,
loin, back, shoulder, neck, ear, eye, face, snout, jowl, length of side, ham, stifle, hock,
rear leg, dew claw, foot, rear flank, fore flank, fore rib, fore arm, pastern, fore leg,
knee.

CARCASS: Less than half (45.5%) of the live weight of the hog is made up of the
four primal cuts. The four primal cuts are: the picnic shoulder, loin boston and ham.
These are four highest priced cuts on the pig carcass. They represent about 75% of the
retail value of the carcass. To do a better selection one should know the location of
these primal cuts on the pig.

SELECTING A HERD BOAR

One-half of the traits inherited by the offspring in a herd come from the herd boar.
This makes the selection of the herd boar one of the most important decisions made by
the pig producer. More improvement in the type of pigs produced can result from
careful boar selection than from any other practice.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING THE HERD BOAR

1. Reproductive soundness
2. type and quality
3. performance testing results
4. pedigree
5. health
6. age
7. show ring performance

REPRODUCTIVE SOUNDNESS
1. Select a boar that has visibly sound reproductive organs. The testicles should
be well developed and of equal size. Do not select boars that have umbilical or
scrotal hernias.
2. Select boars that are aggressive and show a desire to mate (libido).

TYPE AND QUALITY

1. Select a boar that has traits of a meaty pig. Length, loin eye area and back fat
thickness have high heritability. The boar with desirable traits in these tends to
pass them on to his offspring.
2. Other traits that can be visually evaluated are soundness of the feet and legs,
underline, trimness, smoothness, balance and muscling. Ruggedness, frame and
body capacity can also be seen.

PERFORMANCE TESTING RESULTS

Typically two to three animals from the same litter, weighing from 13.6 – 22.7 kg are
sent to the testing station. The animals are treated for external and internal parasites,
vaccinated and given a health check on arrival. The animals are kept together by litter
in separate pens. All animals on test are fed the same ration under the same conditions.

PIG PRODUCTION 12
Stations provide valuable information on a number of traits such as: age at 104 kg,
amount of back fat, adjusted average daily gain, feed efficiency and the carcass quality
of litter mates, the loin eye area as measured by sonoray may also be available.

PEDIGREE
A pedigree shows the ancestry of the boar. It can be valuable when performance
testing information is available on close ancestors of the boar. The pedigree provides
some help in determining the potential breeding value of the boar.

HEALTH
The health of the herd from which the boar comes is important. Buy only healthy
boars from healthy herds. The boar should have a negative blood test for brucellosis,
leptospirosis and pseudo-rabies. He should be vaccinated for Erysipelas. Boars should
be purchased only if they are free of external and internal parasites. Herd health
information should be available from the boar.

AGE
Boars should not be used for breeding purposes before they are nine months of age
often a boar is used when it is too young because it looks like it is large enough.
Replacement boars should be bought 30 to 60 days before they are to be used. This
permits isolation for health checks. Also they can adjust to the farm and can be test
mated for breeding performance.

SHOW RING PERFORMANCE

Carcass barrow shows provide valuable information on the littermates of boars. Pig
producers enter barrows that weigh from 13.6 – 31.8 kg in the barrow carcass contest.
They are fed uniform rations under same conditions for a period of period of
approximately 118 days. The fastest gaining one third of barrows complete live in
national barrow show. All the barrows are slaughtered. Barrows are evaluated on
soundness, rate of growth and carcass merit. Many breeders find that showing the pigs
helps to identify those lines that are producing good traits.

REASONS FOR CULLING THE HERD BOAR

Old age, clumsy and vicious boars.
Lack of libido
Injured Boars
Back weakness especially in Land races
To prevent inbreeding in case all the Gilts are from the same Boar.
Due to diseases e.g. Brucellosis
If progeny has parental defects e.g. Hydrocelle, Hydrocephalous (fluid in the
brain)
Lack of fertility

PIG PRODUCTION 13
HANDLING A HERD BOAR
After weaning, Boars should grow together with the Gilts up to the fourth month.
Separate the Boars from the gilts after the four months. They reach puberty and cause
restlessness to the gilts.

At six months they have sex desire and can make gilts pregnant. For practical purposes
use them from 6-8 months while they weigh 80 – 110 kg live weight. You can use
them at one service per week. Boars reach mature age at one year old. At ten months
use them 2 to 3 services a week and rest them for a week.

When they are one year old use them daily for 2 -3 weeks and rest them for one to two
weeks to regain condition. The Boar can remain in the unit for 5 – 6 years and can be
culled due to other reasons apart from service.

Rear Boars separate to avoid fighting. Mature Boars become clumsy and lazy
especially if they are very fat and old hence work gently with them. To avoid this
clumsy behaviour accommodate the Boars where they can see and hear the sows and
gilts as this behaviour comes as a result of loneliness. This accommodation also helps
the Sows to express their heat signs faster. The floor of the pen should not be slippery
and slightly rough.

ROUTINES:
1. Hoof trimming
2. Regular removal of Boar tusks
3. Feeding Boar and Sow ration as follows:

NOT WORKING BOAR- Feed 2.2 kg / day

LIGHT WORKING BOAR- Feed 2.8 kg / day
WORKING TO CAPACITY- Feed 3.5 kg / day

The amount of feed depends on age and frequency of usage. However, the Boars
should be maintained healthy not too fat or too thin. The figures above can be reduced
if he is too fat.

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE

BOAR
1. Boars to be used when they have an empty stomach thus before feeding.
2. Double or triple service per day when the Boar has stayed for some time.
3. Mating to take place in a quiet place.
4. Use matched couples.
5. Observe the service and record, but do not disturb.
6. Over-using the Boar will wear him too soon while under-using will make him
too fat and lazy
7. Young and inexperienced Boars make the Sow not pregnant and annoyed.
Such Boars should be given experienced Sows on standing heat.

PIG PRODUCTION 14
 8. The length of service should be up to 30 minutes as long as the Sow is not
tired.
9. Number of Sows per Boar is 15 – 20. It is recommended to have two Boars in
case of injury.

SELECTING GILTS AND SOWS

It is just as important to select good gilts and sows as it is to select a good boar.
Factors to be considered when selecting gilts and sows are:
 soundness
 conformation
 litter size
 gain and feed efficiency
 health

SOUNDNESS
 An animal that is sound is free of defects
 Select gilts and sows that show normal development of the reproductive
system
 Gilts with small vulvas should not be kept
 This is an indication of internal reproductive system
 Sows that have problems in farrowing should be culled from the herd.
 Gilts should be have at least seven good teats on each side
 The udder sections need to be well spaced
 Do not select gilts with inverted or scarred nipples
 Select gilts with strong pasterns and sound feet and legs.
CONFORMATION
 Good gilts have good length
 They show smooth muscling in the ham and shoulders
 Measure back fat thickness with a probe or by sonoray
 Select only gilts that meet the standards for the meaty hogs.
DAILY GAIN
 The fastest growing gilts should be kept for use as herd replacements
 When buying gilts, obtain data on gain and feed efficiency
 A goal that is being used as a standard by many producers is 104 kg in 175
days or less.

LITTER SIZE
 Select gilts from large litters
 The ability of the sow to raise large litters is some indication of the mothering
ability of the sow
 Mothering ability is a desirable trait
 Cull sows from family lines that have small litters
 Difficulty in farrowing and poor milking ability lead to small litters. Cull sows
with these traits.
HEALTH

PIG PRODUCTION 15
  Good health is very important in any pig keeping enterprise, for pigs that grow
slowly due to ill-health cost the farmer dearly through feeding.

 Indicators of health are: appetite, growth, and size. Pigs that are alert will
quickly come to the trough and are growing fast, should be selected for future
breeding.
 Select only healthy gilts and sows. The sow should be free from Zoonosis and
Notifiable diseases of Swine.
 Obtain information on the herd health when buying gilts
 The gilts should be tested for brucellosis, Leptospirosis and pseudo-rabies
 An advantage of selecting replacement gilts from the home herd is that there is
less chance of bringing disease into the herd

SOW PRODUCTIVITY INDEX

Records are needed on number of pigs born alive, number of pigs weaned, litter
weight at 21 days of age, and number of litters per sow per year. A sow productivity
index can be determined from this information. The number of live pigs farrowed is a
good measure of the prolificacy of the sow. The 21 day litter weight indicates the
mothering ability of the sow.

A sow ratio may be determined by dividing the individual sow’s index by the average
index for her group and multiplying by 100. For example if the group average index
were 192.6 and the individual sow’s index were 211.5, then her ratio would be 109.8 {
[211.5 / 192.6] x 100}. This would mean that this sow is approximately 9.8% better
than the average for the group. The average ratio for the group is always 100.If the
sow’s ratio were 90, then she would be considered 10% below the group average.

Improvement for the traits measured by the productivity index can be made by culling
sows in the lower 25% of the group and saving sows in the top 25%.

SELECTING FEEDER PIGS

Common sources of feeder pigs are pig hatcheries, farmers, auction barns and dealers
who buy and sell feeder pigs. Factors to consider when buying feeder pigs are:
 Health
 Type
 Size
 Uniformity

1. HEALTH
Only healthy pigs should be purchased. Pigs that have visible signs of sickness, such
as coughing, infected eyes, rough hair coats, pot bellies, gauntness or listless
appearance should not be selected. Pigs should be de-wormed, tail docked and
castrated. Do not buy pigs that show signs of external parasites.
2. TYPE

PIG PRODUCTION 16
Meaty feeder pigs will produce the kind of carcass in demand on the market. Short, fat
pigs will be over-finished when reach market weight.
3. SIZE
Feeder pigs usually range from 15.9 – 36 kg in weight. Select pigs that have good size
for their age. Size for age is more important than condition or fatness when selecting
feeder pigs.

UNIFORMITY
Uniformity in size, age, condition and type is desirable in a group of pigs. When these
traits are uniform, the pigs will feed out well together. All the pigs in the groups will
tend to reach market weight at about the same time.

JUDGING PIGS
A pig judge must know the parts of the live pig and the wholesale cuts of the carcass.
To judge a class of pigs, look at them from a distance of about 15 feet. Judge them as
they move around the ring. Look at each hog and compare it with the ideal hog and the
others in the class.

1. MARKET PIGS
They are judged on the following traits:
 Type
 Muscling
 Finish
 Fill
 Yield of lean cuts

TYPE: Refers to the conformation of pig’s body. It is judged on the basis of length of
side and scale (skeletal size). The length of side has little effect on the carcass value. It
is related to growth rate and the productivity of the sow.

To estimate the length of side, look at the distance from a point in the center of the
ham to the forepart of the shoulder. On the carcass this would be the same as
measuring from the front of the aitchbone (hip bone) to the front of the first rib. A 91
kg pig range in length from 66 – 83.8 cm. meaty pigs are 74.9 cm or longer. A short
pig is never considered a good meaty pig regardless of the muscling, finish or balance.

MUSCLING: This is best observed by examining the pig from the rear, the pig should
show a wide back and loin and a deep rump. The ham should be deep, thick and firm
and the chest and shoulders should be wide. Width must be due muscling and not fat.
Looking across the top of the back, the correct shape is an arc rather than square.
There is greater width across the rump and ham than there is across the back. The ham
is the widest part of the body. Narrowness in this area indicates poor muscling. Loin-
eye area is a good indicator of muscling. This is measured at the tenth rib on the
carcass. The range on the loin-eye area is 12.9 to 45.2 cm. meaty pigs have a loin-eye
area of 29 cm or more.

PIG PRODUCTION 17
FINISH: Refers to the amount of fat on the pig. Some fat is desirable, excessive fat is
undesirable. Fat is judged by the amount of back fat measured at three points along the
top of the pig. The three points that are measured are: over the shoulder (the first rib)
over the loin (the last rib) and over the rump (the last lumber vertebra)

The average back fat on a 104 kg pig ranges from 2.76 – 7.6 cm. US No. 1 pigs have
less than 3.8 cm of back fat. The most desirable back fat is 2.03 – 3.3 cm. actual
measurements of back fat are not taken when judging pigs. Some visible signs of too
much fat are heavy, wasty jowl, shaky middle, square top, looseness in the ham and
crotch or a roll of fat over the shoulder.

FILL: Refers to the middle of the pig. If the pig has too much middle, it has lower
dressing percent. The percent of lean cuts will also be lower. This lowers the market
value of the pig.

THE YIELD OF LEAN CUTS

Is an important factor in the value of a market pig. The wholesale cuts with the
greatest value are the Ham (leg), Loin, Picnic shoulder, Boston shoulder and Bacon
(belly). A meaty pig yields more than 40% of its live weight in the lean cuts.

QUALITY: Refers to the degree of refinement of the head, hair, hide and bone of the
live pig. The head and bone should be moderate in refinement. Pigs that are too coarse
or too refined are not desirable. The hair coat should be smooth. The hide should be
smooth and free of wrinkles.

BALANCE: Means how the body parts are proportioned. All parts of the body should
be in proportion to one another. A well balanced pig will be tight framed.

STYLE: Refers to how the pig appeals to the eye. Balance influences style. A tight-
framed pig that moves well, with the correct arch, has style.

SMOOTHNESS: Means possessing correct skeletal structure and a skin free of

wrinkles. The correct arch and smooth shoulder are important points to look for. Pigs
with rough skins or roughness over the shoulders are undesirable.

2. BREEDING PIGS
Breeding pigs should have the same body traits as market pigs. In addition, the
following points are used in judging breeding pigs:
 Underline
 Breed character
 Soundness
UNDERLINE: Refers to the mammary development of the pig. There should be a
minimum of six teats per side. The nipples should not show any defects such as
being inverted or scarred. The boar should also show evidence of six teats to a
side. The trait is transmitted to his offspring.

PIG PRODUCTION 18
 BREED CHARACTER: Refers to the traits of the breed to which the pig
belongs. Boars should show masculinity, gilts should show femininity. Breed
character is most easily seen by looking at the head. A good judge is familiar with
the characteristics of the breed of the pigs.

SOUNDNESS: Of the feet and legs is most important for breeding pigs. Many
producers use concrete floors. The pigs must have good feet and legs to do well
under these conditions: the legs must be strong and straight and should be set out
well on the corners of the pig.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS

The system is common in West Europe and is used on commercial basis. Semen
collected is used within 3 days. It is under experimental basis in Africa.

PROBLEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS

Poor survival of the Boar sperms if stored beyond 3 days.
It is not easy to detect heat in Gilts and some Sows.
Diluents (Extenders) at the moment in pigs have not yet been discovered to
prolong viability of the sperms.
Freezing kill the sperms unlike in bulls.
Problems with A.I. encountered in bulls also apply to pigs.

ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

A farmer with less than 13 Sows may find it economical to use A. I. than
keeping a Boar.
It is good means of disease control.
There is faster genetic improvement. Natural service gives 800 piglets / year
while A.I. can give 20000 piglets / year.

GILT BREEDING MANAGEMENT

Breed them early preferably 7 – 8 months.
Use Gilts from good mothers
Feed them to just maintain good body condition (not too fat or too thin)

MANAGEMENT OF GILTS (Six Months Onwards)

Gilts are selected along two types of lines:

 DAM LINES
In these lines, pigs are selected for their ability to produce large numbers of pigs or
for their mothering ability.

 SIRE LINES
In these lines, pigs are selected for good growth rates and the efficiency with
which they use their feed and convert it into lean meat.

PIG PRODUCTION 19
  Select gilts for breeding when they are 90 kg live weight at about 8 months of
age. Gilts should not be bred when they are less than 8 months of age or less
than 120 kg.

 Gilts become sexually mature between 5 and 6 months, and will accept the
boar at this age.

 Early mating causes a great strain on the gilt and may seriously affect her
growth and health. Pigs come on heat every 21-day interval throughout the
year though gilts tend to have a shorter heat period that last for about 12 – 36
hours.

 Counting from the day of first service as day one, the gestation period is
normally 114 days.

 The average length of gestation is 113 – 116 days. But it can vary between 98 –
124 days.

Gilts tend to have a shorter gestation period. The shorter the duration of gestation, the
larger the litter size. This could be because of greater weight of uterine contents and
greater hormone production by larger litter.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ONSET OF OESTROUS

 NUTRITION

Gilts need to be fed well for them to come on heat. Where the Gilt is on a low level of
nutrition, she will put the maintenance of her body condition first over coming on heat.
Gilts should not be allowed to become too fat as they may not come on heat or can
develop leg problems. If you underfeed them they will reach puberty one week later.

 GENOTYPE OF THE GILT

Crossbreeds reach puberty a bit earlier than inbreed pigs (about 20 days earlier)

 HEALTH

Gilts that are in poor health or that are carrying large numbers of parasites may be
slow to come on heat.

 STRESS
Stress such as poor housing conditions, rough handling and over crowding will
delay puberty in gilts. If pigs are mixed up from different litters they tend to
reach puberty earlier or if transported the same thing applies (happen).

 BOAR CONTACT

PIG PRODUCTION 20
 Boars produce chemicals in their saliva called pheromones that help to bring gilts
and sows on heat. Once gilts reach a weight of 100 kg contact with the boar is
important. Try to bring the gilts to a pen beside the boar pen for 20 – 30 minutes
daily. Research has shown that gilts in contact with (closer to) a Boar reached
puberty 40 days earlier than their counterparts that had no Boar contact (away from
Boar).

 LIGHT
Pigs are long day breeders i.e. they do not breed or are not as prolific during
the short days in winter. They need artificial lighting of 14 – 16 hours daily.

SIGNS OF HEAT IN GILTS AND SOWS

 Restlessness
 Swelling, reddening and enlargement of the vulva
 Mucus discharge from the vulva.
 With white breeds the vulva may change to pinky red colour, which makes
detection quite easy.
 Confined sows will spend less time lying down.
 Sows will be more alert and the ears will stand up.
 Sows will allow the boar or sow to mount them.
 They will exhibit a standing reflex; they will adopt an immobile posture when
pressure is applied to the back.
 Loss of appetite (anorexia)
 Some gilts will make a grunt noise

Serving should take place during the first day that heat is observed and should be
repeated 12 – 24 hours latter. Check gilts three weeks after service for those who
return on service.

PIG PRODUCTION 21
SERVICE MANAGEMENT- THE SOW
For a sow that has already started reproductive life the cycle really starts with weaning
not service. This is because the hormones of lactation prevent the start up of the sow’s
oestrous cycle. Soon after weaning, pressure in the sow’s udder (of unconsumed milk)
will stop its secretion. No more lactogenic hormone will mean that the oestrous cycle
can start (with the sow coming on heat about four days after weaning). If she is not
served or does not hold to service, the cycle will come round regularly every 21 days
afterwards.
This is the area where most pig units do not place enough emphasis. To bring the
point home more forcefully let’s imagine a 20 Sow herd weaned at 3 weeks. If all 20
sows come on heat exactly 5 days later and held to first service the average weaning to
service interval would be:

W
e I 9
a f 5
n O d
i N a
n E y
g s
t s
o o
s w
e r
r e
v t
i u
c r
e n
i e
n d
t b
e u
r t
v w
a a
l s
= s
5 u
d c
a c
y e
s s
s
f

PIG PRODUCTION 22
 u
ll
y
s
e
r
v
e
d
2
1
d
a
y
s
l
a
t
e
r,
H
E
R

w
e
a
n
i
n
g
t
o
s
e
r
v
i
c
e
i
n
t
e
r
v

PIG PRODUCTION 23
 a
l
w
o
u
l
d
b
e
5
+
2
1
d
a
y
s
=
2
6
d
a
y
s
.

T
h
a
t
w
o
u
l
d
a
f
f
e
c
t
t
h
e
w
h

PIG PRODUCTION 24
 o
l
e
2
0
s
o
w
s
li
k
e
t
h
i
s
:

1
9
s
o
w
s
x
5
d
a
y
s
w
e
a
n
i
n
g
t
o
s
e
r
v
i
c
e

PIG PRODUCTION 25
 (
5
+
2
1
d
a
y
s
)
=

1 sow x26 days weaning to service interval

= 26 days

PIG PRODUCTION 26
Total 121 days
for
20
sows
=
Milk intake of piglets 6.05 days
(kg /day)65- That is ONE ex
61.0Average (121/20
sows) = Therefore, we n
 Every sow
 Every sow
 Every sow
 Every sow

 CARE OF
Gestation perio

Conduct pregna
Traditio
Microsc
Ultraso
3. SYS

o
EXTENSIV

This is the com

 It is the
and whe

 They ca

 They m
waste, i

 Sometim

 Indigen

 DISAD

 Poor rep


PIG PRODUCTION 27
  Poor gr

 Pigs are
when he

 These p
cash sho

 Disease

 The farm

 The sys


1.

 Commo
pigs.

 Pens or

 Feeding

 Manage

 Improv

 Marketi

 Herd siz
1.
3.3 OUT-DOO
Pigs are kept on

DISADVANTA
1. It is exp
2. The she
3. The sys
4. There is
5.
6. ADVAN
 The sys
 Pigs can
o
3.4 INTENSIV

PIG PRODUCTION 28
  This sys

 In temp
need a r

 Units m

 The sys
feed and

 In orde
measure

 Pigs use

 Marketi

 ADVAN
 Disease
 You req
 There a

 DISAD
 The sys

 4.0 CHO

1. WIND:
2.
3. DRAIN
4.
5.
6. ACCES
7.
8. WATER
9.
10.
11. SITE: S
12.
13. MARK
14.
15. 6.0 FEE

During the nur

Water should b

PIG PRODUCTION 29
 FLUSHING AN

During the pre

season. Flushin
enhances the ca
per day, but sho

A week before
should be reduc

FEEDING SOW
1. Aim at
2. Do not
3. In pig s
4. And if n
5.
6. DISTRI

ONE THIRD G
0 –5 W
5 –10 W
10 – 16

One thi

HALF GESTA
Feed is
0 –8 W
8 – To e

TWO-THIRD G
The firs
is reduc

FLAT RATE F
The sow
/ Day.

FEEDING LAC

A generally acc

Example: A so
Sow
10 pigle

PIG PRODUCTION 30
 Total

Watch the sow

The feeding of

 They w

 After w
mating.

 They w

 They ha

o

A week before

 To ena
 For lar
 For ade
 To wea

 Three d
her sto

7.2 FACTORS

 APPET

 This is
which h

 To coun

 TEMPE

 Temper

 WATER

 Sows w

 MANA

PIG PRODUCTION 31
 PREPARATIO

 The pen sho

 Remove old

 Scrap the fl

 Use disinfe

 Allow the p

 Bring clean

 Wash the p

 About 2 – 3

 . Gilts will

 Change the
that will ca

 Restriction

 Add bran to
6.
SIGNS OF FA

 The sow

 Abdom

 The vul

 Milk ca

 About 3

 Change

 NB The

o

The whole farr

PIG PRODUCTION 32
 first and the sec

FARROWING

 The pro
observe

 Delayed
has bee
been ex

o

 Averag
 Averag
 Pigs are

o
 Assist the p

 Assist pigle

 Free some p

 Remove aft

 Call a veter

 Let the pig

 Hold them

 Clip off the

 Weigh the p

 Identificatio

ARTIFICIAL R
 If there are

 If there is d

 Agalactic s

 Unwillingn

PIG PRODUCTION 33
 8. SOM
 The foster m

 The foster m

 It should be

 The foster m

 NB: To avo
oil. The sow

 If you have
 0.6 L cow o

 0.3 L lime w

 1 Tablespoo

 One teaspo

 One Teaspo

 Mix them a
whole milk

 IRON DEF
Piglets are born
iron through iro

PREVENTION
After 14- 21 da

 Pale mucou

 Diarrhea

 Stunted gro

 Anorexia (l

 At 4 –6 wee
10. TRE
 Give iron in

 Give the iro

PIG PRODUCTION 34
 
 Give iron th

 Mixture of
iron or ferro

FEEDING PIG

 From birth

 From 4th da

 From 8th to

 8th week we

 FACTORS

 AGE A
heats pa

 EITHER
conditio

 FLUSH
due to t

 TIMING
 Breed G

 DISEA

 NUTRI

 HORM

 FACTO

 LITTER SI
 The larger t

 Number of
Milk 8 6-7 0.9
yiel
d
(kg /

PIG PRODUCTION 35
day)
8- 10 7-8 0.8
90.7
12
 LACTATION NUMBER
Milk production increases as lactation numbers increase.

Lact Milk yield

ation (kg/day)
num
ber

1 5-6

2 7 3 7
- -
8 8

 STAGE OF LACTION
Soon after farrowing milk yield is low but increases until it reaches the peak
between 3rd – 5th week then it decreases to 8th week then wean the piglets.

 SOW FEEDING
The sow needs maximum feeding from 1st to 5th week as she will be at its lactation
peak. Poor feeding of the sow makes her to use her body reserves and at weaning time
she will be too thin and delayed oestrous for the next service would be the sequel. So
give an allowance of 0.25 kg of feed for every piglet to the sow’s ration. Say a sow
with nine piglets will be given 3.0 kg + (9 x 0.25 kg) = 5.25 kg.

HOW TO INCREASE FEED INTAKE IN THE SOWS OR GILTS

 Feed them frequently
 Lower the pen temperature
 Increase energy content of the feed by giving concentrates.

COMMON CAUSES OF PIGLET MORTALITY

 CRUSHING by the sow / gilt caused by poor designing of the farrowing pen.
CONTROL: provide guard rails in the farrowing pen. Use farrowing
crate-2days
before farrowing and remove four days after farrowing.

 LACK OF FEED AND MILK. The sow may lack feed and fail to produce milk
hence piglets may die (agalactic sows).

PIG PRODUCTION 36
 CHILLING
Low temperatures give high piglet mortality because they become very prone to
pneumonia that causes death.

CAUSES: Dampness in pens; little or no bedding and draughty pens with more
air.

CONTROL: Prevent the causes above.

 SCOURING

CAUSES: Inadequate colostrum; artificial colostrum prepared under unhygienic

conditions and worm infestation.

CONTROL: deworming, piglets should suckle adequate colostrum, hygienic

preparation of artificial colostrum.

 ANAEMIA: usually occurs between 3 – 5 weeks after birth.

CAUSE: Lack of iron

CONTROL: Iron injection, feeding deep red anti hill soils.

CASTRATION
It can be done any time from birth to weaning time (8 weeks), but castration between
first week is stressful and it is difficult to find testes. The ideal time of castration is
between 3 – 8 weeks.

REASONS FOR CASTRATION

 To avoid inbreeding
 To avoid hereditary defects e.g. hernia
 To avoid boar taint in meat

METHODS
 Open castration only.

FEEDING REGIME SOON BEFORE WEANING

Start with ¾ Creep feed ¼ Weaners ration then ½ Weaner’s ration and ½ Creep feed
then ¾ Weaners ration and ¼ Creep feed. Then 100 % sow and weaner's ration a day
before weaning until weaning.

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN DETERMINING OPTIMUM AGE FOR WEANING

 TREND IN MILK YIELD OF THE SOW. Wean piglets when they are getting
less milk from the sow.

PIG PRODUCTION 37
 Weaning at 10 –15 days old piglets. There is high piglet mortality rate.

 HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
In the second and third week there is need for the piglet to get innate immunity from
the dam. So those weaned before two weeks will have an immunity gap, so they may
die.

 ATTITUDE LABOURER AND LEVEL OF SKILLS. The labour should be

interested and have technical know how.

 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT COSTS

The earlier you wean the piglets the smaller the amount of space required.

ADVANTAGES OF EARLY WEANING

 With good management you can produce more piglets that are heavy and uniform.

 Death losses per litter are reduced.

 Farrowing space is saved.

 Reduces sow’s feeding costs.

DISADVANTAGES OF EARLY WEANING

 High costs are required in piglet feeding.

 High managerial skills are required.

 More labour required.

 With poor management you will get small litters.

HOW TO REDUCE FIGHTING IN A GROUP OF WEANERS MIXED FROM

DIFFERENT LITTERS (WEANERS POOL)

 Mix the weaners from different litters in a pen new to them all.

 Smear all weaners with strong smelling compound e.g. old engine oil, onions.

 Do not add one or two weaners to a large group; always use equal numbers of
piglets.

 Use 10 –12 weaners per pen

 Provide materials such as old tyres, stones hanged on chains to attract their
attention and check tail biting.

PIG PRODUCTION 38
ROUTINE MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS
 Deworm them regularly.

 Spray or dust weaners to avoid external parasites.

 Identification should be done by tattooing and ear notching.

 Castration if it was not done earlier on.

 Weigh them to know weaning weight.

 General cleanliness of the weaners and their pen.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS

Feed weaners with sow and weaners ration ad lib. It should be fresh feed and not stale.
Provide water ad libtum but requirement of water for growing pigs is 5 liters per day.
After weaning piglets usually suffer from post-weaning diarrhea and this is common
under poor management.

CONTROL
 Regular cleaning of piglets and pen.

 Give them electrolytes, clean water and good feed.

 You can cull at weaning and select for breeding Gilts and Boars; fatteners fed with
pig finisher ration.

HOW TO PREVENT PIGS FROM DUNGING IN THE SLEEPING AREA

 Correct numbers of pigs in a pen.

 Provide the dunging area that should have: less light, wet and hidden.

If this fails do the following:

 Clean the whole pen and leave to dry for a day or two.

 Put new bedding.

 Place dung in the dunging area you want.

 Then bring the pigs in the pen.

PIG PRODUCTION 39
 Leave them for an hour without feed or water for them to survey the pen. After that
feed them.

STILL BIRTHS

These are piglets that are born dead. They may have died before farrowing began or
during the actual farrowing process.

The design and length of the uterus plays a role in stillbirths. Piglets from the far end
have to travel about 0.3 m after their umbilical cord that supplies the piglet with
oxygen from its mother’s blood has been broken. The piglet will start gasping for
oxygen; it then has 5 minutes before it will stop breathing.

Delays in farrowing process, leading to stillbirths are as follows:

 Large litters – Because the whole process will take longer, the last piglets to
be born will have a higher risk of suffocation.

 Very small litters – These are liable to produce insufficient stimulus to the
sow to start effective uterine contractions.

 Older sows – After five or six litters, uterine tone declines resulting in a less
efficient birth process. This is why sows are culled after the 7th litter.

 Piglet diseases – Dead piglets can slow down the birth process leading to a
greater risk to the live piglets.

 High ambient temperatures – Sows will tend to get tired quickly at high
environmental temperatures. The farrowing process is slowed down, hence
increasing the number of stillbirths.

 Nutrition / Condition of the sow – Over fat sows tend to get tired so easily.
In addition, the birth canal may be restricted due to the fat around the pelvis
and this will slow down the birth of piglets.

 Genetic makeup of the sow – Efficiency in farrowing varies between

families or breeds. If a strain of pigs is identified which have a regular high
incidence of stillbirths it should be culled.

NEW BORN PIGLET – birth to three days

The first three days after farrowing are crucial in ensuring that as many piglets as
possible survive. About 44% of piglets that are suckling, die in the first 48 hours. A
farmer should target 7% mortality pre-weaning.

To improve survival rates of the piglets, look at the following requirements:

PIG PRODUCTION 40
  COLOSTRUM

Soon after birth, 45 minutes after birth, the piglet should have their first suckle of
colostrum. Apart from air, colostrum is the most important substance because it is a
source of energy and antibodies against all the bacteria, virus etc that the sow has been
exposed to in her environment. The piglet has the ability to absorb these antibodies for
only 12-24 hours. The antibodies disappear from the pig’s blood around 8-12 weeks,
but by that time piglets will have began producing their own antibodies.

 HEAT

The piglet is born with no fat insulation and very little hair, as a result it is very
susceptible to hypothermia (a large drop in body temperature). Provide a warm nest
within the reach of a sow.

 MILK

Over 30% of the piglets that die have no milk in their stomachs. The sow should be
checked that it has enough teats to suckle all her pigs. If milk is not available, you
should foster some f the piglets on to another newly farrowed sow. Do not take the pig
to the foster mother before it gets colostrums form the its mother.

 DISINFECTION OF THE NAVEL OR UMBILICAL CORDS

Immerse navel cords in a dilute solution of iodine within 12 hours after birth. Navel or
umbilical cords that are long should be trimmed to about 5 cm before immersing in the
iodine solution. Infection through the navel will cause joint ill, causing swollen joints.

 TEETH CLIPPING

Piglets are born with sharp, well developed, temporary canine teeth commonly known
as wolf teeth, eyeteeth or needle teeth at the corners of the upper and lower jaws.
These teeth should be clipped at birth because they can inflict damage on the sow’s
udder and to the other piglets.

 EAR NOTCHING

Ear notching or any other method of identification should be carried out at this time.

CREEP FEEDING

PIG PRODUCTION 41
The feed is given in the piglet’s nest or creep; thus why it is called creep feeding. The
sow has no access to the feed. The sow’s milk production will decline after three
weeks hence the need for solid feed.
The importance of creep feeding is as follows:

 Better growth of pigs as compared to those that only have access to sow’s milk.

 The provision of creep feeding helps the piglet’s digestive system to adjust to
the change from milk to a solid diet. This reduces the chances of digestive
upsets and checks its growth rate at weaning.

 It helps reduce the drain of nutrients from the sow her body mass loss in later
lactation and leave her better prepared for re-breeding.

 It attracts the piglets away from the sow and reduces the chances of the piglets
being crushed by the sow.

Creep feed should first be offered to the piglets at about seven days of age in very
small amounts in order to accustom the piglets to consumption of some solid food.

WEANING THE SOW

In order to have two litters of pigs per sow, per year, weaning should be done at 8
weeks, though early weaning is practiced. The sow must be removed from the piglets
and not vice versa. In this way, the piglets remain in familiar environment that reduces
stress.

Under normal condition, removal of the sow from her litter and the stopping of
suckling stimulus triggers ovarian activity, and oestrus will occur within four to seven
days.

The following management practices can be used to help ensure that oestrus is not
delayed:

 Moving the sow into a house where she can hear, smell and have contact with a
mature boar.

 Housing her where there are other newly weaned sows because other sows
coming into oestrus will help stimulation process. Newly weaned sows should
not be mixed unless/or until they are used to each other.

 Sows should be able to exercise.

 Feeding the sow at high level after weaning until oestrus occurs.

PIG PRODUCTION 42
STRESS OF WEANING

The three-week period immediately after weaning is critical for the young pigs
because it is confronted with a number of stresses i.e.

 The psychological trauma of separation from its dam.

 The social stress of mixing with pigs from other litters.
 The stress of settling in a new environment of a new pen.
 The major change in diet associated with the loss of the sow’s milk.
 The loss of the supply of immunoglobulin and immune protection provided by
the sow’s milk.

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS DURING WEANING

Good management over the weaning period can minimize stresses. This will result in
uninterrupted growth and low mortality.

 Immediately before weaning, pigs should be handled and disturbed as little as

possible. Any essential management tasks should be carried out two weeks
before weaning.

 Piglets should be encouraged to consume as much as creep feed as possible

before weaning and should continue to be fed creep, feed for at least two weeks
after weaning.

 Adlib feeding is recommended in order to capitalize on high growth potential

of young pigs. Restrict feed intake as soon as scours are seen.

 In order to achieve uniformity in the pens after weaning, pigs from different
batches should not be mixed. Supervision should be done immediately the pigs
are mixed.

 Excessive variations in ambient temperature should be minimized. Pens should

never be overcrowded.

9. ANIMAL FEEDS AND FEEDING

Feeding animals a simple diet that contains one ingredient only (e.g. maize only) may
cause deficiency disease. This diet may have a shortage of certain elements that are
necessary for growth and production.

The opposite of a simple diet is balanced diet. A balanced diet contains sufficient
quantities of all nutrients in the proper proportion.

PIG PRODUCTION 43
 9.1 UTILIZATION OF ENERGY PRESENT IN THE FEED

DIGESTIBLE METABOLISABLE NET

GROSS
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY
ENERG
Y
LOST LOST LOST USED FOR

MAINTENANCE
FAECES
URINE HEAT
PRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION

9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE

 Age of animals.
 Body weight.
 Type of animals
 Metabolisable energy of feed.
 Feed structure or high energy feed.
 Temperature.
 Feeding space.
 Animal’s health.

9.3 COMMON PIG FEEDS

 Protein Feeds of Animal Origin

Fishmeal
The most important protein food used in pig rations. The best quality fish is made
from white fish. White fish is recommended because it does not have more than 6% oil
and 4% salt which might cause smell / taint in bacon if fed in excessive amounts.

White fish may be included in the ration at up to 15% for creep feed rations and
around 10% for breeding stock and growers. Fishmeal also supplies calcium,
phosphorous, and chlorine.

Meat and bone meal

Meat and bone meal is manufactured from the waste products of slaughterhouses and
manufacturers of tinned meat and tinned products. It is valuable protein food for pigs.
It may safely be included in the ration at up to 10%.

Dried blood/Blood meal

PIG PRODUCTION 44
It is a by-product of slaughterhouse. It is first dried at very high temperatures in order
to overcome the risk of diseases. It has a very high feeding value and especially
suitable for growing pigs. It should not be fed in excess or scouring may occur. The
most suitable is 2.5% - 5% in the ration.

Skimmed milk /Separated milk

This is a by-product of butter making. It has all the nutrients of the milk except the
butterfat. It is valuable feed especially for the suckling pigs and young ones. It is rich
in animal protein and contains high lysine content. Lactose (milk sugar) and can
replace part of the cereals in the ration. Skim milk fed pigs tends to grade very high.
Skim may be fed fresh (sweet) or sour (preserved)

Protein Foods of Vegetable Origin

Vegetable protein foods are less expensive than those of animal origin, and are widely
used as partial or complete replacements. Although the amino acid levels of these
foods are not so well suited to the pigs needs as that of animal proteins, satisfactory
results can be obtained by substituting part of the ration in the growing stage and
complete replacements in the finishing stage.

Soya Bean Meal

The residues after the oil have been removed from the Soya. It is rich in lysine, an
important amino acid and this makes it the most popular source of vegetable protein
for pig rations. It is low in fibre making it laxative if fed in excess to pigs. It is low in
minerals, so, a mineral mixture should be added to the ration when it is used to replace
fishmeal. Include in the ration at 5% with 5% fishmeal in growing rations and at 10 5
as the sole supply of protein in finishing rations.

Decorticated Groundnut Meal

Not so suitable as compared to Soya because it has very low lysine and calcium levels.

Peas and Beans

May be included in fattening rations at up to 20%, but care must be taken because they
tend to produce carcasses with white firm fat.

 Carbohydrates Foods

Wheat
May be included up to 50% in the ration, though some farmers feed more. Newly
harvested wheat causes scouring due to moisture content as such; care must be taken
when feeding it. Finely ground wheat is likely to be pastry and cause digestive upsets.
It is rich in Vitamin B.

Maize Meal
Maize meal has a higher energy value and higher oil content than other cereals such as
barley. Should never exceed 40% in the ration because it tends to cause softy oily fats

PIG PRODUCTION 45
in the ration leading to nutritional upsets and poor quality carcasses. Yellow maize
contains carotene that the pigs convert into Vitamin A.

 MAJOR ELEMENTS

Calcium
It is required by all types of livestock for the production of bone and assisting in the
formation of other tissues. Pregnant and suckling sows should have adequate supplies
in order that strong bone is built.

A deficiency of calcium leads to bone disorder and in extreme cases rickets may occur.
In breeding sows a deficiency will upset the milk supply and with in-pig sows there
may be a number of stillbirths (piglets born dead)

Phosphorous
Phosphorous is closely linked with calcium in the formation of bones. It is also
important in the formation of body cells and in the production of ovum and sperms in
the reproductive organs, and in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Cereal
grains contain adequate amounts of phosphorous and so cereal fed pigs are unlikely to
suffer from a deficiency.

Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine

These three minerals are found as salt in the body fluids, sweat, and saliva. Chlorine is
needed in the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid that is present in the digestive juices.

Vegetable foods are rich in potassium while fishmeal will supply sodium and chlorine.
Where pigs are fed on vegetable food only it is necessary to include a mineral mixture
containing salt.

Pigs are susceptible to excesses of salt, which can cause salt poisoning. This is
unlikely where properly balanced rations are fed and adequate supplies of clean water
made available.
Iron
It is essential constituent of blood, and forms a part of haemoglobin that is responsible
for carrying oxygen around the body. A deficiency of iron causes anaemia, which can
be troublesome in small pigs when housed indoors. Pigs that have access to the soil are
unlikely to be affected.

TYPES OF RATIONS REQUIRED BY PIGS

 A relatively expensive ration for creep feeding suckling pigs up to 7 weeks of

age that should contain 19 to 20% crude protein, a large proportion of which
should be of animal origin. The mineral and vitamin content of this ration
should be high, the fibre content low and the feed should be palatable. For
early weaning, a ration of 20 to 22% crude protein is desired.

PIG PRODUCTION 46
  A starter ration for weaned pigs should contain 18% crude protein, low fibre
content and be easily digested. This may be fed until the pigs are 15 to 25 kg
live weight.

 A grower ration should contain approximately 16% crude protein and still
contain protein of animal origin and be palatable and with some fibres. This is
fed to pigs weighing 25 to 55 kg live weight.

 A fattening ration should contain 14% crude protein of which none of it should
be of animal origin and is for pigs weighing 45 to 90 kg.

 A ration for gestating pigs should be of a course texture. The ration for gilts
should contain 16% crude protein while that for sows should contain 14%
crude protein during the first two thirds of the gestation and 16% during the
final month of gestation.

 A ration for lactating pigs should contain 16% crude protein.

 A ration for young boars less than 15 months of age should contain 16% crude
protein and for older boars should contain 14% crude protein.

9.4 FEED FORMULATION

Composition of Commonly Used Raw Materials

Ingredient Protein%
Soya bean meal 44
Meat and bone meal 50
Blood meal 68
Bone meal 41
Fish meal 65
Groundnut cake 48
Sunflower cake 28
Maize meal 9
Maize bran 9
Rice bran 14
Sorghum 10
Wheat bran 16
Cottonseed cake 40

Feed formulation involves development of diets that are economical by taking

advantage of various ingredients available at economical prices at various times of the
year.

To prepare a balanced ration, it is essential to know something about the following:

PIG PRODUCTION 47
  Availability of raw materials.
 Cost of the raw materials.
 Nutrient composition of the raw materials.
 Nutrient requirements of animals during different stages of growth and
production.
 The process of digestion and metabolism.
 The chemical composition of ingredients and feed in order to estimate their
nutritive value.
 Digestibility.
 The presence of anti - nutritional factors.
 Acceptable maximum of ingredients. (Safe margins)

9.5 METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION

 TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD

Use of hand and brain in trial and error to finally come up with a feed formula.
Sometimes this method could be time consuming. Some basic knowledge of
nutrition is required to make the operation quicker and most economical. The
procedures are as follows; List all the available raw materials to be used.

 Find the nutrient composition of ingredients e.g. maize contains 9-10% protein,
groundnut cake 45-48% protein.

 Write down the level of each ingredient using the following general guideline.

3% vitamins / minerals
3% animal protein
50% cereals
15% plant protein
15% bran
7% calcium source
5% cheap local product
2% dried green fodder
100% Total

Calculate as follows:

Protein from maize 50 (% in ration) x 9 (% of protein in maize) =4.5%

Protein from groundnuts 20 (% in ration x 48 (% of protein in g/nuts) = 9.6%

You can now keep on trying till you come up with the required level of the protein in
your diet.

 COMPUTER METHOD
All the necessary data is supplied and the computer solves the complicated equation to
produce the least cost ration. This saves time, but it is complicated.

PIG PRODUCTION 48
 PEARSON SQUARE
This method works with two groups of ingredients. (Cereals & proteins)

Identify the ingredients to be used and putting them according to cereals and proteins.

Supposing it is easier to get maize than Sorghum and it is cheaper to use Soya beans
than fishmeal, you can use 2 parts of maize (9%) and one part sorghum (10%) and 3
parts Soya beans (44%) and 1 part fish meal (65%)
Find the weighted mean of each group of ingredients

Weighted mean for cereal feed ingredients:

Example: Maize 2 x 9% = 18%

Sorghum 1 x 10% = 10%
Total = 28%
Mean 28% / 3 = 9.3% protein

Weighted mean for protein feed ingredients

Soya beans 3 x 44% = 132%
Fish meal 1 x 65% = 65%
Total = 197%
Mean 197% / 4 = 49.3% protein

 The weighted means are now used in the Pearson Square to formulate diet.

CEREALS 9.3% 32.3 PARTS CEREALS

17%
+

PROTEINS 49.3% 7.7 PARTS PROTEIN

40.0 TOTAL PARTS

 The protein level required in the diet is placed in the middle of the square and
the percentage protein content of each feed on the two left hand sides of the
square.

PIG PRODUCTION 49
  Subtract diagonally across from the square, the small number from the larger
one as shown above.

 The proportion of each ingredient to achieve a diet containing 17% protein is

given at the right –hand side of the square.

 The ratio of 32.3% parts cereals is required to be mixed with 7.7% parts of
protein feed to achieve a diet containing 17% protein.

 In percentage term, the diet will be expressed as follows:

32.3 x 100 = 81% Cereals
40.0

7.7 x 100 = 19% Protein feed

40.0

 The cereal feed consists of maize and sorghum in the following percentages.

81% = 27% of sorghum and 54% maize

3
 The protein feed consists of fish meal and Soya bean meal in the following
percentages:
19% = 5% of Fish meal and 15% Soya bean meal
4

EXAMPLES OF ON FARM FORMULATED PIG RATIONS USED AT NRC

FARM

(1) CREEP FEED RATION (22% CP)

ID NO. INGREDIEN QUANT

TS ITY
(KG)

IN Maize Bran 580 2 Soy Bean 150

GR Cake
EDI
EN
TS
QU
AN
TIT
Y
(KG
)1M

PIG PRODUCTION 50
aize
Bra
n65
02S
oy
Bea
n
Cak
e90
3Fis
h
Mea
l754
Gro
und
nut
cak
e10
085
5Su
n
flo
wer
cak
e60
6Pr
emi
xes
37S
alt
2T
OT
AL
100
01
(2)
WE
AN
ER
S
RA
TIO
N
(20

PIG PRODUCTION 51
%
CP)

ID
NO.
5Gr Sun flower 80
oun cake
d
nut
cak
e
6 Premixes 3
7 Salt 2
TOTAL 1000

(3) SOW AND BOAR RATION (16 % CP)

ID INGREDIEN QUANTITY
NO. TS (KG)
1 Maize Bran 610
2 Soy Bean Cake 111
3 Fish Meal 70
4 Ground nut cake 30
5 Sun flower cake 80
6 Premixes 2
7 Mono Calcium
Phosphate 5
8 Lime stone 90
Salt 2
TOTAL 1000

FEED MANUFACTURING
Below are stages that will ensure quality in production in the mixing area.
Production flow diagram Quality checks/actions
* Moisture content
Raw material reception * Visual inspection
* Chemical analysis

PIG PRODUCTION 52
Storage * Monitoring moisture
* Storage
conditions
Formulation * Check for spoilage

Blending * Blending
* Weighing

Grinding * Inspect screen

* Sieve analysis

* Mixing time, procedure

Mixing * Contamination

* Moisture content
Delivery of finished product * Chemical analysis

Visual inspection
 This will involve checking for stones, iron, sand, impurities, insects, spoilage,
and packaging.

Moisture content
 The right moisture content will be between 10% - 12%

Chemical analysis
 Laboratory analysis of the raw materials to be used in formulating the feed.
Storage conditions
 Right level of temperature, good humidity
 Deterioration due to insects and mice etc
Blending procedure
 Follow order of blending
FEEDMILL OPERATIONS

Cleaning and Drying

The mill should be equipped with facilities for cleaning and drying such as winnowers,
sieve machine, sack or bin drying.

Storage of Raw Materials

Raw materials should be kept under conditions that ensure that they are kept dry and
free from insects and rats.

PIG PRODUCTION 53
Blending

Blending means the assembling and measuring out of the required qualities into a
batch of the desired composition. In most cases, blending of the raw materials that
need to be reduced in particle size, takes place before grinding while the already fine
raw materials are added after grinding. The complete batch is then subsequently
mixed.

Grinding

A number of raw materials, including cereals and oilseed cakes need grinding to
prepare them for blending and or mixing and make them more digestible to the
animals. When the materials to be ground are first blend before grinding this is called
blended grinding. When the materials are first ground separately and then blended into
a batch and mixed, this is called single product grinding. The hammer mill is used for
grinding the raw materials.

Mixing
The aim is to obtain a mixture that is homogeneous to ensure that the animals are
offered the different nutrients in the desired proportions. Under manual mixing, it is
necessary to mix the batch at least 6 times. Mixing is the important element of feed
manufacturing because the essential compounding of the feed depends on this section.

Storage of Mixed Feed - Store properly in bags but not for a long time.

5.0 PIG HOUSING

When considering housing for pigs the animal welfare needs should be seriously
considered. Welfare needs of livestock are referred to as freedoms. There are five
fundamental freedoms.

FIVE FREEDOMS:

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst.

2. freedom from discomfort
3. freedom from pain, injury or disease
4. freedom to express normal behaviour
5. freedom from fear and distress.

WEL; FARE OF PIGS

The five freedoms will be provided through:
 Caring and responsible planning and management
 Skilled knowledgeable and conscientious stockmanship
 Appropriate environmental design
 Considerate handling and transport
 Humane slaughter

PIG PRODUCTION 54
Good welfare conditions equal less disease; better production and greater profits.
Whilst poor welfare conditions equals slow growth; poor feed conversion and
reduced profits.

Pig house is important for the following reasons:

 Protection
 Security
 Climate control
 Effluent control
 Feeding control
 Comfort zone
 Hygiene
 Management

Growing Space Requirements for Pigs

Average Wt Min Space/Pig M²

Up to 10 kg 0.15
10 – 20 kg 0.20
20 – 30 kg 0.30
30 – 50 kg 0.40
50 – 85 kg 0.55
85 – 110 kg 0.65
Above 110 kg 1.00

Farrowing space requirements for pigs

 Minimum length of farrowing pen 2.4 metres.
 Minimum floor area per gilt 1.8 m2.
 Minimum exercise area per Sow 1.2 m2
 Minimum exercise area per gilt 0.86 m2
 Minimum lying area per sow 1.3 m2
 Minimum lying area per gilt 0.95 m2

DESIGN

A well-designed pig house should guarantee the following:

 Protection of pigs against adverse environmental conditions e.g. Direct sun,

wind, and rain.

 Provision of dry conditions that are hygienic and do not predispose the pig to
diseases.

PIG PRODUCTION 55
  Provision of accessible food and water.

 Providing conditions so that good stockmanship can be practiced.

 Effective disposal of effluent.

WALLS

 External walls should provide the pigs with adequate protection.

SITTING

 Pig houses should be sited and constructed in such a way that they take
advantage of the prevailing winds and increase ventilation and airflow.

 Follow east – west orientation in construction of houses in order to avoid

excessive penetration of sunlight into the pens. This will prevent the problem
of sunburn and heat stress.

 Avoid exposing the site too much to the cold.

 The houses should be at a slope to facilitate drainage and disposal of effluents.

The slope also makes it easier to design a ‘pig flow’, with the farrowing houses
at the top of the slope and the fattening pens at the bottom. This will improve
management and prevent cross infection from effluent between categories of
pigs. This is an important concept in preventing diseases in the most
susceptible groups, such as baby pigs.

 Consider also proximity to good water supply and that effluent should not
contaminate water supply from boreholes or wells.

 A good road to allow for transport of feed in and pigs out.

 Allow for more space for possible expansion in future.

FLOOR

 Whatever type of house is built, hard concrete or similar floors are

recommended. This will prevent the pigs ‘rooting’ and digging up the ground.
This also allows for easy cleaning and the prevention of the build up of
diseases and parasites.

PIG PRODUCTION 56
  The floor should provide insulation against both cold and damp.

 The floor surface should not be too slippery and smooth, this will result in
injury. If it is too rough and abrasive, this will cause damage to feet and
udders.

ROOFING

 Roofs should provide shade and protection, and can be built from simple and
local materials such as grass, reeds or leaves etc. or from manufactured roofing
materials such as asbestos or iron sheets. A thatched grass though could be a
breeding ground for rats and other pests makes excellent roof under hot
conditions because of good insulation.

 In hot climates, asbestos or tin roofs should be insulated with a layer of grass
or be sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement.

FARROWING PEN

 The essential features of a farrowing house are:

 It should contain a well-constructed creep to provide warmth, feed and

protection for the piglets.

 It should provide a comfortable sleeping area for the sow

 It should provide a dunging and feeding area with a clean supply of water.

 Partition walls should be at least 1 m high, though they can be built higher than
this in order to prevent the spread of airborne diseases.

 A furrowing crate or farrowing rail should be incorporated in order to reduce

the risk of crushing the piglets. Farrowing rails should be 0.2 m from the wall
and 0.2 m high.

 Provide creep area with an infrared lamp. The creep will help to reduce the
lying on baby pigs and killing them by crushing. The lamp will help to increase
the temperature of the creep and the light will also attract the newly born pigs
away from the sow and return only when they are hungry.

GROWING / FATTENING PENS

 They should have a dry lying area and demarcated dunging area.

PIG PRODUCTION 57
  The buildings should provide shade, some protection and adequate ventilation.

 The side walls are not required between pens because they will decrease
ventilation and airflow within the buildings.

10. HEALTH AND DISEASES

Good husbandry is the most important factor in preventing disease. The main
components of good husbandry are as follows:

 Housing – must allow sufficient space, maintain a temperature in pig’s comfort

zone and allow sufficient air changes.
 Nutrition – must be of a consistent quality and appropriate for the age of the
pig.
 Management – good management involves ongoing monitoring of how the
project is run. Using good records, appropriate changes can be made as the
need arises.

The sick pig is anorexic, lies down, and may tremble or have skin discolouration
(cyanosis). Sick pigs may become constipated or scour. Coughing or staggering gait
may be observed. The pig’s normal temperature is 38.9o C

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

 AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

This is a highly contagious viral disease of swine that in the acute form can cause
up to 50 -100% mortality. A virus is transmitted to healthy pigs by direct contact,
ingestion of contaminated feed or water. Soft ticks called Ornithodorous moubata
(reservoir of infection) transmit this disease. In Malawi the disease is endemic in
the Central region.

Symptoms
 The pigs become anorexic and show high fever.
 Up to 50 -100% mortality.
 Depression, weakness, swaying when moving.
 Haemorrhages or have blue discolouration (cyanosis) of the skin often belly
and ears.
 Some may cough and there may be scouring.
 Abortion in sows.
 Death after a few hours or days sickness - Some pigs die suddenly without
showing any signs of disease.
 If pigs survive a few days you may see bloody diarrhea.

PIG PRODUCTION 58
 CONTROL
ASF
 Institute quarantine DISEASE CYCLE
measures
 House pigs in double fenced kholas.
 Avoid contact with bush pigs
 Pigs should not have access to Pork products e.g. discarded sandwiches
because the virus can survive in pig carcasses for long periods.

 FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

This is a highly contagious viral disease of ruminants, pigs and other cloven
hoofed animals. It has an incubation period of between 3 –8 days (1 – 14 days). It
spreads by direct contact between animals via contaminated grazing and water.
Wild life like buffaloes in parks and game reserves carry FMD virus (SAT
serotypes). In Malawi FMD occurs in Karonga, Chitipa, Nsanje and Chikwawa
of late in Mzimba. FMD virus types O, A, SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3 have all
invaded Malawi. FMD is Notifiable disease as such report immediately to
veterinary authorities any suspected cases. It is an important threat to because its
spread leads to imposition of trade embargoes by international regulations. This
can affect the agro-based economy a great deal. The pigs die because they cannot
walk and fail to eat.

Infection is through direct contact or through uncooked meat, hides, bones,

feeding stuffs, vehicles, personal clothing etc. Migratory birds on their flights
from country to country may also be carriers.

Symptoms
 It affects all cloven-hoofed animals.
 Blisters / vesicles in the mouth, skin above and between hooves.
 Drooling (hanging strands of saliva from the mouth)
 At first the animal looses its appetite.
 Smacking of the lips.
 Becomes dull and sluggish.
 Lactating animals will show sudden in milk yield.
 Lameness as a result of blisters on the feet.

Control
 Restrict movement of unauthorized personnel and vehicles.
 Isolate sick pigs from healthy ones.
 Quarantine livestock and livestock products in the affected area.
 Ring vaccinate livestock in risk areas

 ANTHRAX
This is acute and fatal bacterial disease that often also causes mortality in
humans. It is caused by Bacillus anthracis, which in its pore form is capable of

PIG PRODUCTION 59
living in the soil for many years. Pigs are infected by contact with anthrax carcass or
by spores in contaminated feed or pasture. There is no effective vaccine.

Symptoms

 A swelling in the back region which causes difficulty in breathing.

 Sudden death characterized by blood oozing from the body orifices. If the
disease is suspected, the carcass should not be opened for fear of releasing
infective spores. Infected carcass should be buried at sufficient depth to
prevent any transmission of the spores.

PARASITES

Parasites are defined as organisms that live on and obtain food from the body of
another, known as the host. When they live on the exterior of the pig, they are known
as external parasites, while if they live within the internal tissue they are called internal
parasites.

 EXTERNAL PARASITES

They cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading to wounds and an increased
susceptibility to other infections. The most common parasites are mange-mites, ticks,
fleas, and flies.

 MANGE MITES
Mange is a skin condition caused by small insects called mites that burrow under the
skin of the pig. Mites that are scarcely visible to the naked aye, spend the entire
lifecycle under the skin of the pig. By burrowing under the skin, they cause irritation
and inflammation. They can survive off the host for as long as eight days. The most
common species is Sarcoptes scabiei.

Signs

 Crusty, dry looking skin around the eyes, ears, and snout.
 The mites spread and multiply over the body causing the skin to become
swollen.
 The pigs are seen to be constantly rubbing against themselves and performance
is depressed.
Control
 Dipping or spraying with an anti- mange medication, including spraying of
pens.
 Cull all chronically infected animals.
 Use of systemic drugs.

 LICE AND FLEAS

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They can become a problem in dirty and unhygienic conditions. They live on the skin
and suck blood causing severe irritation. Young pigs may die because of loss of blood.
Control is by spraying the pigs and pigpens with suitable insecticides. In case of lice,
particular attention should be made to the ears, inside the elbows, and on the belly.

 TICKS

Ticks are only a problem in scavenging or more extensive system of pig production.
Ticks can cause diseases such as Babesiosis or Red water. Dipping or spraying with
suitable acaricides can control them.

 Flies
They are a major nuisance to the pigs, they cause annoyance, can bite, and carry
infectious diseases. They are always attracted to the wounds or any fresh abrasion on
the animal.
Control is by spraying of insecticides on suitable fly- breeding areas, e.g. manure
heaps, refuse areas, pig buildings, and the pigs. Can also use baits that attract the flies.

INTERNAL PARASITES

 ROUND WORMS (NEMATODES)

Common mainly to pigs on free range and those not kept on concrete floors. The large
roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) is very common and can cause a lot of damage in
pig herds. Adults live in the intestines and the female is capable of laying thousands of
eggs per day. Which are passed out in the dung and become infective if ingested by
other pigs after 21 days. Liver is damaged and is condemned at slaughter. With heavy
infection the adult worm can partly obstruct the small intestine, causing weakness and
loss of weight.

Whip worm (Trichuris suis) which is about 35 mm long when at adult stage, lives in
the large intestines and causes damage to the gut wall resulting in diarrhoea and weight
loss.

The nodular worm lives in the intestines. It burrows into the intestinal wall forming
nodules and can diarrhoea (sometimes bloody) and anaemia.

Contaminated feed and water are the usual causes of infection with internal parasites.
Control can be affected by breaking the life cycle, which means moving range pigs on
to fresh ground and frequent cleaning and removal of faeces in housed pigs.

 TAPE WORMS (CESTODES)

The common tapeworm is Taenia solium. Pigs become infected through picking up
eggs from human faeces and the larvae then encyst in the pig’s muscle, particularly in
the region of the heart and tongue.

PIG PRODUCTION 61
If the pig meat is then eaten by man, the larvae hatch out and the cycle is completed
carcasses which are infected (measly pork) are condemned at slaughter.

Control can be achieved by preventing pigs having access to the human faeces. In this
way, the parasites can be eliminated.

UDDER PROBLEMS

- UDDER OEDEMA (Hard udder)

There is an excess of fluid in the udder tissue that prevents a good milk flow. The
individual glands are very firm on palpation. The quality and quantity of colostrums is
reduced leading to a lowered immunity in the piglets. Piglets may have difficulty in
suckling milk from the glands. The sow herself does not have a fever and continues to
eat normally.

Give the sow an injection of oxytocin (the milk let down hormone) every 4 – 6 hours.
Provide bowls of water to the piglets to prevent dehydration. One of the causes is the
gilts or sows being overfat.

- MASTITIS

The sow does not eat and is ill. Affected glands may be discoloured and on palpation
are found to be swollen and hot. Poor hygiene in the farrowing area is the predisposing
factor but it may develop following udder oedema

Treat the animal with antibiotic and inject with oxytocin every 4 –6 hours, this will
help.

- AGALACTIA

This is poor milk supply in otherwise healthy animal. It may develop as a follow –on
from oedematous mastitis, but may also occur in the absence of these conditions due to
the sow not getting enough water.

10.1 BIOSECURITY GUIDELINES FOR PIG PRODUCERS

Biosecurity - Practical measures to limit the spread of infectious diseases of pigs both
within a farm and from farm to others – is the essential part of risk management for
pig producers. Biosecurity is the best form of defence against infectious diseases as
well as exotic diseases. Eradication and recovery from an exotic disease/ trans-
boundary disease outbreak will not only be costly, but the long-term prosperity of the
pig industry could be damaged if a foreign disease becomes established. International
market access for pork products is increasingly dependent on proof of absence of
certain diseases from Malawi.

PIG PRODUCTION 62
How do diseases of pigs spread?
Most common diseases are spread by direct pig to pig contact. Respiratory diseases are
spread in the air when pigs sneeze or cough. Disease agents can also spread by clothes,
foot wear, animal handling, veterinary equipment, transport vehicles, feed or water and
semen. People moving between farms, aerosols, biting insects, wildlife or
contaminated meat products can also contribute to disease spread.

BIOSECURITY CONSIDERATIONS

(1) Introduction of new stock

As the most important route of disease spread is from pig to pig, introduced
pigs present the greatest risk of introducing new diseases to the herd. Producers
are strongly encouraged to buy replacements directly from single herd of
higher or comparable health status, based on veterinary advice. An alternative
is to maintain a closed herd and introduce new genetic material by use of
artificial insemination. Semen should only be purchased from centres of known
health status. Trained staff should inspect all new stock upon arrival and
regularly thereafter. Introduced breeding stock should be kept separately
(quarantined) from the main herd ideally for 6 to 8 weeks. The quarantine
facility may be situated at least 3 km and ideally 5 km from the home farm.
Separate boots and overalls should be provided for use in the isolation building
and hands should be washed after handling quarantined pigs.

In well run operations, an all in all out system should ensure a degree of
isolation for each batch and assist containment of introduced diseases.
Buildings should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between batches.

(2) Swill feeding

Feeding of swill to pigs is the mostly likely way that Malawian pigs may be
exposed to an infectious disease agent. Diseases that can be spread by feeding
swill to pigs include Foot and Mouth Disease, Classical Swine Fever, African
Swine Fever and Swine Vesicular Disease. Use pre-boiled swill or ban use of
such feeds.

(3) Controlled access

 Visitors – only prescheduled visitors essential to the farm’s business
should be permitted entry. All visitors should enter via a single point
where they sign a visitor’s book and are issued with protective boots
and clothes. This clothing should be used in the piggery only. Clearly
demarcated clean and dirty areas should be established to ensure there
is no confusion about where people need to remove their off farm dirty
clothes and foot wear, put on clean farm boots and clothing and wash
their hands.
 Staff – should be aware of the risks entailed in off site contact with
other pigs. Staff should not keep their own pigs unless this is cleared
with management first. Rules for staff entry should be similar to the

PIG PRODUCTION 63
 rules for visitors, except that staff need not be required to sign the
visitor movement record. Staff should not wear dirty clothes in clean
areas. Staff movements between units within a piggery should be
planned, especially if more than one age group is housed on one site.
Contaminated clothes should be changed between departments. Staff
should move from younger to older pigs through the day. Hands should
be washed between units or rooms and after handling sick pigs, which
should be visited last.
 Vehicles – load out areas present a risk if pig transport vehicle arrives
at the farm already carrying pigs. This should not be allowed to occur
unless the pigs on the truck have the same health status as your own
pigs. There is a risk from aerosols and from movements of pigs onto the
truck and then back to the farm by mistake. This risk can be reduced by
providing a dirty loading area that is separated from the clean farm
areas, with a no return policy, no return gates and appropriate signage.
All vehicles transporting pigs should be cleaned and disinfected before
pigs are loaded. Where possible a perimeter load out site should be
used.

(4) Movement records

Records should be kept of the movements of animals, people and vehicles
onto and off the farm to assist tracing in the event of an emergency disease
outbreak. This information is vital to ensure that the disease is rapidly and
effectively tracked and contained.

(5) Pig identification

Identification of pigs going for sale or slaughter is an essential part of
monitoring for diseases and chemical residues. All pigs consigned for the
sale or transportation to an abattoir or knackery for slaughter must be
identified by either a tattoo brand or ear tag prior to leaving their property of
origin.

(6) Separation from other animals

Where possible a secure pig proof fence should be erected around the
piggery to prevent access of feral pigs and other animals. Strict measures
should be put in place to ensure that all gates are kept closed when not in
immediate use. Pest and insect control programmes should be in place.
Flying foxes (fruit bats) have been implicated in the spread of Menangle
virus in Australia and Nipah virus in Malaysia. If necessary birds netting
and habitat reduction can be used to limit the access of flying foxes to the
pig herd.

(7) Farm location

PIG PRODUCTION 64
 A minimum buffer distance between neighbouring pig farms and between
units within the piggery is desirable to limit the risk of aerosol disease
spread, although this may be impractical for existing piggeries in pig dense
areas. Aerosol spread is just one of the many ways a disease could enter a
piggery and a distance barrier will not protect a piggery that for instance has
no controls over stock introductions. The level of risk also depends on the
diseases present, the level of infection in the herd, stocking intensity, the
topography of the area and wind direction. A minimum bio-security buffer
distance of 3 km between sites is a useful guideline, but should not be
interpreted too prescriptively as effective bio-security is achieved through a
combination of measures.

(8) Hygiene
The farm’s bio-security programme must provide for mandatory cleaning
and disinfection of any equipment that is moved from farm to farm.
Syringes used for injection or needles used for blood collection should
remain on farm and be destroyed after syringe use. Postmortem implements
used by veterinarians for sample collection should remain off farm or be
used in areas that are not in direct contact with herd. Disposal of piggery
effluent, dead pigs and other biological material should be by approved
methods.

(9) Staff training

Staff should be trained to recognize signs of disease in the herd and to report
any unusual signs explained deaths promptly. Rapid recognition of
abnormal disease patterns is extremely important and will lead to prompt
diagnosis and efficient management of any emergency disease.

11. PIG IDENTIFICATION & RECORDING SYSTEMS

An accurate set of records on swine performance is one of the best management tools
that a producer can have. Before a producer can keep such records, he must be able to
identify pigs from birth. The successful manager clips the needle teeth and navel cords
as soon after birth as possible. This offers an opportune time for identification. The
simplest method and the one recommended by most breed associations is ear notching.
The most common notching system is the 1-3-9 system illustrated below.

Litter Mark: The right ear is used for litter mark and all pigs in the same litter must
have the same ear notches in this ear. The right ear is on the pig’s own right.

Individual Pig Marks: The left ear is used for notches to show an individual pig’s
number in the litter. Each pig will have different notches in the left ear. To develop a
number, the producer makes notches in different parts of the ear in such a way that the
total of their numerical values will be the desired number.

Summary
 Pig identification is necessary for accurate performance records.

PIG PRODUCTION 65
  Pigs can be marked with ear notches, ear tattoos or ear tags.
 Ear notching is the most practical method for commercial farms.
 Ear tags are useful for re-identifying breeding stock.
 Electronic identification, if it becomes cheaper, may be more widely used in
the future.

PIG IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

Pigs can be identified in several ways:

 Tattoo branding method

Equipment required is a set of tattoo pliers, three or four sets of 9 mm needle
blocks numbered from 0 to 9 and a suitable tattooing ink or paste. These are
obtainable from equipment suppliers but are expensive compared with
notching pliers. Similar systems of identification can be used to ear notching
except that numbers rather than positions are tattooed in the ear. Figure 3
illustrates ear tattooing pliers and a sample imprint of the tattoo needles. Before
tattooing, ensure that both the pig’s ear and the tattoo blocks are clean. The
thinner part of the lower ear (inside or outside) is most suitable for tattooing.
The needle points of the tattoo must be covered with tattooing ink: a toothbrush
is useful for this, alternatively, dip the needle blocks into an ink-soaked pad.
The needles should completely pierce the pig’s ear, avoiding veins where
possible. After tattooing, thoroughly rub ink into the puncture marks. The
technique has to be carried out with painstaking accuracy to ensure the tattoo
can be clearly read later. If you have trouble reading a tattoo number, try
washing the ear or shining a torch behind it.The tattoo can also be placed on
the left shoulder where it can be easily read on the abattoir processing chain.

Hints on tattoo branding

o Make sure that the number and letters are in the correct order – stamp a
piece of cardboard or look at them in a mirror.
o Make sure that all needles on the brand are clean – grease, dirt, hair and
tattooing paste quickly build up on the needles. If not cleaned regularly,
the tattoo brand will become illegible and clogged needles can also be a
source of infection.
o Use a carbon based tattooing paste or ink
o Reapply paste or ink to needles before the pig is tattoo branded
o All needles must pierce the skin; take good solid swing making sure
that the face of the brand lands flat on the skin – it should leave a
rectangular mark on the skin surface.
o Pigs with excessive dirt or soil may need to be washed on the shoulder
area before tattooing
o Brands worn out, broken or damaged needles should be replaced.

PIG PRODUCTION 66
 Tattooing Positioning
The tattoo brand should be applied to the left shoulder where it can be
readily be seen during meat inspection at the abattoir.

Good Tattooing
A good tattoo brand will be clearly readable after the de-hairing process.

 Ear tagging method

Once gilts and boars have been selected from within the herd or brought into it,
they can be identified with easy to-read numbered plastic tags (see figure 4).
There are varying shapes and types of ear tags: some are pre-numbered, others
are supplied blank and can be numbered with a special pen. Several choices of
colour are available to increase coding possibilities. For example, animals with
Duroc parentage may be given red tags, while those with Hampshire genes
may be given white ones with black numbers. Tags are applied with special
applicator pliers, usually in the front of the ear to reduce risk of the tag being
torn out eg by fighting
It is very easy to apply, but has a weakness of the pig losing the identity very
quickly and other people can easily use it on other animals. You can easily use
it for specific purpose like slaughter house identification of pigs.

 Ear notching method

This means chipping (using machine in Fig. 2) little pieces out of the pig’s ears
at different places to indicate different numbers. There are several codes for
linking notches to numbers. You can devise your own coding system. Some
codes even capture the litter number on the other ear. This is a permanent
identification method, unless the animal loses the ear. However, the only set
back is it can not work well with very big numbers otherwise the whole ear
will be damaged.

The right ear (the pig's right, not yours) identifies the pig's litter number.
 Each pig from a particular litter will have the same notches on the right
side.
 You can identify up to 161 litters using this notching system.
The left ear (the pig's left, not yours) identifies the individual pig number
within the litter.
 Each pig in the littler will have different notchings in this ear.
A pig should not have more than 2 notches in each "location" of the ear!

PIG PRODUCTION 67
  Electronic identification
The technology to identify pigs through electronic implants is already
developed. An injectable radio transponder, which contains the pig’s
identification number, is implanted before weaning. The best site seems to be
under the skin of the neck at the base of the ear. Alternatively, the transponder
may be embedded in an ear tag. A receiver unit must be able to detect signals
from the transponder at a distance of 30 to 60 cm from the pig, preferably
without touching the animal. The number may be picked up on a portable
receiver unit or stationary antenna at gates or fences. These units can then be
attached to computers for information retrieval. The transponder is removed
and destroyed after slaughter of the pig.
The system is costly if a large initial outlay is required, as computers, software,
data communication and individual transponders are required. The investment
is rewarded with accurate information for management purposes, and positive
identification at slaughter.
Computer-controlled sow feeding stations use electronic identification for
feeding purposes. The sows wear a plastic collar in which is embedded a radio
transponder. When the sow enters the feeding station, signals received from the
transponder trigger the station’s feeding mechanism and the sow receives a
measured amount of feed.

Importance of Records

 Farm records help the farmer to find out if he is operating at a loss or profit.
The farmer will know and then drop those activities that are not giving him
profit.

 They help the farmer in planning and making decisions.

 Help the farmer in obtaining loans for his farming activities. Moneylenders
are interested to see the records before they can give out money.

 Records facilitate pedigree selection in livestock. One has on hand the life
history of and performance of the ancestors of the sires as well as the dams.

 Records help in culling unproductive animals.

 They help the farmer to improve those areas that need improvement.

PIG PRODUCTION 68
TYPES OF RECORDS KEPT AT THE FARM

Health records

Heath records must provide for all health related issues of livestock such as
vaccinations, routine treatment. They should be able to indicate a trend in disease
before it becomes a major economic factor. They act as a reminder when a specific
action is called for.

Heats / Service record

This type of record will mainly include the following, date, name of sow on heat,
name of boar (if served), pregnancy diagnosis date, farrowing due date. In this record,
one would see if a certain boar is being overworked since it will show number of
service per boar per week.

Sow cards

It is recommended on pig farms that individual sows should have these cards. All the
information on the sow is recorded on these cards, i.e. origin of the animal, its sire and
dam, date when served, number of farrowings etc.

Boar cards

These are recommended for large farms where more than one boar is used to check
accidental in breeding. Where there is only one boar, this might not be necessary.

12. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PIGS

Transport
The stress of transporting pigs to the slaughterhouse can result in pigs dying in transit,
in lairage at the slaughterhouse or reduced meat quality in the carcass.

The stresses such as handling at loading and unloading, the new surroundings, mixing
with strange pigs, the physical discomfort of the journey, the heat stress, especially
under tropical conditions.

The following measures can reduce stress;

 The loading ramp should properly be designed with solid walls and at the
correct height for the cart, truck or trailer.

 The pigs should be handled quietly and gently all the time. Avoid the use of
sticks and prodders.

 Avoid loading and traveling during the heat periods of the day.

PIG PRODUCTION 69
  Spray the pigs with cold water before loading and again in the truck.

 Provide good bedding, good ventilation, adequate bedding and ensure the
floors are not slippery.

 Do not stop enroute to the slaughterhouse.

SLAUGHTER PROCEDURES

 STUNNING
For reasons of animal welfare, pigs should always be stunned before they are bled.
Effective stunning ensures prompt and complete bleeding.

Main methods of stunning are:

 Mechanical, where a captive – bolt pistol or other instrument is used to stun
the pig.
There are two methods under the mechanical destruction of pigs as below:

1. Temporal method: (This is only suitable for firearms.) The pig is

shot from the side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a
point midway between the eye and the base of the ear on the same side
of the head. The bullet should be directed horizontally into the skull.
This method is preferred for adult pigs due to the heavier bone
structure of the front of the skull.

2. Frontal method: The captive-bolt pistol or firearm should be

directed at a point about midway across the forehead in adult pigs
about 2 cm above the level of the eyes as in Figure 1. When using a
firearm, aim horizontally into the skull.

Figure 1: Humane destruction of pigs

'a' indicates recommended position for temporal method (Suitable for
firearm only).
'b' indicates recommended position for frontal method (Suitable for

PIG PRODUCTION 70
 firearm or captive-bolt pistol).

 Electrical, where a pair of tongs is used to apply an electrical charge to the

pig’s head. A current of 1.25 amps and 300 to 600 volts renders the pig
unconscious within one second.

 Gas, where carbon dioxide is used by letting pigs into a tunnel containing 70 to
80% carbon dioxide; they will lose consciousness within two seconds.

 BLEEDING
Immediately after stunning the pig, hoist it by hind legs and the blood vessels of
the neck completely cut to ensure thorough and complete bleeding.
 SCALDING DEHAIRING
Hairs can easily be loosened and removed by scrapping after immersing the
carcass in water at 65 to 75 degrees C. Small scale farmers can use a drum of water
over a fire for scalding purposes. When water is scarce, de-haring can be achieved
by covering the carcass with dry grass and burning it. The skin can then be
scrapped to remove the carbonized surface and any remaining hair.

 EVISCERATION
A long cut is made down the belly from the breast to the hams, and then the
internal organs are separated, the gut emptied and cleaned away from the rest of
the meat.

PIG MEAT AS HUMAN FOOD

The main benefits of pork as human meat are as follows;

 Digestibility
Pork is 98% digestible by the human digestive system.

 Protein quality
Pork contains all the eight amino acids that cannot be manufactured by the
human body, and is therefore a high quality complete protein.

 Satiety
Lean pig has been found to have a high satiety value i.e. it leaves the consumer
feeling full for a long period and helps to prevent overeating.

 Cholesterol
Pork has a relatively low cholesterol level.

 Minerals
Pork has relatively high contents of iron, essential for prevention of anaemia,
and zinc, which hastens wound healing, bone growth and tissue development.

 Vitamins

PIG PRODUCTION 71
 The levels of B vitamins are high in pork and it is a leading dietary source of
thiamine.

SYSTEMS OF MARKETING

 Private Sales
This is the most common method in the tropics among small –scale producers.
One or a number of pigs are sold to local consumers, other producers, butchers
or middlemen. The pigs are sold live and the price is generally subject to
negotiation. This system has the advantage of being the simplest, but in rural
areas individuals who are not aware of current prices can be taken advantage of
dealers.

 Public Sales
These involve taking the pigs into central market place where they are sold by
auction on a live basis to the highest bidder.

 Direct sales to an Abattoir

This method of selling is more applicable to the large-scale producer. The
biggest disadvantage of this system is that there tend to be fluctuations in price
to increased supply of pigs to abattoir.

 Contract sales/ future’s market and hedging

By entering into contract with an abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs
over a period at a set price, the producer is protected from price variations
during the period.
Live pigs are sometimes traded on the futures market. A futures market
contract establishes a price for live pigs that are to be delivered at some future
date. The unit of trading is 13608 kg thus about 130 to 150 head of market
pigs.

One objective of using the futures market is to obtain a higher for the pigs.
Future trading takes place when the futures price is higher than the expected
price of pigs at the time of delivery. The producer runs the risk that the
expected market price is not accurate. Another objective of using the futures
market is to reduce the risk of loss if prices go down. By trading on the futures
market, the producer locks in the price that will be received for the pigs. If the
expected market price is lower than the cost of production, it does not pay to
produce the pigs. In such a case, the producer would not be in the futures
market.
Reducing the risk by locking in the price is called hedging. The producer who
wants to hedge on futures market needs a thorough understanding of the
market.

PIG PRODUCTION 72
FEEDER PIG GRADES
Feeder pigs are classified in the same grades as slaughter pigs, with the addition of one
lower grade. US Cull is the lowest grade of feeder pigs. Feeder pig grades are used to
indicate the expected grade of the pig when it reaches slaughter weight. Unthrift pigs
are classed in either US Utility or US Cull grades.

 THE US NO.1 FEEDER PIG

Has a large frame, thick muscling and is trim. The legs are wide apart. The
hams are wider than the loins. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US No.
1 grade carcasses when slaughtered.

 THE US No 2 FEEDER PIGS

Has moderately a large frame with moderately thick muscling. The pig is a
little fatter than the No.1. The hams are slightly wider than the loin. The jowl
and flank are a little fatter than No.1. The sides show less trim. Feeder pigs in
this grade should produce US No.2 grade carcasses when slaughtered.

 THE US NO. 3 FEEDER PIG

Has a slightly smaller frame with slightly thick muscling. The hams and loin
are about the same width. The legs are set fairly close together. The jowl and
flank show signs of too much fat. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US
No. 3 grade carcasses when slaughtered.
 THE US NO. 4 FEEDER PIG
Has a small frame with thin muscling. The hams and loin are of the same
width. The back is flat. The legs are set close together. The jowl and flank are
moderately full. The lower ham is beginning to show signs of too much fat.
Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US No. 4 grade carcasses when
slaughtered.

 THE US UTILITY FEEDER PIG

Pigs Show unthriftness due to disease or poor care. The skin is wrinkled and
the head appears too large for the rest of the body. The pig is rough in
appearance. Given good care, pigs in this grade can develop into higher grades
of slaughter pigs. Feeder pigs in this grade will produce US Utility grade
carcasses when slaughtered unless the unthrifty condition is corrected.

 THE US CULL FEEDER PIG

Has poorer appearance than us utility. Improper care and disease cause a rough,
unthrifty appearance. Pigs in this grade will gain at slower than normal rates
and often will not be profitable.

WEIGHT AND TIME TO SELL PIGS

The traditional recommended weight at which to sell slaughter pigs has been 90.7 kg –
99.8 kg. This has based on two conditions related to weight gain:

PIG PRODUCTION 73
  Research indicates that feed costs of per kilogram of gain increased rapidly
above 99.8 kg and
 Much of the weight added above 99.8kg was fat.
Recent research indicates that several factors should be considered when deciding on
the best weight to market pigs. The factors are:
 Type of pig
 Pig-feed price ratio
 Amount of discount for heavier pigs and
 The time of the year when the pigs are marketed.
Research has shown at various university research stations that pigs can be fed to
heavier weights without a large increase in feed costs.

The quality of pigs as measured by the ratio of lean to fat is not decreased appreciably
with this type of pigs. The experiments show that an increase in feed of 0.32 kg per
45.4 kg of gain is necessary to go from lighter to heavier market weights. Two studies
show a decline in percent of lean cuts. One shows a decrease of 0.65 as pigs were fed
from 90.7 kg to 113.4 kg. The other study shows a decrease of 1.3% from 99.8 – 117.8
kg.

As feed costs increase, the additional returns above feed costs decrease as pigs are fed
to heavier weights. As the price of pigs increase, the return above feed costs increase.
It requires careful calculations to determine where the break even point occurs as pig
feed price ratios change.

Packers typically discount the price of pigs below 99.8 – 104.3 kg and above 113.4 to
117.9 kg. The range varies with the number of pigs coming to the market and the
pricing practices of individual packers. If discounts are high for heavier pigs it may not
pay to feed to heavier weights. Part of the decision on feeding to heavier weights
depends on time of the year. The price of slaughter pigs changes seasonally based on
the supply of pork and consumer demand for pork.

When prices are on the increase it may pay to feed pigs to heavier weights even though
there will be some discount. However, the price trend is downwards, it generally will
not pay to feed to heavier market weights. The pig producer should have the flexibility
to feed to heavier weights part of the year and to lighter weights at other times of the
year.

SHRINKAGE OF PIGS
Pigs lose weight as they are shipped to the market. This weight loss is called
shrinkage. The distance to the market is one of the most important factors in
determining the amount of shrinkage. A shrinkage of 2% can be expected regardless of
how close to the market the pigs are located. This is caused by the sorting, handling,
loading that takes place in the first few kilometers. As the distance hauled and time on
the road increase, the amount of shrinkage increases. For example, pigs hauled 241.4
km or more may shrink as much as 4%.

PIG PRODUCTION 74
Rough handling increases the amount of shrinkage. Temperatures below -6.7 oc or
above 15.5o C also increase the amount of shrinkage. Careful handling of pigs while
sorting and loading reduces losses from shrinkage. It also reduces death losses and
number of damaged carcasses that arrive at the market. Keeping pigs warm in winter
and cool in summer while handling them to market, helps to reduce shrinkage and
other losses.

REFERENCE

1. Gillespie, James R. 1998. Animal Science. Delmar publishers, NY, USA. PP 489-
585.
2. Gillespie, James R. 2005. Modern livestock and Poultry production. Delmar
publishers, NY, USA.
3. Taylor, D.J. (1995). Pig Diseases. Sixth Edition, CTA Publication, Wageningen,
The Netherlands.
2. Holness, D.H. (1991). Pigs: The Tropical Agriculturist, CTA & Mcmillan
Publication,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
3. Agrodok Series No. 1 (1998). Pig Keeping in the Tropics. CTA Publication,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
4. Bishop Burton College, (1997). Pig Nutrition: In the Pig Management Pack for
Distance
Learning, Bishop Burton College, U.K.
5. Nkosi, M.M. (2005). Pig Production Training Manual for Diploma in Animal
Health and
Production students. Natural Resources College, Lilongwe, Malawi.

PIG PRODUCTION 75
APPENDICES

Table 1: example formulations for 15 – 30 kg live weight pigs

Nutr Quantity Example Low

ient formulations CP
inta
ke
and
diet
speci
ficati
on
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 8.5 Wheat 47.7
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine 10.5 Wheatfeed 0
Diet specification Soya 48 22.4
(minima)
Net energy 10.3 Barley 20.0
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Fishmeal 5.0
Lysine 1.28 Soya oil 2.5
Methionine 0.76 Limestone 0.9
+cystine
Threonine 0.83 Monocalcium 0.7
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.24 Salt 0.3
Valine 0.90 Lysine HCL 10.32
Histidine 0.44 Threonine 0.16
Isoleucine 0.74 Methionine 0.12
Oil 4.9Leucine 1.28 Analysis (%)
Minerals (%)Crude 1.23 Crude protein
fibre2.8Phenylalanine +
tyrosinephenylalanine0.73
Calcium 22.1 0.70 NDF 9.4
0.18DE 0.35 Total Lysine 1.40
(Mj/kg)14.6Dig.
Phosphorus
Sodium

PIG PRODUCTION 76
 Table 2: Example Formulations for 30 – 60 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)14.3Wheat
45.352.0St. il. Dig. Lysine15.1Wheatfeed 00Diet specification (minima)Soya
4822.516.6Net energy (MJ/day)9.8Barley 20.020.0St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%)
Extracted oo rape meal7.56.9Lysine 1.04Soya oil1.81.2Methionine
+cystine0.61Limestone 1.01.0Threonine 0.68Monocalcium
phosphate1.21.3Tryptophan 0.20Salt 0.40.4Valine 0.73Lysine HCL0.200.39Histidine
0.35Threonine0.050.14Isoleucine 0.60Methionine 00.06Leucine 1.04Analysis
(%)phenylalanine0.59Oil 4.13.5Phenylalanine + tyrosine1.04Crude
protein20.818.8Minerals (%)Crude fibre3.83.6Calcium 0.76NDF11.011.0Dig.
Phosphorus0.26Total Lysine1.181.16Sodium 0.18DE (Mj/kg)14.013.8

PIG PRODUCTION 77
 Table 3: Example Formulations for 60 – 90 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)19.9Wheat
27.449.4St. il. Dig. Lysine17.9Wheatfeed 14.316.4Diet specification (minima)Soya
4825.05.6Net energy (MJ/day)9.4Barley 30.015.0St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%)
Extracted oo rape meal0.010.0Lysine 0.85Soya oil0.90.7Methionine
+cystine0.50Limestone 1.41.3Threonine 0.55Monocalcium
phosphate0.60.6Tryptophan 0.16Salt 0.40.4Valine 0.60Lysine HCL0.00.4Histidine
0.29Threonine0.00.12Isoleucine 0.49Methionine 00.0Leucine 0.85Analysis
(%)phenylalanine0.48Oil 3.53.5Phenylalanine + tyrosine0.85Crude
protein20.616.2Minerals (%)Crude fibre4.04.8Calcium 0.73NDF13.915.7Dig.
Phosphorus0.25Total Lysine1.021.0Sodium 0.18DE (Mj/kg)13.513.2

PIG PRODUCTION 78
Table 4: Example Formulations for 90 – 120 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)23.1Wheat
25.645.9St. il. Dig. Lysine17.9Wheat feed 25.025.0Diet specification (minima)Soya
4816.20.0Net energy (MJ/day)9.2Barley 30.015.2St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%)
Extracted oo rape meal0.310.7Lysine 0.71Soya oil0.60.5Methionine
+cystine0.42Limestone 1.31.2Threonine 0.46Monocalcium
phosphate0.50.5Tryptophan 0.13Salt 0.40.4Valine 0.50Lysine HCL0.00.35Histidine
0.24Threonine0.00.09Isoleucine 0.41Methionine 00.0Leucine 0.71Analysis
(%)phenylalanine0.40Oil 3.53.5Phenylalanine + tyrosine0.71Crude
protein17.914.7Minerals (%)Crude fibre4.65.3Calcium 0.70NDF16.818.0Dig.
Phosphorus0.23Total Lysine0.840.85Sodium 0.18DE (Mj/kg)13.112.8

PIG PRODUCTION 79
Table 5: Example specifications and Formulations for pregnant sows and gilts

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)22.4Wheat
36.839.2St. il. Dig. Lysine (g/dy)
Feed intake (kg/dy)
11.3
2.3Wheat feed 25.025.0Diet specification (minima)Soya 484.50.0Net energy
(MJ/day)9.7Barley 30.030.0St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 00Lysine
0.49Soya oil1.01.0Methionine +cystine0.32Limestone 1.71.9Threonine
0.35Monocalcium phosphate0.50.6Tryptophan 0.10Salt 0.410.42Valine 0.36Lysine
HCL0.090.18Histidine 0.16Threonine0.00.05Isoleucine 0.34Methionine
0.010.0Leucine 0.49Analysis (%)phenylalanine0.27Oil 3.83.8Phenylalanine +
tyrosine0.49Crude protein13.512.5Minerals (%)Crude fibre4.44.4Calcium
0.80NDF17.017.1Dig. Phosphorus0.23Total Lysine0.600.59Sodium 0.17DE
(Mj/kg)13.013.0

PIG PRODUCTION 80
Table 6: Example specifications and Formulations for Lactating sows

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)66.7Wheat
33.229.2St. il. Dig. Lysine (g/dy)
Feed intake (kg/dy)
54.4
7.0Wheat feed 15.015.0Diet specification (minima)Soya 4818.913.0Net energy
(MJ/day)9.5Barley 25.425.4St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 3.03.0Lysine
0.77Soya oil1.51.4Methionine +cystine0.42Limestone 1.61.7Threonine
0.51Monocalcium phosphate0.900.96Tryptophan 0.14Salt 0.50.5Valine 0.59Lysine
HCL0.050.22Histidine 0.31Threonine0.00.07Isoleucine 0.46Methionine
0.000.0Leucine 0.86Analysis (%)phenylalanine0.43Oil 4.04.0Phenylalanine +
tyrosine0.88Crude protein18.016.0Minerals (%)Crude fibre3.83.8Calcium
0.88NDF13.613.9Dig. Phosphorus0.32Total Lysine0.880.88Sodium 0.20DE
(Mj/kg)13.413.3

PIG PRODUCTION 81
Table 7: Example specifications and Formulations for Lactating Gilts

Nutrient intake and diet specificationQuantity Example formulationsHigh

CPLow CPNutrient intakeRaw materialsNet energy (MJ/Day)56.1Wheat
46.535.5St. il. Dig. Lysine (g/dy)
Feed intake (kg/dy)
46.2
5.5Wheat feed 14.1015.0Diet specification (minima)Soya 4821.917.5Net energy
(MJ/day)10.2Barley 10.025.0St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 0.00.0Lysine
0.84Soya oil4.04.2Methionine +cystine0.42Limestone 1.751.80Threonine
0.46Monocalcium phosphate0.071.1Tryptophan 0.15Salt 0.480.48Valine 0.64Lysine
HCL0.050.18Histidine 0.34Threonine0.000.05Isoleucine 0.50Methionine
0.000.0Leucine 0.94Analysis (%)phenylalanine0.47Oil 6.306.0Phenylalanine +
tyrosine0.96Crude protein19.017.5Minerals (%)Crude fibre3.53.5Calcium
0.96NDF12.412.5Dig. Phosphorus0.35Total Lysine0.950.95Sodium 0.20DE
(Mj/kg)14.214.1

PIG PRODUCTION 82