Semiconductor Physics

1. Energy band Formation

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Pauli’s Exclusion Principle which states
that “No two electrons in a given
interacting system can have same
quantum state and hence same energy”.

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In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially a
continuous band of energies.

Pushing the atoms together, the initial

quantized energy level will split into
a band of discrete energy levels.

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 Formation of Energy Bands (Diamond Crystal)

1. Electronic structure of each

carbon atom : 1s2 2s2 2p2.
2. Each atom has two 1s states, two
2s states, six 2p states and the
higher states.
3. Hence for N atoms, there will be
2N, 2N and 6N available states of
type 1s, 2s, and 2p respectively.

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Conduction band, Valance band and Energy Gap :
1. Conduction band is defined as the lowest empty band in the energy band diagram.
2. Valence band is defined as uppermost filled band in the energy band diagram.
3. Forbidden gap or Energy gap is defined as difference between top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band.
If energy of top of the valence band is Ev and energy of bottom of the conduction band is Ec then the energy gap (Eg)
is given by Eg = Ec – Ev.
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Classification of Solids on the basis of band theory :

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Semiconductors:
Semiconductor is a material, which has conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an
insulators and a conductor. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are defined as those materials,
which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a narrow energy
gap of the order of 1 eV between them.

Covalent Bonds in Semiconductors :

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor :
• Intrinsic semiconductor is one that is made of semiconductor material in its extremely pure form. Pure Silicon
and pure Germanium are examples of intrinsic semiconductors.
• At 0K, the electrons in the outer shell of intrinsic semiconductor are tightly bound with the covalent bonds. The
valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty. These bands are separated by
energy gap Eg. In valence band, electrons are present but vacant energy states are not there so that they can
move freely. In conduction band, vacant energy states are present but electrons are not there to move through
these states freely. Hence, there are no free electrons and it behaves as insulator.
• As the temperature increases, some of the valence band electrons get enough energy to overcome the energy
gap and jump to the conductions band. Now, there are few vacant energy states in the valence band, which are
called as “holes” and number of electrons, which can move freely through holes when electric field is applied.
Also, in conduction band, there are some electrons, which can move, freely through already available vacant
states when electric field is applied.

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Observations:
• In intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are generated in pairs. At any temperature, the number of holes
valence band and the number of electrons in conduction band are same.
• As the temperature increases, the number of electron hole pairs increase. Hence the conductivity of the
intrinsic semiconductor is directly proportional to the temperature.
Recombination :
❑ Occasionally, it happens that the electron in the conduction band looses its energy and falls back in the valence
band. The lost energy is given out in the form of radiation (heat or light). This merging of a free electron and a
hole is called as “recombination”.
❑ Recombination occurs continuously in a semiconductor. Incoming heat energy keeps producing electron hole
pairs by lifting valence electrons to the conduction band. The time for which the electron remains in the
conduction band is called as the “lifetime”. Lifetime varies from a few nanoseconds to several microseconds.
After the lifetime of excited electron gets over, it falls back into the valence band. This concept is used in the
production of LEDs and semiconductor lasers.

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Why Si is preferred over Ge?

• Silicon is preferred over Germanium because of its superior thermal properties.

• The maximum operational temperature for Germanium devices is 800C while Silicon devices
may be used at up to 1600C.
• Also, at room temperature, silicon crystal has almost no free electrons compared with
Germanium crystal.

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Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductor :
Doping means adding impurity atoms to the crystal to increase either the number of free electrons or the
number of holes. When the crystal is doped, it is called as an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types
of extrinsic semiconductors depending on the type of impurity (doping material).
n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, a pentavalent impurity such as Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Phosphorous (P) is
added to pure semiconductor to get extra conduction band electrons. The pentavalent atom (Sb) has five
electrons in its valence orbit, out of which four electrons form covalent bonds with four neighbouring
semiconductor (Si) atoms and fifth electron remains loosely bound as shown below -

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Observations:
• This loosely bound electron can be excited to conduction band easily and can be made free. As pentavalent atoms
donate one electron to the conduction band of pure silicon, they are called as donor atoms.
• From the energy band structure viewpoint, the donor atoms introduce filled states called “donor levels” just below
the conduction band. The donor levels have energy approximately 0.1 eV below the lowest level in the conduction
band.
• Hence, donor electrons in donor levels can be easily excited to the conduction band. Once they come in
conduction band, they can move freely when electric field is applied.
• This number of donated electrons in conduction band is much more as compared to the number of electron hole
pairs. Hence, in n-type semiconductor, the electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

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p-type of semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, a trivalent impurity such as Boron (B), Aluminum (Al) is added to pure
semiconductor to get extra vacant states (holes) in the valence band. The trivalent atom (Al) has three
electrons in its valence orbit. All these three electrons form covalent bond with four surrounding
semiconductor atoms (Si). But one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown below –

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Observations:
• Valence band electrons can move freely through the holes when electric field is applied. Trivalent atoms
accept one electron from a Silicon atom and in a process causes the semiconductor atom to have a hole.
Hence, they are known as acceptor atoms.
• From the energy band structure viewpoint, the acceptor atoms introduce available energy states called
acceptor levels just above the valence band. The electrons from valence band can easily jump to these
acceptor levels leaving hole in the valence band.
• In p-type semiconductor, the number of holes in valence band is much more than the number conduction
band electrons. Hence, the current is mainly due to holes. Thus, in p-type semiconductor, holes are
majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP:
𝑝2 2 𝑘2
The energy of electron is given by 𝐸 = = 2𝑚 where p is momentum,  is Planck constant and k is
2𝑚
propagation constant. Thus 𝐸 ∝ 𝑘 2 which is an equation of parabola. The graph of E vs k is parabola as
shown below -

The upper parabola in the conduction band represents free electrons and lower parabola in the valence
band represents holes.

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2. Concept of Fermi Level & Fermi Function

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• A solid is formed by bringing a large
number of atoms together.
• Each atomic level splits into a large number
of closely packed levels and energy bands
are formed.

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 • In metal, there is one partially filled band which is a
result of conduction band overlapping with valence
Conduction Band band. Electrons try to acquire lowest possible energies.
Hence, in this partially filled band, the lowest energy
levels are filled first.
• In metals, only electrons are the current carriers. The
EF highest occupied energy level at absolute zero
temperature i.e. 0K is called the Fermi level and the
energy corresponding to it is called the Fermi energy
Valance Band and is denoted by EF.
• At 0K, all energy states below EF are occupied and all
energy states above EF are empty.
• Fermi level is a measure of energy of least tightly held
electrons within a solid.
Metal (Conductor) @ T=0K

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 • At 0K, all energy states below EF are occupied and
all energy states above EF are empty.
• At higher temperatures, the thermal energy can
excite the electrons to higher energy states and
Conduction Band there may be some empty states below EF.

Fermi Dirac Distribution Function:

At T > 0K, the distribution of electrons over a range

EF of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium in is
given by Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Valance Band 𝟏
𝒇 𝑬 = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝟏+ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

here, k is Boltzmann constant= 1.38x10-23 J/K= 8.62x10-5 eV/ K,

EF is Fermi Energy,
Metal (Conductor) @ T=0K f (E) is Distribution function known as Fermi function.

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 𝟏
𝒇 𝑬 = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝟏+ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

Conduction Band

EF

Valance Band

Metal (Conductor) @ T=0K

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 This indicates all energy levels below
EF are completely filled at absolute
zero temperature.

This indicates all energy levels above EF

are completely empty at absolute zero
temperature.

At T > 0K, probability of occupancy for Fermi Fermi-Dirac Distribution function can not give us
level is always half. probability of occupancy of Fermi level at 0 K.
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Prob.1. Calculate probability of non-occupancy for the energy level which lies 0.01 eV above the Fermi
energy level at 27 0C.
1
Given : T = 300 K, k = 8.62 x 10-5eV / K, Probability of occupancy=f(Ec) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
1 1
Probability of non - occupancy = 1 - f (Ec) = 1- 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 1- .0.01 = 1 − 0.406 = 0.594
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 8.62×10−5 ×300

Prob.2. Fermi level for silver is 5.5 eV. Find out the energy for which the probability of occupancy at 300 K
is 0.9.

Given : T = 300 K, k = 8.62 x 10-5eV / K, EF = 5.5 eV, f(E)=0.9

𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 1 1 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 1
Probability of occupancy=f(E) = ⇒1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = ⇒𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = −1⇒ = ln( − 1)
𝐸−𝐸𝐹 f(E) f(E) 𝑘𝑇 f(E)
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 + 𝑘𝑇 ln − 1 = 5.443 eV
f(E)

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❑ Fermi level in semiconductor :
In semiconductors, we have two types of current carriers – electrons and holes. In semiconductors, the Fermi level
is defined as the reference level that gives the probability of occupancy of states in conduction band as well as
unoccupied states in valence band. Fermi level in semiconductors may also be defined as energy level that
corresponds to the centre of gravity of conduction band electrons and valence band holes weighted according to
their energies.

1. Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor

In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies

at the centre of the forbidden band indicating
that the states occupied in conduction band is
equal to the states unoccupied in the valence
band. It shows that electron concentration in
the conduction band is equal to the hole
concentration in valence band.

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2. Fermi level in Extrinsic semiconductor :

The position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor depends both on doping and on the temperature.
If the intrinsic semiconductor is doped, the Fermi level shifts towards the energy band that has higher
concentration of charge carriers.

n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons
in the conduction band is much higher than that of holes in
the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the
conduction band. At 0K, the Fermi energy level EF lies
between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy
level ED. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in
temperature, the concentration of electrons and holes
changes and the position of Fermi level also change.
At T > 0K, the Fermi level may shift below the donor level
but is always well above the centre of forbidden gap.

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p-type semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that of electrons
in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At 0K, the Fermi energy level
EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level EA. This is shown in the figure. With the
increase in temperature, the concentration of electrons and holes changes and the position of Fermi level also
change. At T > 0K, the Fermi level may shift above the acceptor level but is always well below the centre of
forbidden gap.

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❑ EFFECT OF DOPING CONCENTRATION ON FERMI LEVEL :
1. n-type semiconductor:

In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is much higher than that of holes in
the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the conduction band. At 0K, the Fermi energy level EF lies
between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy level ED. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in
doping concentration, more donor levels are available which result in broadening of the donor levels. Due to more
donor levels near conduction band, more electrons get transferred from these donor levels to conduction band,
resulting in increase in electron concentration in the conduction band. As the electron concentration in conduction
band increases, Fermi level shifts towards conduction band. With very high doping concentration of donor atoms,
the Fermi level may enter the conduction band. Presence of Fermi level inside the conduction band indicates very
high level of doping.
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2. p-type semiconductor:

In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that of electrons
in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At 0K, the Fermi energy level
EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level EA. This is shown in the figure. With the
increase in doping concentration, more acceptor levels are available which result in broadening of the acceptor
levels. Due to more acceptor levels near valence band, more electrons from valence band get transferred to
these acceptor levels resulting in increase in hole concentration in the valence band. As the hole concentration
in valence band increases, Fermi level shifts towards valence band. With very high doping concentration of
acceptor atoms, the Fermi level may enter the valence band. Presence of Fermi level inside the valence band
indicates very high level of doping.

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❑ CARRIER CONCENTRATION :

The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentration of holes and electrons in the semiconductor, if the
density of available states in the valence and conduction bands is known. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band
is given by –

The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of the density of states and the probability of
occupancy f(E). Thus total electron concentration is integral over the entire conduction band. Solving equation (1) we get the
electron concentration in the conduction band as –

Similarly, hole concentration in the valence band is given by –

At thermal equilibrium, electron and hole concentrations given by equations (2) and (3) are valid for intrinsic as well as
extrinsic semiconductor
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For intrinsic semiconductor, n = ni and p = pi and EF = Ei . Therefore,

For intrinsic semiconductor, ni = pi = ni

-------------------------(4)
The product of electron concentration (n) and hole concentration (p) is given by –

NC NV e−(EC−EV )/kT

-------------------------(5)

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 ❑ FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR LIES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
FORBIDDEN GAP :

Let at any temperature T > 0 K

nc = electron concentration in conduction band, nv = hole concentration valence band, N = total number of electrons

The total number of electrons in conduction band is –

where NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band.

The total number of holes in valence band is –

where NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.

Effective density of states in conduction band and valence band are same

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For intrinsic semiconductor, electron concentration in conduction band and hole concentration in valence band
are same.

---------------------------(4)

Therefore, Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor lies exactly in the middle of the forbidden gap.

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Prob.1. What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to conduction band in intrinsic Si
at 270C. The band gap energy of Si is 1.12 eV.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / K, Eg = 1.12 eV

For intrinsic semiconductor, EC + EV

EF =
2
Eg 1.12
∴ EC −EF = EF − EV = = = 0.56 eV
2 2

Probability of finding electron in conduction band -

1
f(Ec) = 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 = 3.93 × 10−10
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

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Prob.2. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies 0.4 eV below the conduction band. If the concentration
of donor atoms is doubled, find the new position of the Fermi level w.r.t. conduction band.

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3. Conductivity, current density and mobility

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❑ CONDUCTIVITY AND MOBILITY :
The charge carriers in a solid are in constant random motion, even at thermal equilibrium. At room temperature,
the thermal motion of an individual electron may be visualized as random scattering from lattice atoms,
impurities and other electrons as shown in fig.

As this is a random motion of electrons, net current due to such randomly moving electrons is zero. However,
under the influence of electric field (E), each electron experiences a force F = – eE. This force is insufficient to
change the random motion of electrons but, effect of this force when averaged over all electrons, results in a net
motion of group of electrons in the direction opposite to the direction of electric field. The net motion of
electrons in a particular direction under the influence of electric field is called drift motion. The current
resulting due to this drift motion is called as drift current.

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Drift current density (J) is defined as the drift current per unit area of cross section of the conductor.

Electric field (E) is the potential drop per unit length of the conductor.

Resistivity (𝝆 ) is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit cross sectional area.

Conductivity ( 𝝈) is the reciprocal of resistivity.

From equation (4) and (2)

This is the relation between current density and conductivity.

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Drift velocity (v) is defined as net displacement in electron position per unit time under the influence of electric
field.
Mobility (𝝁) of electrons is defined as average drift velocity acquired by the electrons per unit electric field

--------------------------------(6)

❑ Relation between conductivity and mobility :

If v is drift velocity of electrons, length traversed by the electrons in unit time = v
Therefore, volume swept by electrons in unit time = v A
If ‘n’ is number of electrons per unit volume, electrons in volume vA = nvA
If e is charge on electron, charge flowing per unit time = current I = nevA
I
∴ Current density, J = A = nev −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −(𝟕)

From equation (5) and (6)

Conductivity,

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❑ Conductivity of Semiconductors :
In semiconductors, the conduction takes place due to electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band.
Hence, the conductivity of semiconductor is equal to the sum of the conductivity due to electrons and holes.

∴ Conductivity of a semiconductor is -

where, n is electron density (number of electrons per unit volume)

p is hole density (number of holes per unit volume)
e is charge on electron
μn is electron mobility
μp is hole mobility

❑ Conductivity of Intrinsic semiconductor :

For intrinsic semiconductor, the free electron density (concentration) is equal to free hole density i.e. n = p =
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration.
Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is -
σ = ni . e. μn + ni . e. μp = ni . e(μn + μp )

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❑ Conductivity of Extrinsic semiconductor :

For n- type semiconductor, n >> p. Hence, neglecting the hole concentration, the conductivity of n-type
semiconductor can be written as –
σ = n. e. μn = Nd . e. μn where, Nd is concentration of donor atoms

For p- type semiconductor, p >> n. Hence, neglecting the electron concentration, the conductivity of p-type
semiconductor can be written as –
σ = p. e. μp = Na . e. μp where, Na is concentration of acceptor atoms

Why mobility of holes is less than that of electrons?

Electrons in the conduction band can move more freely as in conduction band large number of empty states is
available. So, mobility of electrons in conduction band is more.
Holes are empty states in the valence band. Holes move in a valence band. Moving holes is nothing but electrons
moving through these empty states. Valence band has large number filled states i.e. large number of electrons.
Empty states i.e. holes are comparatively less. Thus, in valence band, large number of electrons moves through
less number of empty states. So, they cannot move as freely as electrons. And therefore, mobility of holes in
valence band is less.

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Prob.1. Find resistivity of Ge at 300K. Given density of carriers is 2.5 x 1019 / m3. Mobility of
electrons is 0.39 m2/V-sec, mobility of holes = 0.19 m2 /V-sec.

Given:

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Prob.2. The resistivity of intrinsic InSb at room temperature is 2 x 10-4 ohm-cm. If the mobility of
electron is 6 m2/V-sec and mobility of hole is 0.2 m2/V-sec, calculate its intrinsic carrier density.

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Prob.3. Find resistivity of Copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron for
conduction. Given density of Cu = 8.96 gm / cm3, atomic weight = 63.5, Avogadro’s Number =
6.023 x 1023 / gm-mole, Mobility of electron = 43.3 cm2/V-sec.

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Prob.4. Calculate the number of donor atoms which must be added to an intrinsic semiconductor to obtain
the resistivity as 10-6 ohm-cm. Use mobility of electron = 1000 cm2/V-sec.

ND=?

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Prob.5. Silicon sample is doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. Intrinsic concentration for Silicon at room
temperature is 1.5 x 1010 /cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration at room temperature? Show
the position of Fermi level.

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❑ HALL EFFECT :
If a metal or semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, an electric field E
is induced in the direction perpendicular to both the direction of current and magnetic field. This phenomenon
is called as Hall Effect. The electric field produced is called as Hall field.
Consider a rectangular plate of n-type semiconductor. Let I be the current flowing through this plate in X-
direction. This plate is kept in the magnetic field B acting along Z-direction. This induces electric field E
along negative Y direction. The reason behind this electric field is the magnetic force acts on the electrons in
vertically downwards direction. This makes lower surface of the plate at negative potential with respect to the
upper surface and the potential difference VH is produced across the plate.

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The current through the semiconductor is given by – I = n e A v -----------------(1)
where n is concentration of electrons,
A is area of cross section of the plate, e is charge on the electron,
v is average drift velocity of electrons.
At equilibrium,
electric force on electrons = magnetic force on electrons
e EH = e v B -----------------(2)
V
where EH= DH is the Hall field, VH is called as the Hall voltage.

Thus,

Hall coefficient is defined

as the Hall field per unit
magnetic induction per unit
-----------------(3) current density.

where is called as Hall coefficient. ---(4)

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Importance of Hall Effect is that it helps –
(i) To determine carrier concentration. From equation (3) if VH, B, I, w are known ‘n’ can be
calculated.
(ii) To determine type of the semiconductor. For n-type semiconductor direction of EH is vertically downward
and that for p-type semiconductor will be vertically upward.
(iii)To determine mobility  of the charge carriers if conductivity of the conductor / semiconductor is known.

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