Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

INTEGRATED PROGRAMME
(CLASS X)
2024-2025

PHYSICS

Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA
Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800
Arunapuram Campus, Ph: 04822 - 212415, 210949, 216975
Ernakulam - Ph: 0484 - 2665080, 2665090

www.brilliantpala.org., email: brilliantstudycentre@gmail.com

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

CONTENTS

1. Electricity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 05

2. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and EMI ---------------------------------------------- 43

3. Light --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86

4. Heat -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 137

5. Source of Energy ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 163

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

1
CHAPTER -
ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles. This can be either statically as an
accumulation of charge (static electricity) or dynamically as a current.
I. Static Electricity
A branch of physics which deals with the study of the electric charges at rest and their effects is known as
electrostatics or static electricity.
II. Electric Charge
a) Definition :
Electric charge may be defined as the intrinsic property of certain fundamental particles (electron, proton, etc)
due to which they produce electric and magnetic effects.
b) Charge on a body:
Excess or deficiency of electrons in a body produces a charge on a body. A body having excess of electrons is
negatively charged and a body having deficiency of electrons is positively charged.
From the study of atomic structure, we know that in an atom there are a number of electrons revolving in
different paths or orbits. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged particle while
a neutron has no charge. Therefore, the nucleus of an atom bears a positive charge. An electron is a negatively
charged particle having negative charge equal to the positive charge on a proton. Normally, the number of electrons
is equal to the number of protons in an atom. Therefore, an atom is electrically neutral as a whole; the negative
charge on electrons cancelling the positive charge on protons. This leads to the conclusion that under ordinary
conditions, a body is neutral i.e. it exhibits no charge.
When this equality or balance is disturbed by removing or supplying electrons, the body acquires a net charge.
The body will acquire a positive or negative charge depending upon whether electrons are removed from it or added
to it.
c) Types of Electric Charge :
There are two types of charges. They are :
(i) Positive charge - Charge possessed by a proton
(ii) Negative charge - Charge possessed by electrons
d) Charging of a body :
There are a number of methods to charge a body as :
(i) Charging by friction
(ii) Charging by conduction
(iii) Charging by induction etc.
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(i) Charging by friction :

Whenever two bodies (at least one non conductor) are rubbed against each other, heat is produced due to
friction present between them. Due to this heat produced, electrons in both the bodies are excited. The body having
more electron affinity attracts some of the electrons from other body. Both the bodies develop equal and opposite
charges by this method.

Positive Charge Negative Charge

1. Glass Rod 1. Silk cloth
2. Fur or woolen cloth 2. Ebonite, Amber, Rubber rod
3. Woolen coat 3. Plastic sheat
4. Woolen carpet 4. Rubber shoes
5. Nylon or Acrilie 5. Cloth
6. Dry hair 6. Comb

 Note : The object in above table must be in given pair,

(ii) Charging by conduction :
If an uncharged conductor is touched with a positively or negatively charged conductor, then the uncharged
conductor also acquires the charge possessed by the charged conductor. This process is called charging by conduction.
Take an uncharged metal rod A and place it on an insulating stand as shown in figure (a) bring a positively
charged conductor B with an insulating handle near it and touch the metal rod A figure (b). You will observe that the
uncharged metal rod becomes positively charged. Try the same activity with a negatively charged conductor.
Observe the charge on the uncharged conductor.

uncharged conductor
A A B

insulating
stand charged
conductor

insulating
handle
(a) (b)

(iii) Charging by induction : The process of charging a body by keeping it near a charged body, but not
touching it, is called charging by induction.
Take a metal rod A on an insulating stand. Bring a positively charged conductor B with an insulating handle near
it. Let the charged conductor be touched with your finger. Now, remove your finger first and then remove the
charged conductor. The uncharged conductor becomes negatively charged. (figure).

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

uncharged metal
B A
point in
earth
charged
conductor

insulated
half

a) Properties of Electric Charge :

(i) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

+ + + –

(ii) Charge is a scalar quantity

(iii) Charge is always quantized : The amount of charge on a charged body is always an integral multiple of the
elementary charge. (the fractional multiple is not possible) i.e.,  Q   ne 
(iv) Charge is conserved : Whenever two bodies are charged by rubbing, one gets positively charged and the
other negatively charged. The net charge on the two bodies, however, remains zero- the same as that
before rubbing. In other words, charge is conserved. It can neither be created nor destroyed. The only
thing that happens on rubbing is that charged particles (electrons) get transferred from one body to the
other.
In some phenomena, charged particles are created. But even then the conservation of charge holds. For
example, a free neutron converts itself into an electron and a proton, again the charge is conserved.
(v) Charge is always associated with mass.
(vi) Total charge of system remains conserved.
b) Unit of Charge :
The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb abbreviated as C. Charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
1
No. of electrons in 1 C of charge   6.25  1018
1.6 10 19
Thus, when we say that a body has a positive charge of one coulomb (i.e. + 1C) it means that the body has a
deficit of 625 ×1016 electrons from the neutral state.
Example 1 : How many electron pass through a lamp in 1 minute if the current in it is 300 mA. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
Solution: Total charge q  I  t  300  103  60  18 C

Total charge 18
No electrons flowing in 1 minute  charge of electron  1.6  1019  1.125 10 electrons
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III Coulomb’s Law

Charles Augustine de Coulomb studied the interaction forces of charged particles in detail in 1784. He used a
torsion balance. On the basis of his experiments he established Coulomb’s law. According to this law the magnitude
of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acts along the straight line joining
the two charges.
In mathematical terms, the force that each of the two point charges q1 and q2 at a distance r apart exerts on the
other can be expressed as-

q1q 2
Fk
r2
This force is repulsive for like charges and attractive for unlike charges.

1
Where k is a constant of proportionality. k  4
0

here 0 is absolute permittivity of free space.

The force is directed along the line joining the centres of the two charged particles.
For any other medium except air, free space or vacuum, Coulomb’s law reduces to

1 q1q 2
F
4 r 2
 = Permittivity of the medium
and    0 r


r 
0 ,  r  relative Permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium.

Example 2 : Calculate the electrostatic force between the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom, if the radius of
the electron orbit is 0.05 nm and charge on the electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C.

1 q1q 2
Solution : By Coulombs inverse sq. law, F  4 r2
0

Magnitude of charge on proton and charge on electron are same

1
 9  109
4 0

9 109  1.6  1019  1.6  1019

F  9.216  108 N
 0.05 10 
9 2

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Example 3 : Force between two charges is 36 × 10–6 N when separated by a certain distance. On increasing the
separation by 5 m the force reduce to 25 × 10–6 N. If one charge is 10 times the other find the initial separation and
magnitude of charges.

1 q1q 2 9  109  10q  q

F  6
Solution : 1 4 d 2 , 36  10 
0 d2

1
9  109  10q 2 F1 36 d2 d5 6
F2  25  106     
; 1
 d  5 F2 25 d 5
2

 d  5
2

6 9  109  10q  q
5d  25  6d ; d = 25 m ; 36  10 
252

36 106  252
q2   25 1014  q1  0.5  10 6 C ; q 2  0.5  10 6 C
9  1010

IV. Electric Field

Electric field due to a given charge is defined as the space around the charge in which electrostatic force of
attraction or repulsion due to charge can be experienced by any other charge. If a test charge experiences no force
at a point, the electric field at that point must be zero.
Electric field intensity at any point is the strength of electric field at that point. It is defined as the force experienced
by unit positive charge placed at that point.
If F is the force acting on a test charge +q0 at any point then electric field intensity at this point is given by

F
E
q0

Electric field is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is Newton per coulomb (N/C).
V. Properties of Electric Field Intensity
(i) It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the force experienced by positive charge
(ii) Electric field due to positive charge is always away from it while due to negative charge always towards it.
(iii) Its S.I. unit is Newton/Coulomb.

(iv) Electric force on a charge q placed in a region of electric field, where the electric field intensity is E is given

by F  qE
(v) It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the field intensity at a point due to a system of charges is the
vector sum of the field intensities due to individual point charges.
   
E  E1  E 2  E 3  ......
(vi) The electric field will be of a fixed value at a point unless we change the distribution of the charges.
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VI. Electric Lines of Force

The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary line, the tangent to which at any point on it represents the
direction of electric field at the given point.
a) Properties :
(i) Line of force originates out from a positive charge and terminates on a negative charge. If there is only one
positive charge then lines start from positive charge and terminate at  . If there is only one negative charge
then lines start from  and terminates at negative charge.

ELOF of Isolated positive charge

ELOF of Isolated negative charge

+ –

ELOF due to positive and negative charge

+ +

ELOF due to two positive charges

(ii) The electric intensity at a point is the number of lines of force passing through unit area normal to the
direction of the intensity at that point. The intensity will be more where the density of lines is more.

A
EA > EB

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

(iii) Number of lines originating (terminating) from (on) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge
(iv) ELOF of a charge can never intersect with each other.
(v) Electric lines of force produced by static charges do not form close loop
(vi) Electric lines of force end or start perpendicularly on the surface of a conductor.
(vii) Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.
VII. Electric Flux
The total number of lines of force crossing an area is called electric flux. Consider a surface S in an electric field
 
E . Let us select a small area element dS on this surface.
 
The electric flux of the field over the area element is given by dE  E.ds

dS E

n S


If the electric field is uniform over the area S then total flux E  E.S

Unit of electric flux:

(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm 2 C 1 or J m C-1 .

(ii) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be positive, negative or zero)
VIII. Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit +ve
charge from infinity to that point, without acceleration.
Mathematically,

W
V
q
Since work is measured in joule and charge in coulomb, therefore electric potential is measured in joule per
coulomb (J/C). This unit occurs so often in our study of electricity, so it has been named as volt, in honour of the
scientist Alessandro Volta (the inventor of the voltaic cell).

1 joule
1 Volt 
1 coulomb

Potential is a scalar quantity, therefore it is added algebraically. For a positively charged body potential is
positive and for a negatively charged body potential is negative.
 We can say potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the direction of flow of charge when
the two conductors are kept in contact.
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c) Electric Potential Difference :

Consider a charge Q placed at a point P. Let A and B be two other points (B being closer to A) as shown in
figure.
Q B A q
P From infinity
If a charge q is brought from infinity to A, work WA will be done.

WA
Then potential at A will then be, VA 
q

WB
If charge q is brought from infinity to B, the work done will be WB, then VB  .
q
The quantity VB  VA is called the potential difference between points A and B in the electric field of charge Q.
Mathematically we have,

WB WA
VB  VA  
q q
Electric potential difference is also measured in volt.
Example 4 : 30 J of work is done in moving a charge q between two points having potential difference 12 volt. Find
the value of the the charge q.

W 30
Solution : Charge q    2.5 C
V 12
Example 5 : Charges 3 × 10–6 C and 2 × 10–6 C are placed at corners A and B of a square of side 8 cm as in fig.
How much work is done against electric field in moving a charge of 2 × 10–6 C from C to D.

A B

8 cm

D C
8 cm

Solution: Potential difference between C and D will give the work done in shifting unit charge from C to D.
1  q1 q 
Potential at D, VD    2 
40  AD BD 

From fig. BD  BC 2  CD 2  82  82  8 2 cm  0.08 2 m

AD = 0.08 m

 3 10 6 2  106  9 109  106  2 

 VD  9  109     3   496.6  10 V
3

 0.08 0.08 2  0.08  2

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 2 106 3 106  9 109  106  3 

Potential at C, VC  9  10  0.08   2  238.6  103 V
9

0.08  
 0.08 2   2

P.D. btween D and C   496.6  103  238.6  103   258  103 V

 Work done in moving a charge 2 × 10–6 C from C to D is

W  q  VD  VC   2  106  258 103  0.52 J

IX Electric Potential Energy

Consider a charge Q placed at a point P as shown in figure. If another charge q of the same sign is now brought
from a very far away distance (infinity) to point O near P, then charge q will experience a force of repulsion due to
charge Q. If charge q is still pushed towards P, work is done. This work done is the potential energy of the system
of these two charges.

Q
q q
r
P O From infinity

Thus, the electric potential energy of a system of charges is defined as the amount of work done in bringing
various charges from infinite separation to their present positions to form the required system. It is denoted by U.
For the system of two charges separated by distance r as shown in figure, the electric potential energy is given by :

kQq
U
r

Electric potential energy is measured in joule (J). The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument
called voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points where the potential difference is to be
measured.

X Current Electricity

A branch of physics which deals with the study of the electric charges in motion and their effects is known as
current electricity.

XI Electric Current

A) Charges in motion

When two charged bodies at different potential are connected by a conducting wire, electrons flow from the
body at lower potential to the one at higher potential till the potentials of both the bodies become equal i.e., potential
difference between the two bodies becomes zero. Figure shows the two oppositely charged conductors A and B
which are held on stands. The positively charged conductor A is said to be at higher potential and the negatively
charged conductor B is said to be at lower potential.

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High potential Low potential

+ + +

+ + +
+ + +
A + Current B
Negatively charged
+
Positively charged Wire
conductor conductor

Insulated
stands

Negative charge starts flowing from conductor B to conductor A. Flow of charge will stop when both the
conductors A and B acquire the same potential.
This rate of flow of electric charge from one body to another through a conductor is called electric current and
its direction is opposite to direction of flow of electrons
or
The quantity of charge passing through a given point of the conductor in one second is called electric current.
Thus, if Q is the charge which flows through a conductor in time t, then the electric current is given by
Charge  Q 
Current  I  
Time  t 
Q
or I 
t
or Q  It
Note : The electric current is a scalar quantity.
b) Unit of current :
S.I. unit of current is ampere. which is denoted by letter A. Current is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of
charge flows through any cross section of a conductor in one second, i.e.

1 coulomb
1 ampere 
1 second

or 1A  1 C S1
Smaller units of current :
1 milliampere (mA) = 10-3 A

1 microampere   A   106 A

c) Direction of Electric Current :

Electric current was considered to be a flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of the positive charges
was taken to be the direction of electric current. Thus, the conventional direction of electric current is from positive
terminal of a cell (or battery) to the negative terminal through the external circuit.
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

d) How the Current Flows in a Wire :

As electric current is the flow of electrons in a metal wire (or conductor) when a cell or battery is connected
across its ends. A metal wire has plenty of free electrons in it. When the metal wire has not been connected to a
source of electricity like a cell or a battery, then the electrons present in it move at random in all the directions
between the atoms of the metal wire as shown in figure below.

e e e
e e
Metal Wire
e e
e

When a source of electricity like a cell or a battery is connected between the ends of the metal wire, then an
electric force acts on the electrons present in the wire. Since the electrons are negatively charged, they start moving
from negative end to the positive end of the wire and this flow of electrons constitutes the electric current in the wire.

e e e e
e e e e
Direction of conventional Current
+ –
Cell

e) How to get a Continuous flow of Electric Current :

To get a continuous current flow there should be a P.D. between the ends of the conductor. For this a cell is
connected between the ends of the conductor.
Due to the chemical reactions inside the cell or battery, a potential difference is maintained between its terminals
and this potential difference drives the current in the circuit
XII Electrical Resistance
a) Ohm’s Law :
Ohm’s law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions (mechanical strain etc.), remain unchanged
i.e., I  V or V  I or V  RI
Where R is a constant called resistance of the conductor.
Ohm’s law, is named after the German physicist George Simon Ohm (1789 - 1854), who formulated it.
It is quite clear from the above equation that
(i) The current I is proportional to the potential difference V between the ends of the conductor.
(ii) If V is constant, then current I is inversely proportional to the resistance.
Example 6 : A heater of resistance 100  is connected to 220 V line. How much current will the heater draw?

V 220
Solution : By Ohms law  I    2.2 A
R 100

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Experimental verification of ohm’s law :

Set up a circuit as shown in the figure below consisting of a wire AB, a current measuring instrument called
ammeter, an instrument measuring the potential difference called voltmeter and a number of cells, each of which
provides some constant potential difference across the two points of a conductor. Rheostat is a variable resistor.
Adjust the position of the rheostat for a particular voltage and measure the current. Then change the position of
Rheostat for various voltages and measure the current in each case.
+ Rheostat
B Rh
()
K –
A
+
V

A R B
V
Note the successive readings in the ammeter and the voltmeter. Now calculate in each case which shows
I
V
that is a constant verifying Ohms law..
I

Now, plot a graph between the current and the potential difference, we will get a straight line graph. Showing
that the current is directly proportional to P.D. The slope of the graph gives the resistance of the conductor.

4V
difference (V)

3V
×

2V
×
Potential

V
×

I 2I 3I 4I
Current (A)
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

b) Resistance of a Conductor:
The electric current is produced due to the flow of electrons through a conductor. When the electrons move
from one part of the conductor to the other part, they collide with other electrons and with the atoms and ions
present in the body of the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is some obstruction or opposition to the flow of
electrons through the conductor.
The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it, is called resistance.

Potential difference
 Resistance =
Current
V
or R 
I
V
Slope of graph, tan   R
I
c) Unit of Resistance :
The S.I. unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by the symbol  .
When a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to the ends of the conductor and a current of 1 ampere flows
through it, then resistance of the conductor will be 1 ohm.
d) Conductors, Resistors and Insulators :
On the basis of their electrical resistance, all the substances can be divided into three groups : conductors,
resistors and insulators.
(i) Conductors:
Those substances which have very low electrical resistance are called conductors. A conductor allows electricity
to flow through it easily.Silver is the best conductor of electricity. Copper and aluminium are also good conductors.
Electric wires are made of copper or aluminium because they have very low electrical resistance.
(ii) Resistors :
Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance, are called resistors. The alloys like
nichrome, manganin and constantan (or ureka), all have quite high resistances, so they are used to make electrical
devices where high resistance is required. A resistor reduces the current in the circuit.
(iii) Insulators :
Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called insulators. An insulator does not
allow electricity to flow through it. Rubber is an excellent insulator. Electricians wear rubber handgloves while
working with electricity because rubber is an insulator and protects them from electric shocks. Wood is also a good
insulator.
e) Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor :
Resistance depends upon the following factors :-
(i) Length of the conductor.
(ii) Area of cross section of the conductor (or thickness of the conductor)
(iii) Nature of the material of the conductor.
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(iv) Temperature of the conductor. It has heen found by experiments that :

(i) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length i.e.

RL ......  i 

1
(ii) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section i.e., R 
A
L
 R , where  is the specific resistance.
A
XIII Effect of Stretching of a wire on resistance:
In stretching, the density of wire usually does not change. Therefore
Volume before stretching = Volume after stretching

l1A1  l2 A 2

R 2 l2 A1
and R  l  A
1 1 2

A1 l 2
If information of lengths before and after stretching is given, then use A  l
2 1

2
R 2  l2 
 
R 1  l1 
If information of radius r1 and r2 is given then use

l2 A1

l1 A 2

2 4
R 2  A1   r1 
   
R 1  A 2   r2 

XIV Resistivity

RA
Resistivity,   ----------(iv)
L
By using this formula, we will now obtain the definition of resistivity. Let us take a conductor having a area of
cross section of 1 m2 and a length of 1 m. So, putting A = 1 and L = 1 in equation (iv), we get :
Resistivity,   R
Resistivity :
The resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre
long and 1 metre square in cross - section. Unit of resistivity, ohm-m.
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

ohm   metre 
2

' '   ohm  metre

metre
The S.I. unit of resistivity is ohm-metre which is written in symbols as   m

Resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends only on the nature of the
substance. The resistivity of a substance is its characteristic property. So, we can use the resistivity to compare the
resistances of two or more substances
(i) Importance of resistivity :
A good conductor of electricity should have a low resistivity and a poor conductor of electricity should have a
high resistivity. The resistivity of alloy are much higher than those of the pure metals.
It is due to their high resistivities that manganin and constantan alloys are used to make resistance wires used in
electronic appliances to reduce the current in an electrical circuit.
Example 7 : What length of the wire is needed to make a resistance of 50  with area of cross section 2.5  107 m 2
by a wire of resistivity 100  108  m

RA RA 50  2.5  107
Solution:   , L   12.5 m
L  100 108

XV. Conductivity
Conductivity is the ability of a conductor to conduct current. The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity
1
that means   and its S.I. unit is  1m 1 or siemen meter-1

XVI. Combination of Resistances
The current in a circuit depends on resistance of the circuit. So, in the electrical circuits two or more resistances
are combined to get the required current in the circuit.
We can combine the resistances lengthwise (called series) or we can connect the resistances parallel to one
another. Thus, the resistances can be combined in two ways:
(i) series combination (ii) parallel combination
(i) Series combination of resistors :
Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series to a cell of potential difference V as shown in figure.
Since the three resistors are connected in series therefore the current I through each of them is same.

By Ohm’s law the potential drop across each resistor is given by V1  IR 1 , V2  IR 2 and V3  IR 3 .
Since V is the total potential in the circuit, therefore by conservation of energy we have
V  V1  V2  V3

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Substituting for V1 , V2 and V3 in above equation we have,

V  IR1  IR 2  IR 3 -------(i)
If Rs is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then by Ohm’s law we have

V  IR s ---------(ii)
Therefore from equations (i) and (ii) we have

IR s  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3

Hence R s  R1  R 2  R 3

A B C D A Rs D
R1 R2 R3
I I
V
+ – + –
Battery V

Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. For more resistors,
the above expression would have been R s  R 1  R 2  R 3  ..............
 Features of series combination :
(A) The current is same in each resistor of the circuit
(B) The resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to sum of the individual resistances
(C) The total voltage across the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across the individual
resistors.
(D) The equivalent resistance is greater than that of any individual resistance in the series combination.
(ii) Parallel combination of resistors :
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel as shown in figure. When the current I reaches point ‘a’,
it splits into two parts I1 going through R1 and I2 going through R2. If R1 is greater than R2, then I1 will be less than I2
i.e. the current will tend to take the path of least resistance.
I1 R1 Rp
a b
a b
R2
I I2
+ –
+ – I
V V
Since charge must be conserved, the current I that enters at point ‘a’ must be equal to the current that leaves
that point. Therefore we have
I  I1  I 2 ..........  i 
Since the resistors are connected in parallel, the potential across each resistor must be same, hence by Ohm’s
law we have

20
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

V V
I1  and I 2 
R1 R2
substituting in equation (i) we have.
V V
I  .............  ii 
R1 R 2
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then by Ohm’s law we have

V
I ...........  iii 
Rp
Hence from equations (ii) and (iii) we have.

V V V 1 1 1
  or  
R p R1 R 2 R p R1 R 2
An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel gives the following general expression

1 1 1 1
    ..........
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Features of parallel combination :
(A) The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance is equal to the reciprocal of equivalent resistance
(Rp).
(B) The currents in various resistors are inversely proportional to the resistances, higher the resistance of a
branch, the lower will be the current through it. The total current is the sum of the currents flowing in the
different branches.
(C) The voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination is the same and is equal to the voltage across the
applied circuit.

Rs nR
Note : For n equal resistances R  R / n  n
2

Example 8 : Find the current supplied by the battery in the following circuit.
12 

3V 12  12  12 

Solution: All 4 resistances are parallel in the circuit.

1 1 1 1 1 4
So the effective resistance     
R 12 12 12 12 12

12 3V
R 3   Current in the circuit 3   1 A
4
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

XVII Cell, Battery

A cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Electrochemical cells are of three types:
a) Primary cell b) Secondary cell c) Fuel cell
a) Primary Cell :
It is an electrochemical cell, which cannot be recharged, but the chemicals have to be replaced after a long use.
The reactions taking place in the cell are irreversible.
Eg. Daniel cell, Lechlanche cell, Dry cell etc.
b) Secondary Cell :
Electrical energy can be converted into chemical energy and chemical energy can be converted into electrical
energy in these cells, i.e. secondary cells can be recharged after use. Chemical reaction taking place in these cells are
reversible.
Example : Lead accumulator, Edison cell (alkali cell) and ion nickel cell.
c) Fuel cell
A fule cell is a device that converts chemcial potentail energy (energy stored in molecular bonds) into electrical
energy. If hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are used as fuel, the products of the reactions are water, electricity and heat.
This cell is much efficient.
d) Electro Motive Force of a Cell (E.M.F.) :
It is the maximum potential difference between the two electrodes of the cell when no current is drawn from the
cell or cell is in the open circuit.
e) Potential Difference of a Cell :
It is the difference of potential between two terminals of the cell when current is drawn from it or the cell is in
closed circuit.
f) Internal Resistance of a Cell :
It is the resistance offered to the flow of current inside the cell i.e. internal resistance is the resistance offered to
the flow of current by electrode. Internal resistance decreases with the increase of the area of plates and also with
the decrease of the distance between plates.
XVIII Grouping of Cells
Series combination
E1 E2 E3 ...................En
.......
r1 r2 r3 rn
I

In series connections negative of each cell is connected to positive of next cell. In that case, the current
through the circuit
E1  E 2  .....E n
I
r1  r2  ......rn  R
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Eeq = E1  E 2  E 3  ...........E n
req = r1 + r2 + r3 .............. rn
If n cells of equal emf E and equal internal resistance r, are connected in series through a resistance R1 then
n n E
I ; E eq  n req  nr ; If R << nr, then I  
nr  R nr r
Parallel combination


r I/m


r I/m


r I/m

r
I/m
I

R
For parallel connections, let there are m branches and the positive of each cell is connected to a point then for
a loop.

I E
IR  r0 I
m  r 
R  
 m

r E eq
req  ; I'  I  I', so eq  
m R  req ;

r E eq r m
If R  , I ; If R  , I
m R m r
XIX KIRCHOFFS RULES
There are two laws given by KIRCHOFF for analysing circuit for its current and P.D.
First law (Junction Rule)
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero or sum of the
currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i  0

i5
i1
i4
i2 i3

i1  i 2  i 3  i 4  i 5
This law is based on conservations of charge

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Second law (Loop rule)

In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of the potential differences and emf is zero. E  IR  0 This law is
based on conservation of energy.
R1 R2

I
E  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3  I  R1  R 2  R 3 
E I
R3

r1 E1

R2 I R1 I
E2
r2

 E1  Ir1    E 2  Ir2   IR1  IR 2  0

 E1  E 2   Ir1  Ir2  IR1  IR 2  0
E1  E 2  I  r1  r2   I  R 1  R 2 

E1  E 2
I
r1  r2  R1  R 2
XX. Wheatstone’s Bridge
A Wheatstone’s bridge is a circuit used to find the value of unknown resistances or to compare resistances. A
Wheatstone’s bridge is said to be balanced, when the current through the galvanometer is zero. The condition for
P R
balance of a Wheatstone’s bridge is 
Q S

B i3
P Q
ig
i1
A G C
I i2
R S
i4
D
()

XXI Heating Effect of Current

When the ends of a conductor are connected to a battery, then free electrons move with drift velocity and
electric current flows through the wire. These electrons collide continuously with the ions of the wire and thus the
energy is dissipated. To maintain the electric current in the wire, energy is transferred to the ions of the wire by the

24
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

electrons. This increases the thermal motion of the ions, as a result the temperature of the wire rises. The effect of
electric current due to which heat is produced in a wire when current is passed through it is called heating effect of
current or joule heating. In 1841 Joule found that when current is passed through a conductor the heat produced
across it is :

(i) Directly proportional to the square of the current through the conductor i.e H  I2

(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor i.e. H  R

(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the current is passed i.e. H  t
Combining the above three equations we have

H  I 2 Rt

I 2 Rt
or H  (in calorie)
J
Where J is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat and has a value of J  4.18 J cal1 . The above equation
is called Joule’s law of heating.
In some cases, heating is desirable, while in many cases, such as electric motors, generators or transformers, it
is highly undesirable. Some of the devices in which heating effect of an electric current is desirable, are incandescent
lamps, toasters, electric irons and stoves. The tungsten filament of an incandescent lamp operates at a temperature
of 27000C. Here, we see electrical energy being converted into both heat and light energy.
A) Electric energy:
The fact that conductors offer resistance to the flow of current, means that work must be continuously done to
maintain the current. The role of resistance in electrical circuits is analogous to that of friction in mechanics. The
amount of work done by current I, flowing through a wire of resistance R during the time t is calculated by -
W = QV
but as Q  I t
Therefore, the amount of work done, W is
W  V I t
By substituting the expression for V from Ohm’s law.
V = IR
we finally get W  I 2 Rt
This shows that the electrical energy dissipated or consumed depends on the product of the square of the
current I, flowing through the resistance R and the time t.
(i) Commercial unit of electrical energy (Kilowatt - hour):
The S.I. unit of electrical energy is joule and the commercial unit of electrical energy which is called “kilowatt -
hour”. One kilowatt - hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having a power
rating of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

(ii) Relation between kilowatt hour and Joule.

Kilowatt-hour is the energy utilised at the rate of 1000 watts for 1 hour.
1 kilowatt-hour = 3600000 Joules

1 kWh  3.6  106 J

b) Electric Power :
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed, is termed as electric power. The power P is given
by

P  W / t  I2R
The unit of electric power is watt, which is the power consumed when 1A of current flows at a potential
difference of 1 V.
(i) Unit of power :
The S.I. unit of electric power is ‘watt’ which is denoted by the letter W. The power of 1 watt is the work done
at the rate of 1 Joule per second.
A bigger unit of electric power is kilowatt
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watt.
Power of an agent is also expressed in horse power (hp).
1 hp = 746 watt
Power P in terms of V and R :
We know, P  V  I

V
From Ohm’s law I 
R

V V2
P  V P
R R
(ii) Calculation of Electric bill :
Energy consumed by electric appliances is given by the formula.
Electricity energy (in kWh) =

no of appliance  Power of appliance in watt  Time in hour

1000
Example 9 : Two bulbs A and B are marked 40 W, 220 V and 100 W, 220 V respectively. They are connected
to a 220 V source in series. Calculate the current through each bulb. Which bulb will consume more energy?

V 2 2202
Solution: Resistance of 40 W bulb  R1    1210 
P1 40

26
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

V 2 2202
Resistance of 100 W bulb  R 2    484 
P2 100

When they are connected in series Total resistance  R1  R 2  1694 

220
 current in the circuit   0.1298 A
1694
Since same current passes through each bulb.

Energy consumed in bulb A, P1 = I2R1  0.12982  1210  20.38 W

Energy consumed by B, P2  0.12982  484  8.15 W
Hence bulb A will consume more energy when connected in series.
Example 10 : An electric heater is used everyday for 150 mins. The electricity bill for 60 days is 120 units.
Calculate the power of the electric heater.
Solution : Let P is the power of the electric heater.
days  P  hrs
Energy consumed 
1000
energy consumed×1000 120  1000
P   800 W
days×hrs 60  2.5
c) Power -Voltage Rating of Electrical Appliances :
Every electrical appliance like an electric bulb, radio or fan has a label or engraved plate on it which tells us the
voltage (to be applied) and the electrical power consumed by it. For example, if we look at a particular bulb in our
home, it may have the figures 220 V, 100 W written on it. Now, 220 V means that this bulb is to be used on a voltage
of 220 volts and 100 W which means, it has power consumption of 100 watts or 100 joules per second, when
supplied a voltage of 220 volt.
d) Applications of Heating Effect of Current :
Domestic electrical appliances such as electric bulb, electric iron, geyser, room heater etc work on heating
effect of current and are rated in terms of voltage and wattage. The coils of these devices are made of a material of
a very high resistance, (for instance nichrome or tungsten) such that when a current passes through the coil, heat is
generated. Generally the potential difference applied to the electrical appliance is the same as that of the mains i.e.
220 - 230 V in India and 110 V in U.S.A, Canada etc.
e) Electric Fuses :
An electric fuse is an easily fusible wire of short length put into an electrical circuit for protection purposes. It is
arranged to melt above a definite current.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

It is an alloy of lead and tin (37% lead + 63 % tin).It has a low resistivity and low melting point. As soon as the
safe limit of current exceeds, the fuse “blows” and the electric circuit is cut off.
XXII Household Electrical Circuit

Power Station 33 kV
132 kV To heavy industries
Boiler 11 kV To light industries
Inter- 220 V
mediate City City Consumer
Generator Sub at 220 V
Station

Electric power is usually generated at places which are very far from the places where it is consumed. At the
generating station, the electric power is generated at 11,000 volt. This voltage is alternating, of frequency 50 Hz (i.e.
changing its polarity 100 times in a second). The power is transmitted over long distance at high voltage to minimise
the loss of energy in the transmission line wires. For a given electric power, the current becomes low at a high voltage
and therefore the loss of energy due to heating (I2 Rt) becomes less. Thus, the alternating voltage is stepped up from
11 kV to 132 kV at the generating station (or called grid sub-station). It is then transmitted to the main sub-station.
At the main sub-station, this voltage is stepped down to 33 kV and is transmitted to the switching transformer station
or the city sub-station. At the city sub-station, it is further stepped down to 220 V for supply to the consumer as
shown in figure.
phase
Line Fuse phase load
kWh P P
MCB Load
meter N N
Neutral Neutral
link Neutral

Connect to metal
Body part
XXIII Electrical Safety
a) Earthing :
Earthing means to connect the metal case of electrical appliance to the earth (at zero potential) by means of a
metal wire called “earth wire”. In household circuits, we have three wires, the live wire, the neutral wire and the earth
wire. One end of the earth wire is buried in the earth. We connect the earth wire to the metal case of the electrical
appliance by using a three-pinplug.

Failed insulation brings wire Metal case of appliance

into contact with metal case
Live
Live
Zero voltage

R
High voltage

Neutral
Neutral
Earth

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

The metal casing of the appliance will now always remain at the zero potential of the earth. We say that the
appliance has been earthed or grounded. If, by chance, the live wire touches the metal case of the electric iron (or
any other appliance) which has been earthed, then the current passes directly to the earth through the earth wire. It
does not need our body to pass the current and therefore, we do not get an electric shock. Actually, a very heavy
current flows through the earth wire and the fuse of house-hold wiring blows out or melt. And it cuts off the power
supply. In this way, earthing also saves the electrical appliance from damage due to excessive current.
Colour coding of wires
An electric appliance is provided with a three-core flexible cable. The insulation on the three wires is of different
colours. The old convention is red for live, black for neutral and green for earth. The new international convention is
brown for live, light blue for neutral and green (or yellow) for earth.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

ELECTRICITY
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. Force between two charges separated by a certain distance in air is F. If each charge were doubled and
distance between them also doubled, force would be
F
A) F B) 2 F C) 4 F D)
4
2. The dielectric constant K of an insulator can be
A) –1 B) 0 C) 0.5 D) 5
3. The electric field that can balance a deutron of mass 3.2 × 10–27 kg is
A) 19.6 × 10–10 N/C B) 19.6 × 10–8 N/C C) 19.6 × 1010 N/C D) 19.6 × 108 N/C
4. A ball of mass 1 g carrying a charge 10–8 C moves from a point A at potential 600 V to a point B at zero
potential. The change in its K.E. is
A) –6 × 10–6 erg B) –6 × 10–6 J C) 6 × 10–6 J D) 6 × 10–6 erg
5. Two conducting spheres of radii r1 and r2 are equally charged. The ratio of their potential is

r1 r2 r12 r22
A) r B) r C) 2 D) 2
2 1 r2 r1

6. The electric flux over a sphere of radius 1 m is  . If radius of the sphere were doubled without changing the
charge enclosed, electric flux would become
 
A) 2 B) C) D) 
2 4
7. Electric flux at a point in an electric field is
A) +ve B) –ve C) zero D) all the above
8. Calculate the electric field intensity which would be just sufficient to balance the weight of a particle of charge
10 C and mass 10 mg
A) 9.8 × 10–2 B) 9.8 × 10–3 C) 9.8 D) 980
9. Graphs between V and I are plotted for a conductor at temperature T1 and T2 as shown in figure.
V
T2
T1

I
A) T1 = T2 B) T1 > T2 C) T1 < T2 D) T1  T2
10. The resistivity of a metallic wire is  . When its length is doubled, its new resistivity is


A) 2 B) C) 4 D) 
2

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

11. The equivalent resistance between points A and B of the given circuit is about

A
1 1

B
1

A) 2  B) 1  C) 0.67  D) 3 
12. If the temperature of a conductor increases, its conductivity,
A) increases B) remain same C) increases linearly D) decreases linearly
13. A rod of resistance 1  is bent to form a square. The resistance across any two adjacent corners is

3 3
A) 1  B) 3  C)  D) 
4 16
14. When one of the three series resistors is removed from a circuit and the circuit is reconnected, the current
A) increases by half B) increases C) decreases by half D) decreases
15. The unit of specific conductivity is
A ) ohm cm–1 B) ohm cm–2 C) ohm-cm D) ohm–1 m–1
16. A wire of resistance 4 is redrawn by pulling it doubled, what is its new resistance?
A) 8  B) 4  C) 2  D) 16 
17. Two coils have a combined resistance of 25 ohm when connected in series and 4 ohm when connected in
parallel. Find their individual resistances.
A) 1  and 25  B) 20  and 5  C) 25  and 4  D) 15  and 10 
18. What is the resistance of a 1000 W heater marked for 230 V?
A) 22.9  B) 32.9  C) 42.9  D) 52.9 
19. When an electric heater is switched on, the current flowing through it is plotted against time. Taking into
account the variation of resistance with temperature, the graph that represents the variation of current with
time is

i i i i

A) B) C) D)
t t t t

20. 1 kWh = ................

A) 36 × 106 J B) 3.6 × 106 J C) 3.6 × 108 J D) 360 × 109 J
21. Of the two bulbs 150 W bulb and 60 W bulb which has more resistance
A) 60 W B) 150 W C) Both A and B D) None of these
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

LEVEL II
1. When a glass rod rubbed with silk is brought near the cap of an electroscope, then
A) The leaf has an induced negative charge
B) No charge is induced on the leaves
C) Positive charge is induced on one leaf and negative charge on the other leaf
D) The leaf has an induced positive charge
2. Five point charges, each of vlaue q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side L. What is the
magnitude of the force on a point charge of value -q coulomb placed at the centre of the hexagon?
L
E D
q
q

L
q O
F C
q
–q

q
A B
2
kq q2 kq 2
A) 2 B) Zero C) 2 D)
L L L
3. Two small balls carrying charges 9 C and 4 C attract each other with a force F. If a charge of 5 C
is added to each one of them, then the force between the balls would become

F 3F
A) F B) C) 2F D)
2 4
4. Calculate the amount of current flowing through a conductor if 106 electrons cross through the cross-section
of the conductor in 1.6 millisecond. Given, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.
A) 1 × 10–10 A B) 1 A C) 1 × 10–8 A D) 1 × 10–11 A
5. Find the resistance of a conductor in which 1 mA current passes, when potential difference across the ends of
the conductor is 1 volt.
A) 1  B) 1k  C) 10  D) 106 
6. Find the resistance of a hollow cylindrical conductor of length 1.0 m with outer and inner radii 4.0 mm and
1.00 mm respectively. The resistivity of the material is 2.0 × 10–8 ohm m.
A) 0.42  102  B) 0.42  101  C) 0.42  103  D) 0.42 
7. Two wires A and B of equal masses and same metal are taken. The diameter of the wire A is half the diameter
of the wire B. If the resistance of the wire A be 24 ohm, calculate the resistance of the wire B.
A) 15  B) 1.5  C) 150  D) 0.15 

32
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

8. A parallel combination of 3 resistances takes a current of 7.5 A from a 30 V battery. If the two resistances are
10  and 12  , find the third resistance.
A) 15  B) 1.5  C) 150  D) 0.15 
9. An e.m.f. of 2.2 volt is connected to the combination of resistors shown in figure. What is the equivalent
resistance connected across the terminals of the cell? What is the value of the current?

10  C 5 D
B E 10 
5
i1

2.2 V

A) 0.58 A B) 0.22 A C) 1.6 A D) 0.16 A

10. In the given circuit, currents I1 and I2 are

7 B 5
A C

I1 4V I2

G F D
6V 8V

10 12 10 12 8 12 8 12
A) A, A B) A, A C) A, A D) A, A
7 7 7 5 7 5 7 7
11. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60 V when it draws a current of 4 A from
the source. What current will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V?
A) 0.8 A B) 0.08 A C) 80 A D) 8 A
12. A current of 2 A flows in a system of conductors shown in figure. The potential difference VA – VB will be

A
2 3

2A D C

2
3
B

A) + 1 V B) – 1 V C) +2 V D) – 2 V

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

13. Three different circuits (I, II and III) are constructed using identical batteries and resistors of R and 2R ohm.
What can be said about current I in arm AB of each circuit?

A R R R A R R R R R R

E 2R 2R 2R R E 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R R

B B
(I) (III)
A R R R R R R R R

E 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R R

B
(III)
A) III < II < IIII B) II < III < IIII C) II = III = IIII D) I1 > III = IIII

14. In the given circuit, what will be the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of figure.

2 3

A B
10 

4 6
B
10 20 10
A)  B)  C)  D) 5 
3 3 5
15. In the circuit figure, E = 6.0 V, R 1  100 , R 2  R 3  50 , R 4  75  . The equivalent resistance of the
circuit in ohm, is
R1

I
R4
R2
E

A) 11.875 B) 26.31 C) 118.75 D) None of these

16. At what temperature, the resistance of a copper wire will become three times its value at 0oC? (Temperature
coefficient of resistance for copper = 4 × 10–3 per oC)
A) 400oC B) 450oC C) 500oC D) 550oC

34
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

17. If the circuit figure, the resistance R2 is decreased.

R1
E

A) the current through R1 increases B) the current through R1 is constant

C) the voltage drop across R2 decreases D) the power dissipation by R2 decreases
18. A battery of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance 3  is connected to parallel combination of two identical
resistors each of resistance R. Current in the circuit is 0.5 A. Find the terminal voltage of battery.
A) 85 V B) 8.5 V C) 5.8 V D) 58 V
19. An electric bulb is rated as 50 W, 220 V. If the supply voltage drops to 100 V. Find the heat and light energy
produced by the bulb in 20 minutes.
A) 124 kJ B) 12.4 kJ C) 12.4 J D) 124 J
20. Three bulbs are rated 40 W, 60 W and 100 W. Which bulb will glow brightly if they are connected in series
across a 220 V source?
A) 40 W B) 60 W C) 100 W D)All will glo equally bright
21. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the motor and the energy consumed
in 2 h is
A) 2.2 kWh B) 2.02 kWh C) 11 kWh D) 0.22 kWh
LEVEL III
Multiple Correct.
1. Which of the following statements are true about an electric resistance?
A) The resistance of an electric circuit is a measure of the overall amount of hindrance to the flow of
charge through the circuit.
B) A large resistance value indicates that the charge is encountering a relatively large amount of difficulty in
moving through the circuit
C) The resistance of a conducting wire will increase as the length of the wire increases.
D) The resistance of a conducting wire will increase as the cross-sectional area of the wire increases.
2. Which of the following statements about an electric current are true?
A) Electric current is measured in the unit Ampere.
B) Electric current is defined as the number of Coulombs of charge which move past a point on a circuit.
C) Wider conducting wires are capable of carrying larger currents.
D) Suppose a miniature light bulb is connected to a battery in a circuit. A light bulb with a greater resistance
will have a greater current.

35
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

3. If a current of I ampere flows in a circuit with power P watt and resistance R ohms, for t hours under a
potential difference of V volts, then number of units consumed in the circuit is given by:

 I
2
Pt Rt
A) B)
3.6  106 3.6  106

VI t
C) D) None of the above mentioned
3.6  106
Passage Comprehensive Type.
A 50 V dc power supply is used to charge a battery of eight lead accumulators, each of emf 2 V and internal
1
resistance  . The charging current also runs a motor connected in series with the battery. The resistance
8
of the motor is 5  and the steady current supply is 4 A.
4. The total power lost due to heat dissipation is
A) 88 W B) 92 W C) 96 W D) 100 W
5. The useful power available is
A) 112 W B) 108 W C) 104 W D) 100 W
6. The chemical power stored in the battery is
A) 80 W B) 76 W C) 64 W D) 50 W
7. The mechanical power stored in the motor is
A) 20 W B) 30 W C) 40 W D) 50 W
Matrix Match.
8. Two wires of same material having length l, 2l and radius 2 r, 3 r are connected in parallel across a source of
l
emf  and negligible internal resistance. If  is the resistivity of each wire, using  x , compare column I
r 2
with column II.

Column I Column II
A) Resistance of first wire p) 2x
9
B) Resistance of second wire q) x
4
C) Current in first wire r) 9 
2 x
D) Current in second wire s) 4
x

36
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Integer Type.
9. Resistance of a coil is 4.2  at 100oC and the temperature coefficient of resistance of its material is 0.004 / o C .
Then its resistance at 0oC is
10. Calculate the current I in the circuit.

11. Seven resistances are connected as shown in the figure. The equivalent resistance between A and B is

12. In the circuit shown in figure the total current supplied by the battery is

Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
13. Statement I : Fuse wire should have high resistance but low melting point.
Statement II : H  R Fuse wire will melt and break the circuit to safe guard the appliances.
14. Statement I : A tap supplies water at 20oC. A man takes 1 litre of water per minute at 35oC from a geyser
connected to the tap. The power of the geyser is 1050 W.
Statement II : Power = heat spent / time taken

37
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1. Select correct statement.
If resistance are connected in series: (2014)
A) Different current flows through every part and effective resistance is greater than the individual resistances
B) Same current flows through every part and effective resistance is smaller than the individual resistances
C) Same current flows through every part and effective resistance is greater than the individual resistances
D) Different current flows through every part and effective resistance is smaller than the individual resistances
2. Four 20  resistors are connected in series and the combination is connected to a 20 V emf device. The
potential difference across any one of the resistors is: (2016)
A) 5 V B) 2 V C) 4 V D) 20 V
3. Which of the following is incorrect (2015)
A) 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 coulomb B) 1 coulomb × 1 joule = 1 volt
C) 1 volt × 1 coulomb = 1 joule D) 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 joule per second
4. The power of an electric power station is 200 mega watt, the electrical energy produced by it daily, will be :
A) 200 megawatt hour B) 4800 megawatt hour C) 4800 megawatt D) 4800 joule (2015)
5. When three equal resistors are connected together in series with a source of electromotive force (e.m.f.), it
dissipate 10 watt of power. What would be the power dissipated when same resistors are connected in
parallel with the same source of e.m.f. (2014)
A) 90 watt B) 80 watt C) 70 watt D) 75 watt
6. What is the equivalent resistance of the following arrangement between M and N. (2015)

R R R
M N

R R R R
A) B) C) D)
2 3 4 6
7. If current through a resistance is increased by 100% simultaneously reducing resistance value to 25%, the
new power dissipated will be : (2015)
A) No change B) Increased by 100%
C) Decreased by 400% D) Increased by 400%
8. In an experiment on finding equivalent resistance of two resistors in series, four students draw up circuits
which one is correct? (2015)

+ V– +A– +V– + V–

– R1 R2 – R1 R2 – R1 R2 – R1 R2
A) A B) V C) A D) A
+ B K + B K + B K + B K
() () () ()

38
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

9. A resistance wire of uniform cross section is in the form of a ring. The two diametrically opposite points are
connected through a source of emf via an ammeter. A conduction wire is now connected across AB, A1B3 and
then A2B2, one by one, if ammeter reads I1, I2 and I3, respectively: (2015)
A2
A1
A3

A B

B1 B3
B2
A
A) I1 > I2 > I3 B) I3 = I1 > I2 C) I1 = 0, I2 > I3 D) I3 = 0, I1 < I2
10. An electric bulb rated for 500 W at 100 V is used in a circuit having a 200 V supply. The resistance ‘R’ that
must be kept in series with the bulb so that the bulb draws 500 W is: (2015)
A) 30  B) 5  C) 10  D) 20 
11. Three 6  resistors are connected in parallel and the combination is connected to a 15 V battery. The current
through any one of the resistors will be: (2017)
A) 2.5 A B) 2.0 A C) 5 A D) 10 A
12. A circuit as shown in figure the value of current in 5  resistance will be : (2017)

12 V, 2  5 12 V, 2 

A) 2 A B) zero C) 3 A D) 1 A
13. The resistance of a wire is R. After melting it is remoulded such that its area of cross-section becomes n times
its initial area of cross-section, its new resistance will be : (2017)
R R
A) nR B) C) D) n2R
n n2
14. The equivalent resistance of r1 and r2 when connected in series is R1, and that when they are connected in
R1
parallel is R2. Then the ratio R is: (2017)
2

 r1  r2 
2
r1 r1  r2 r1r2
A) r B) r  r C) D) 2r  r
2 1 2 r1r2 1 2

15. Three voltmeters all having different resistances are joined as shown. When some potential difference is
applied across A and B, then readings in voltmeter are V1, V2 and V3. (2017)
V1 V2
A B

V3

A) V1 = V2 B) V1 < V2 C) V1  V2  V3 D) V1  V2  V3

39
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

16. What is potential difference across AB? (2017)

3A
A B
3V 1 6

A) 24 V B) 0 V C) 6 V D) 18 V
17. What is the equivalent resistance between any two opposite corner points of a quadrilateral, if the sides of the
quadrilateral are of equal resistance R? (2017)

2R
A) 3 R B) 2 R C) R D)
3
18. Two electrodes are maintained at a potential difference of 50 V. An electron moving from cathode to anode
gains kinetic energy equal to: (2017)

A) 50  1019 erg B) 50 joule C) 80  1019 Joule D) 80 erg

19. A copper wire is stretched to decrease the radius by 0.1 %. Calculate the percentage change in its resistance
(2018)
A) 0.3%, decrease B) 0.4 % decrease C) 0.4 %, increase D) 0.2 % increase
20. What is the equivalent resistance of the given circuit between points A and B? (2018)

1 2

1 3 2
A B
1 2

14 17
A) 10  B) 4  C)  D) 
3 6
21. 4 bulbs rated 100 W each, operate for 6 hours per day. What is the cost of the energy consumed in 30 days
at the rate of Rs. 5/kWh? (2018)
A) Rs. 360 B) Rs. 90 C) Rs. 120 D) Rs. 400
22. A heater coil is cut into two equal parts and only one part is used in the heater the heat generated now will be
(2018)
A) Doubled B) Four times C) One fourth D) Halved
23. The equivalent resistance of the given circuit between points A and B is : (2019)

10
A

10
10 10

B
10

A) 40  B) 4  C) 5  D) 0.2 

40
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

24. Find the current flowing through the above circuit. (2019)

3 4 2 4 4

3V
()

A) 0.374 A B) 0.375 A C) 3.74 A D) 3.75 A

25. Bulb ‘P’ marked as 100 W, 220 V and bulb Q marks as 60 W, 110 V. The resistance ratio of P and Q is
A) 12 : 5 B) 5 : 12 C) 12 : 7 D) 5 : 7 (2019)
26. A wire of resistance 8 R is bent in the form of a circle as shown in the figure. What is the Effective resistance
between the ends of the diameter AB? (2019)

A O B

A) 2 R B) 4 R C) 8 R D) 16 R
27. A current of 2 mA is flowing through a circuit for 10 sec. The number of electrons flowing through the circuit
during this time will be about (2019)

A) 6  1018 B) 120  1018 C) 20 D) 120  1015

28. The voltage supplied to a bulb is halved. Then the power consumed becomes (2019)
A) Two times B) Four times C) Halved D) One-fourth
29. If the current through a resistor is increased by 50%, the increase in power dissipated will be (assume the
temperature remains constant) (2019)
A) 225% B) 200% C) 250% D) 125%
30. In a hydro-Power Plant (2019)
A) Kinetic energy possessed by the stored water is converted into potential energy
B) Potentail energy possessed by the stored water is converted into electricity
C) Water is converted into steam to produce electricity
D) Heat is extracted from water to produce electricity
31. In a Helium gas discharge tube every second 40 × 1018 He+ (ions) move towards the right through a cross-
section of the tube, while n electrons move to the left in the same time. If the current in the tube is 8 A towards
right then n = ? (2019)

A) 10  1018 B) 3  1019 C) 3  1020 D) 3  1021

41
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

32. Device/devices changing electrical energy into mechanical energy is/are........ (2019)
I) Electric generator II) Electric motor III) Votlmeter IV) Ammeter
A) I and II B) II and III C) II, III and IV D) Only II
33. n conducting wires of same dimensions, but having resistivities 1, 2, 3, ..... n are connected in series. The
equivalent resistivity of the combination is

n  n  1 n 1 n 1 2n
A) B) C) D)
2 2n 2n n 1
34. Five resistances of same value ‘x’ are joined in an electric circuit as shown in figure. The equivalent resistance
between ends P and Q is 3 . The value of x
X
P
X X

X X
Q

1 5 21 7
A)  B)  C)  D) 
5 4 4 4
35. A glass rod is rubbed with silk, is found positively charged. This is because
A) Electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk B) Electrons are transferred from silk to glass rod
C) Protons are transferred from glass rod to silk D) Protons are transferred from silk to glass rod
36. An electric stove boils 1 kg of water in time 2 min and another stove boils 1 kg of water in time 3 min. Both
electric stoves are designed for the same voltage. When they are joined in parallel, the time required to boil 1
kg of water is
A) 1 .2 min B) 2.4 min C) 5 min D) 1 min

42
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

CHAPTER - 2
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
AND EMI

Magnets
Magnets are solid objects of stone, metal or other material which have the property of attracting iron-containing
materials. It attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel towards it.
Discovery of Magnet : Magnet was discovered by an ancient Greek shepherd; ‘named Magnes. Once’; while he
was feeding with his crook, the metallic end of the crook got stuck with the rocks. Those rocks contained the natural
magnet, magnetite. The story of magnetite spread far and wide. Some people believe that magnetite was discovered
at a place called Magnesia.
This property of rocks made them very useful as direction-finders and they came to be called leading-stone or
lodestone.
Magnets can be Natural or Artificial. The iron ore magnetite is a part of naturally occurring rock.
Natural Magnet : Magnet which is found naturally is called natural magnet.
Artificial Magnet : Magnet which is made by humans is called artificial magnet.
Types of Magnets : Magnets are made in different shapes and they are named according to the shape, e.g. bar
magnet, dumb-bell shaped magnet, horse-shoe magnet, cylindrical magnet, etc.
Magnetic Materials : Materials which are attracted towards a magnet are called magnetic materials, e.g. iron,
nickel and cobalt.
Non-magnetic materials : Materials which are not attracted towards a magnet are called non-magnetic materials,
e.g. aluminium, zinc, wood, rubber, etc.
Poles of a Magnet: A magnet has two poles, viz. north pole and south pole. The magnetic power is concentrated
on the poles of a magnet. The pole of the magnet lie slightly inside from the end.
When a magnet is suspended freely with the help of an unspun thread, it comes to rest along the north south
direction. The pole which points towards geographic north is called north pole (N) and the pole which points
towards geographic south is called south pole (S).
The straight line passing through north and south poles of a magnet is called axial line of the magnet. A line
passing through centre of the magnet in a direction perpendicular to the length of the magnet is called equatorial line
of the magnet.

43
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.

Repulsion
Attraction
S N
S
N N S
N
S

(a) (b)

Pole strength
Pole strength of north pole and south pole of a magnet is conventionally represented by (m) and (–m) respectively.
Unit of pole strength is Am.
Pole strength is directly proportional to area of cross section of magnet.
The force of attraction or repulsion F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r is directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centres ie,
m1m 2 mm
F 2
or F  K 1 2 2 , where K is the magnetic force constant.
r r

0
In S.I. units, K   10 7 WbA 1m 1
4

Where  0 is the absolute magnetic permeability of free space or air..

0 m1m2
 F
4 r2 --------------------(1)
This is called Coulomb’s law of magnetic force.

N S

N S N S

N S N S N S N S

The magnetic poles always exist in pairs i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist. The two poles of a magnet are
always of equal strength. In an attempt to separate the magnetic poles, if we break a magnet, we find new poles
formed at the broken ends. If the two pieces are broken again, we find the broken ends contain new poles.

44
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Atomic/Molecular theory of Magnetism

The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified later by Ewing. According to this theory:
(i) Every molecule of a magnetic substance (whether magnetised or not) is a complete magnet itself, having a north
pole and a south pole of equal strength.

(a) unmagnetised (b) magnetised

(ii) In an unmagnetised substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that they join closed chains
as shown in Fig.(a). The north pole of one molecular magnet cancels the effect of south pole of the other so that
the resultant magnetism of the unmagnetised specimen is zero.
(iii) On magnetising the substance, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of all molecular magnets
point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in the opposite direction.
The extent of magnetism of the specimen is the extent of realignment of the molecular magnets.
(iv) When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with magnetism.
(v) At all the stages, the strengths of the two poles developed will always be equal.
(vi) On heating the magnetised specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy. Some of the molecules
may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism of the specimen would reduce on
heating. This is called demagnetization.
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying current, in
which the magnetic effect can be experienced.
The S.I. unit of magnetic field is tesla.

× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×

Uniform Outward Inward

Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform, if the magnetic field vector B has the same magnitude and the
same direction at all the points in the region. The only example of nearly uniform magnetic field over a wide area is
that due to earth’s magnetism. A uniform magnetic field acting in the plane of the paper is represented by equidistant
parallel lines.
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards is represented by crosses.
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards is represented by dots

45
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Magnetic Lines of force

The concept of magnetic lines of force or simply the field lines was developed to visualize the effect of the
magnetic field. The magnetic field lines represent the magnetic field in the sameway as the electric field lines represent
an electric field.

A
B
P

The magnetic lines of force do not exist in reality. They are only hypothetical lines, which enable us to understand
certain phenomena in magnetism.
Properties of Magnetic Lines
Following are some of the important properties of magnetic lines of force:
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed continuous curves, we may imagine them to be extending through the body
of the magnet.
2. Outside the body of the magnet, the direction of magnetic lines of force, is from north pole to south pole.
3. The tangent to magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
4. No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
5. Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and they dilate laterally.
6. Crowding of magnetic lines of force represents stronger magnetic field and vice-versa.
The essential difference between magnetic and electric lines of force is that magnetic lines of force are closed,
continuous curves, the electric lines of force are discontinuous.
Magnetic Dipole : A magnetic dipole consists of two poles of equal strength and separated by a small distance.
For example, a bar magnet, a compass needle etc. are magnetic dipoles. An atom behaves as a dipole due to
electrons revolving around the nucleus.

S N
Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of pole strength and the distance between the two poles.

This distance between the poles is called magnetic length and is represented by 2l . If m is the strength of each pole,

then magnetic dipole moment M is  
 
M  m 2l   ------------(2)
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed from south to north pole as shown in Fig.

46
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Example 1 : A magnetised thin rod of length L and magnetic moment M is bent in the form of a semi circle. What is
the new magnetic moment?
Solution: Circumference  2R
Semi circumference  R
L
L  R  R


2L
The new effective length  2R 


2L M 2L 2M
The new magnetic moment  m .2R  m.  . 
 L  
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
A Denmark born German scientist Hans Christian Oersted (1820), while demonstrating an experiment to his
students in his laboratory found that a magnetic needle placed below a wire showed some deflection whenever
there was current flowing through the wire.
The direction of deflection of the magnetic needle is reversed when the direction of current in the wire is
reversed. This shows that a magnetic field is associated with a current carrying wire.
The magnetic field produced by the conductor carrying current thus interacts with the magnetic needle and
deflects it. The branch of physics which deals with the magnetism due to electric current is called electromagnetism.
Ampere’s swimming rule.
According to this rule, if we imagine a man is swimming along the wire in the direction of current with his face
always turned towards the needle, so that the current enters at his feet and leaves at his head, then the -N- pole of the
magnetic needle will be deflected towards his left hand side. It means, current from South to North, in a wire over
the magnetic needle, the north pole of the needle is deflected towards West.
Biot-Savart’s Law
Biot-Savart’s law is an experimental law predicted by Biot and Savart. This law deals with the magnetic field at
a point due to a small current element (a part of any conductor carrying current ). Let us consider a small element

AB (of length dl) of the conductor XY carrying a current I. Let r be the position vector of the point P from the
  
current element dl and  be the angle between dl and r .
According to Biot- Savart’s law, the strength of magnetic field dB (also called magnetic flux density) at a point P due
to current element depends upon the factors as stated below.

Y
I

B
dl 
A
r
I P

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

(i) dB  I
(ii) dB  dl
(iii) dB  sin 
1
(iv) dB 
r2

Combining these factors, we get

Idlsin 
dB 
r2

Idl sin 
dB  K
r2
where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the system of units chosen for the measurement
0
of the various quantities and also on the medium between point P and the current element. In S.I. Units, K  ,
4
where 0 is the absolute permeability of free space.  0  4  10 7 WbA 1m 1  4  107 TA 1m

 0 Idlsin 
dB  ----------(3)
4 r 2

Direction of dB .

Here dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r directed inwards.

Right hand thumb rule or Right Hand Grip Rule.

According to this rule, if we imagine the linear conductor to be held in the grip of the right hand so that the thumb
points in the direction of current, then the curvature of the fingers around the conductor will represent the direction
of magnetic lines of force.
B B

i i

P Q
to the plane to the plane
upward downward (a) (b)
A A
Maxwell’s cork’s screw rule.
According to this rule, if we imagine a right handed screw placed along the current carrying linear conductor, be
rotated such that the screw moves in the direction of flow of current, then the direction of rotation of the screw gives
the direction of magnetic lines of force.

48
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a circular coil of radius r with centre O, lying with its plane in the plane of the paper. Let I be the
current flowing in the circular coil in the direction shown in Fig.

In this case the direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the current loop and is directed inwards. The
total magnetic field at point O due to current in the whole circular coil can be obtained by

90o O
dl I
r

I I

0 I
B
2r

 0 nI
If the circular coil consists of n turns, then B -----------------(4)
2r

The circular-coil carrying current, acts as a magnetic dipole.

The magnetic dipole moment is given by, M = IA
If the coil has n - turns,

M  nIA  nI. r 2

Direction of B


The direction of magnetic field B (i.e. magnetic flux density) is perpendicular to the plane of the circular coil
and directed inwards.
The direction of magnetic field at the centre of circular current loop is given by Right hand palm rule.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Right Hand Rule.

According to this rule, if we hold the thumb of right hand mutually perpendicular to the grip of the fingers such
that the curvature of the finger represents the direction of current in the wire loop, then the thumb of the right hand
will point in the direction of magnetic field near the centre of the current loop.
Example 2 : A circular coil of 300 turns and diameter 14 cm carries a current of 15 A. What is the magnitude of
magnetic moment associated with the coil ?

M  nIA  300  15    0.07   69.24 A.m 2

2
Solution : n = 300; r = 0.07 m; I = 15 A;
Example 3 : A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of cross section 2.5 × 10–4 m2 carriers a current of
3.0A. What is the magnetic moment associated with it ?
Solution : n = 800; A  2.5 10 4 ; I = 3 A; M  nIA  800  3  2.5  104  0.6 Am 2
Example 4 : A wire as shown in figure carriers a current I ampere. The circular part has a radius r. The magnetic
field at the centre C will be

r
I r
A C

B
Solution: The magnetic field at the centre due to AC and BC is zero.
3
 The magnetic field at the centre will be only due to the th path of the circular loop.
4
3  0 I 3 0 I
Magnetic field at C  
4 2r 8r
Example 5 : A long wire is bent as shown in the figure. What will be the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field at the centre O of the circular portion, if a current I is passed through the wire? Assume that the straight wire do
not touch the circular wire at P.

r
I O I

I P I
Solution : The system consists of a straight conductor and a circular loop. Field due to straight conductor at point
O is
0 I
B1  , directed normally outwards.
2r
Field due to circular loop at point O is

50
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

0 I
B2  , directed normally outwards. The two fields get added up
2r
0 I  1 
The total field at O, B = B1 + B2   1   , directed normally outwards.
2r   
Example 6 : A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm carries a current of 0.40 A. What
is the magnitude of the magnetic field B at the centre of the coil?
Solution: n = 100; r = 0.08 m; I = 0.4 A
 0 nI 4 107  100  0.4
B   3.14 104 T
2r 2  0.08
Example 7 : A horizontal circular coil has 10 turns and of 8 cm radius, 2 ampere current flows through it, which
appears anti-clockwise from a point vertically above it. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at the
centre of the coil.
Solution : Here, n = 10, r = 8 cm = 8 × 10-2 m
I = 2A,  0  4  10 7 Tm A–1 or Wb/A×m or H/m
using the relation,
 0 nI 4107  10  2
B   1.57  104 T
2r 2  8  102
As the current is anti-clockwise as seen from a point vertically above it so the direction of magnetic field will be
directly vertically upward.
Example 8 : The radius of a circular wire is 0.5 m and the current is 10 A. Find the magnitude of magnetic field at
the centre of the circular wire.
Solution : Radius of the circular wire, r =0.5 m
Current, I = 10A
0 I 4107  10
magnetic field at the centre, ; B  12.57 106 T
2r 2  0.5
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT
Y

a
2
C  P
1
l 
r
dl O

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Consider a long straight conductor XY lying in the plane of the paper carrying current I in the direction X to Y,
Let P be a point at a perpendicular distance a from the straight conductor
The direction of d B , according to right hand thumb rule will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper and
directed inwards. The total magnetic field at point P due to current through the whole straight conductor XY
0 I
B  sin 1  sin 2  ----------(5)
4a

For an infinitely long conductor,


1  2 
2
0I    0 2I
B  2 sin   --------------(6)
4a  2 4 a
The direction of magnetic lines of force can be given by Right Hand Thumb Rule or Maxwell’s cork-screw
rule.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT
A solenoid consists of an insulated long wire closely wound in the form of a helix. Its length is very large as
compared to its diameter.
Consider a long straight solenoid having n turns per unit length and carrying current I. The magnetic field set up
in the solenoid is as shown in Fig. At points inside the long solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the
length of the solenoid.

I I

The magnetic field at a point well inside the solenoid. B   0 nI

 0 nI
At a point, near the end of a solenoid, magnetic field is found to be .
2
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN TOROID
A toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring,

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Let n be the number of turns per unit length of the toroid and I be the current flowing through it. The magnetic
field is set up inside the turns of the toroid. The magnetic lines of force inside the toroid are concentric circles. The
magnetic field inside the turns of toroid,

B   0 nI

The magnetic field inside the toroid is constant and is always tangential to the circular closed path.
Example 9 : A wire placed along north-south direction carries current of 20 A from south to north. Find the
0
magnetic field at a point 300 cm east from the wire. Given  107 T.m/A .
4
Solution : I = 20 A; r = 300 cm = 3.00 m

 0 I  0 2I 2  20
B  .  107 × =1.33×106 T
2r 4 r 3
The magnetic field is acting downwards.

Example 10 : A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What is the magnitude of the field B at a point 20 cm
from the wire?
Solution : I = 35 A; a = 20 cm;

0 I 4107  35 2  35  107
B    3.5 105 T
2a 2 0.20 0.20
Example 11 : A long straight wire in the horizontal plane carries a current of 50 A in north to south direction. Give

the magnitude and direction of B at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.

 0 I 4107  50
Solution :I = 50 A; a = 2.5 m; B    4 106 T , acting vertically upwards.
2a 2 2.5
Example 12 : The magnetic induction at a point P which is at a distance of 4 cm from a long current carrying wire
is 10-3 T. What is the field of induction at a distance 12 cm from this current carrying wire?
Solution : a1 = 4 cm = 0.04 m; B1 = 10–3 T
a2 = 12 cm = 0.12 m; B2 = ?

0 I
B1 2a1 a 2
 
B2 0 I a1
2a 2

B1a1 103  0.04

B2    3.33  104 T
a2 0.12

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Example 13 : Find the magnetic field B at the centre of a square loop of side ‘a’, carrying a current i
Solution:

i
o
45
i d
o i
45

 0i
B4 cos 450  cos 450 
4d

 0i  1   0i
4 2 2 2 into the plane of the paper..
a  2  a
4
2

a 3
Example 14 : Calculate the magnetic field induction at a point at a distance, metre from a straight wire of
2
length ‘a’ metre carrying a current of i amp. The point is on the perpendicular bisector of the wire.

30o P
a d 30o
i

 0i
Solution: B  sin 1  sin 2 
4d
7
10  i  1 1  2i
    107 T
a 3/22 2 a 3
perpendicular to the plane of the figure (inwards)

ELECTROMAGNET
(i) Definition:
A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material like
soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
(ii) Principle :
It works on the phenomenon of magnetic effect of current

54
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

(iii) Construction:
It consists of a large number of turns of an enamelled thick copper wire wrapped very closely on a soft iron
core.
Soft iron is chosen because it loses all its magnetism when the current is switched off.
Their shapes and sizes depend upon the purpose for which they are to be used.

Enammeled Soft iron core

copper wire

S N

Key
Electromagnet

(iv) Working :
When the switch is closed to make a strong current to pass through the wrapped copper coil, it becomes
strongly magnetised. When it is suspended vertically by a strong crane and its lower end is touched with a heavy iron
sheet lying on the ground, it will stick to the sheet. The crane can easily lift the iron sheet. To make the sheet free, the
current is switched off.
(v) Applications:
A) In factories very strong electromagnets are used with cranes for lifting very heavy iron ingots and steel
scraps , from one place to another.
B) In hospitals they are used for removing small steel splinters from the eyes of a patient.
C) In offices and houses they are used in electric bells.
D) To separate iron ore from muddy impurities in metallurgical industries.
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet:
(i) The number of turns in the coil :
If we increase the number of turns in the coil, the strength of the electromagnet increases.
(ii) The current flowing in the coil
If the current in the coil is increased, the strength of the electromagnet increases.
(iii) The length of air between its poles:
If we reduce the length of air gap between the poles of an electromagnet, the strength will be increased, so a bar
type electromagnet is not very strong. On the other hand the air gap between the poles of a U-shaped electromagnet
is small, so it is very strong.
Electromagnets are used in electric bells, electromagnetic relay, relay switch for car starter and several other
instruments. Since the magnetisation depends on the current flowing through the coil, it is possible to obtain very
powerful electromagnets by increasing the current.
Soft iron can be easily magnetised even by a weak magnetic field, whereas steel can be magnetised only by a
strong magnetic field.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

S.No. Bar magnet (or permanent magnet) Electromagnet

1 The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. An electromagnet is a temporary
magnet. Its magnetism is only for the
duration for which current passes
through it, so the magnetism of an
electromagnet can be switched on or
switched off as desired
2 A permanent magnet produces a An electromagnet can produce very
comparatively weak force of attraction. strong magnetic force.
3 The strength of a permanent magnet The strength of an electromagnet can
cannot be changed. be changed by changing the number
of turns in its coil or by changing the
current passing through it.
4 The (north-south) polarity of permanent The polarity of an electromagnet can
magnet is fixed and cannot be changed. be changed by changing the direction
of current in its coil.

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field (not parallel to it), a force acts on it. This force is
created due to the interaction of magnetic field of the current in the conductor and the external magnetic field on the
conductor. As a result of this superposition, the resultant magnetic field on one side of the conductor is weaker than
on the other side. Hence the conductor experiences a resultant force in one direction.
The direction of this force is always at right angles to the plane containing both the conductor and the magnetic
field, and is predicated by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Referring to the diagram above, F is force, B is magnetic field, I is the current.

Factors affecting magnetic force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
• Strength of the magnetic field.
• Current flowing through the wire.
• Length of the wire.
• Angle between magnetic field and the conductor carrying current.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

(a) Magnitude of Force :

Consider a straight conductor of length  . It carries I current, it is kept in a uniform magnetic field at an
angle  . Then the force acting on the conductor by the magnetic field
F = IB  sin  ---------(7)
Direction of force is perpendicular to both the conductor (wires) and the magnetic field B. Direction of F can be
find out by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Case I : If   0 or 180, sin0o = sin 180o = 0 ; So, F = 0
Case II:   900
F = IB  sin 900 ; F = IB  max imum 
(i) Fleming’s left hand rule :
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of our left hand in such a way that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other as shown in figure. If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the
middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb will indicate the direction of motion (ie., force) on the
conductor.
F

Force

Magnetic field
B
Cu
rre
nt

I
(ii) Right Hand Palm Rule:
If we stretch our right hand such that thumb is at right angles to the fingers, then if fingers represent the direction
of external magnetic field (B), thumb in the direction of current, then the force will be acting outside and normal to
the palm.
I
F

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (LORENTZ FORCE)

When a charged particle of charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B at an angle  , then force
acting on the particle.

B
q

F = qvBsin  ---------(8)

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 
 = Angle between v and B
This force is called Lorentz force
Case -I :If  =0 or 180, sin 00 = sin 1800 = 0
So, F=0
Then the particles will move in the same direction in a straight line with same speed.
Case -II: If  = 90
F = qvB sin90o = qvB (maximum)

In this case the charged particle will move in circular path and the plane of the circle is perpendicular to B.
Case -III :If  lies between 00 and 900 .
Then the path of the particle is helical or helix (like a spring)

B
q B

a) Direction of Lorentz Force:

The direction of force is obtained by the Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming’s left hand rule:
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of our left hand in such a way that mutually perpendicular
to each other as shown in figure the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger is in
the direction of velocity of the charge, then lorentz force will act in the direction of thumb.

Force

Magnetic field
Ve
loc
ity

When charge q enters into transverse magnetic field B, the force acting on it is perpendicular to both velocity
 mv 2 
and magnetic field. This will act as the centripetal force   for a circular motion.
 R 

58
 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

mv 2 R m
F  qvB   
R v qB

2R 2m
T  ---------(9)
v qB

1 qB
 Frequency n   ---------(10)
T 2m
Example 15 : A conductor of length 10 cm carrying 2.5 A current is placed in a magnetic field of 0.3 T. Calculate
the force on the conductor when it is placed at 30o to the direction of the field.
Solution : l = 10 cm = 0.1 m; I = 2.5 A; B = 0.3 T;   30o

1
F  BIl sin   0.3  2.5  0.1  0.0375 N
2
Magnetic field of Earth
Sir William Gilbert was the first to suggest in the year 1600, that earth itself is a huge magnet. His statement
was based on the following evidence.
(i) A magnet suspended from a thread and free to rotate in a horizontal plane comes to rest along the north-south
direction. On disturbing, the magnet returns quickly to its north-south direction again. This is as if a huge bar
magnet lies along the diameter of the earth. The north pole of this fictitious magnet must be towards geographic
south so as to attract south pole of the suspended magnet and vice-versa.
(ii) When we draw field lines of a magnet, we come across neutral points. At these points the magnetic field due to
the magnet is neutralized or cancelled exactly by the magnetic field of earth. If earth had no magnetism of its
own, we would never observe neutral points.
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of magnetism of earth is called terrestrial magnetism or
geomagnetism.
The strength of this field at the surface of earth is approximately 10-4 tesla.

Ng
Sm

GEOGRAPHIC
EQUATOR

MAGNETIC
EQUATOR
Sg Nm

Magnetic Elements
Magnetic elements of earth at a place are the quantities which describe completely in magnitude as well as
direction, the magnetic field of earth at that place.
Following are the three magnetic elements of earth:

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

1. Magnetic Declination 

2. Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip   ,

3. Horizontal Component (H).
1. Magnetic Declination at a place is defined as the angle between magnetic axis and the geographic axis. The
magnetic axis, as we know, is the line joining north and south pole of a freely suspended magnet and geographic axis
is the axis of rotation of earth. This axis points along geographic north and geographic south.

B'
GEOGRAPHIC
 MERIDIAN
A
 H L B
V
R
M K
MAGNETIC
MERIDIAN

C'
 C
D

A vertical plane passing through N-S line of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic meridian and the
vertical plane passing through the geographic north-south directions is called geographic meridian. We may, therefore
also define magnetic declination at a place as the angle between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian at that
place. It is represented by  .
By definition, CDC'  BAB'   is the magnetic declination.
2. Magnetic Dip or Inclination at a place is defined as the angle which the direction of total intensity of earth’s
magnetic field makes with a horizontal line in magnetic meridian. It is the angle by which total intensity of earth’s
magnetic field dips (northern hemisphere) or comes up (southern hemisphere) out of the horizontal plane. It is
represented by  .
3. Horizontal Component is the component of total intensity of earth’s magnetic field in the horizontal direction
in the magnetic meridian. It is represented by H.

0

N
30

60

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Horizontal component along AB is

AL = H = R cos  -----------------(11)
Vertical component along AD is
AM = V = R sin  ------------------(12)
Square (11) and (12), and add
H2 + V2 = R2 (cos2  + sin2  ) = R2.

R  H2  V2
Dividing (12) by (11), we get

R sin  V V
 or tan  
R cos  H H
Neutral Points
When we trace magnetic lines of force around a magnet using a compass needle, what we obtain is the resultant
of the magnetic field of the magnet and that of the earth. As earth’s field is fixed, the resultant field would depend on
the direction in which the magnet is placed. In the plot of the resultant field, we come across points at which field (B)
due to the magnet becomes equal and opposite to the horizontal component (H) of earth’s field (B = H). Therefore,
the net magnetic field at these points will be zero. These points where the net magnetic field due to the magnet and
magnetic field of the earth is zero are called Neutral points.
1. Magnet placed with its north pole towards north of earth.
Place a small compass needle on a line drawn on a sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board. Rotate the board
till the compass needle is parallel to the line. Now place a small bar magnet on this line with north pole of the magnet
pointing towards north of earth. The lines of force due to combined field of a magnet and earth are shown in Fig.

GEOG. NORTH
N
E
S
N
P S Q

GEOG. SOUTH EARTH'S

FIELD

In the plot, P and Q are two neutral points lying on the equatorial line of the magnet.
2. Magnet placed with its south pole towards north of earth.
Place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper in the magnetic meridian with its south-pole pointing towards north of
earth. Plot the lines of force using the compass needle. The lines of force due to the combined field of magnet and
earth are shown in Fig.
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

In this case, P and Q are two neutral points which lie in the axial line of the magnet.

N
GEOG. NORTH
W E

S
N

EARTH'S GEOG. SOUTH

FIELD

Example 16 : The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field is 0.2 gauss and total magnetic field is 0.4 gauss,
find the angle of dip.
Solution : H = 0.2 G ; B = 0.4 G; H  Bcos 
H 0.2 1
cos    
B 0.4 2
   60o
Example 17 : Horizontal and vertical components of earth’s magnetic field at a place are 0.22 and 0.38 G respectively.
Calculate angle of dip and resultant intensity.
Solution : H = 0.22 G ; V = 0.38 G

B  H 2  V 2  0.0484  0.1444

 0.1928  0.439 G

V 0.38
tan     1.727
H 0.22

   60o
Example 18 : What will be the value of vertical component and total intensity of earth’s field at a place where dip
is 60o. Horizontal component is 0.3 G.
Solution :   60o ; H = 0.3 G

H H 0.3
cos   ; B   0.6 G  0.6 104 T
B cos  1/ 2

V
tan   ;  V  H tan   0.3 tan 60  0.52 G  0.52  104 T
H

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Example 19 : The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a place is 0.3 gauss and angle of dip is 30o.
Calculate vertical component and total intensity of earth’s field.
Solution : H = 0.3 G;   30o

V
tan   ;  V  H tan   0.3 tan 30  0.173 G
H

H H
cos   ; B ; B = 0.346 G
B cos 
MAGNETIC FLUX
If we consider a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, then the product of the magnitude of the field
and the area of the plane is called the magnetic flux    linked with that plane. It is the number of lines of force
passing perpendicular to a given area. Figure shows a plane of area A placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic

field B . The magnetic flux linked with this plane is given by

  BA


If the magnetic field B , instead of being perpendicular to the plane , makes an angle  with the perpendicular
to the plane as shown in figure, then the magnetic flux linked with the plane will be equal to the product of the
component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane and the area of the plane, thus,

  Bcos   A  BA cos  -------------(13)

A B

= BA cos 

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Case I : If   00 , then from equation (13)

  BA cos 0  BA (outgoing flux)
A
B

= BA
Case II: If   900 , then from equation (13)
  BA cos 90  0

A
B

= 0

Case III: If   1800 , then from equation (13)

  BA cos180   BA (incoming flux)

= –AB

B

 is positive if the outward normal to the plane is in the same direction as B . It is negative if the outward

normal is opposite to B .
SI unit of B and 


The S.I. unit of magnetic flux  is weber (Wb). Since B  , the magnetic field is also expressed in weber/
A
metr e2, (Wb -m-2). That is why the magnetic field induction B is also called the magnetic flux density.
Definition of magnetic flux density (B):

 B , if A = 1 m2, then B  
A
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

In a magnetic field the number of lines of force (flux) passing through one m2 perpendicular to the field is equal
to the magnetic flux density. It’s unit is Tesla or Wb/m2.
Example 20 : The plane of a coil of area 1 m2 and having 50 turns is perpendicular to a magnetic field at 3 × 10–6
W/m2. Find the magnetic flux linked with it.
Solution :   NBA cos 
N = 50, B = 3 × 10–6 w/m2;   0
   NBA  50  3  106  1  150  105 weber
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction was first discovered in 1830’s by Michael Faraday. Faraday noticed that when he
moved a permanent magnet in and out of a coil or a single loop of wire, it induced an electro motive force or emf, in
other words a voltage, and therefore a current was produced. This then led to a very important law linking electricity
with magnetism, Faraday’s law of Electro Magnetic Induction.
When the magnet stops moving and is held stationary with regards to the coil, the needle of the galvanometer
indicating current returns back to zero as there is no physical movement of the magnetic field. Likewise, when the
magnet is moved away from the coil in the other direction, the needle of the galvanometer deflects in the opposite
direction.

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction

Law 1
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit is changed, an emf is induced in it.
Law 2
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
1. Whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet, the galvanometer shows a sudden
deflection. This deflection indicates that a current is induced in the coil.
2. The deflection is temporary. It lasts so long as the relative motion between the coil and the magnet continues.
3. The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster and less when the magnet is moved slowly.
4. The direction of deflection is reversed when the same pole (north or south) is moved away from the coil,
instead of moving it towards the coil or north pole is moved towards the coil instead of south pole.
Faraday’s laws
1st law : Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes an emf is induced in the circuit. The
induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
IInd law : The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux.
If d is the small change in magnetic flux in a small time dt,

d
e --------(14)
dt
The negative sign is taken because induced emf always opposes any change in magnetic flux associated with
the circuit.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Lenz’s law
The law gives the direction of current induced in a circuit.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux
which produces it.
For example, in figure, when the magnet is moved towards the loop, a current is induced in the loop. The
induced current produces its own magnetic field which opposes the motion of the magnet. Thus the induced current
must be anticlockwise as shown in figure below.

S N N S

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

motion

magnetic field

induced current

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule also give us the direction of induced emf/current. According to this rule, if we stretch
the first finger, central finger and thumb of our right hand in mutually perpendicular directions, such that first finger
points along the direction of the field and thumb is along the direction of motion of the conductor, then the central
finger would give the direction of induced current.
TRANSFORMERS
It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage in AC circuits. It works on the principle of mutual induction. It
consists of two coils wound on the same core. The coil which is connected to the source (ie., to which input is
applied ) is called primary coil while the other which is connected to the load (ie., from which output is taken ) is
called secondary coil. The alternating current passing through the primary coil creates a continuously changing flux
through the core. This changing flux induces an alternating e.m.f. in the secondary coil. As magnetic lines of force are
closed curves, the flux per turn of the primary must be equal to the flux per turn of the secondary coil.
Let  be the magnetic flux linked with each turn in primary and secondary coils, and NP and NS be the total
number of turns in primary and secondary coils.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

d
Induced emf in primary coil is E P   N P
dt

d
Induced emf in secondary coil is E S   N S
dt

ES N S  d 
or E  N as E  dt 
P P

For an ideal transformer there is no loss of power, so P = EI = constant, therefore E s Is  E p I p .

ES IP NS
 
E P IS N P -----------(15)

Now there are two possibilities:

(i) NS> NP, the transformer is said to be step up and it increases voltage and reduces current.

 E s  E p and Is  I p 

(ii) NS< NP, the transformer is said to be step down and it reduces voltage and increases current.

 E s  E p and Is  I p 

NOTE :
Regarding a transformer it is worth noting that:
(i) It works on AC only and never on DC
(ii) It can increase or decrease either voltage or current but not both simultaneously (as power = constant)
(iii) Some power is always lost due to flux leakage, hysteresis, eddy currents, humming and heating of coils.
Example 21 : A transformer is used to light a 120 W, 24 V / lamp from 240 V ac main. The current in the main cable
is 0.6A. Find the efficiency of the transformer.
P0 P0
Solution: Efficiency   P  100  E I 100
i i i

120  100 120  100

   83.33%
E i Ii 240  0.6

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Example 22 : A transformer has turn ratio 100/1. If secondary coil has 4 A current then, find out current in primary
coil.

Ip Ns Ns 1
Solution : I  N Ip 
Np
 Is ; Ip   4  .04 A
s p 100

Example 23 : A transformer lowers emf from 220 V to 12 V. If the number of turns in primary is 8800, how many
turns are there in secondary coil?
Solution: Ep = 220 V; Es = 12 V; Np = 8800 ; Ns = ?

Ep Np 220 8800
  
Es Ns 12 Ns

12  8800
 Ns   480
220
Example 24 : An emf applied to a primary coil is 210 V. If the number of turns in primary coil is 200 and that in the
secondary coil is 20, then find out the output voltage. Name the type of transformer.
Solution : Ep = 210 V; Np = 200; Ns = 20 ; Es = ?

Ep Np 210 200
    10  E s  210  21 V
Es Ns Es 20 10
It is a stepdown transformer.
Example 25 : A stepup transformer operates on a 220 V AC line and supplies a load current of 6 A. The ratio of the
primary to secondary turns is 1 : 12. Find the current in the primary, voltage in the secondary, and output power,
given that the efficiency of the transformer is 70%.
Solution :   70% ; Ip = ?; Es = ?; po = ?

Np 1 Ep Np 220 1
 , Is = 6 A;  ; 
Ns 12 Es Ns E s 12 ; Es = 2640 V

Power across secondary

P0 = Es Is ; P0 = 2640 × 6 = 15840 W
Input power Pi = Ep × IP
  70%  Output power = 70% of the input power..

70 7
E s Is   E p Ip ; 15840   220  I p
100 10

15840  10
 Ip  ; Ip = 102.86 A
7  220

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

GENERATOR
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It is of two types.
a) AC Generator or Dynamo :
When a coil (conductor) is rotated in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with it changes and therefore an
alternating e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
Construction :The main parts of a dynamo are:-
i) Field magnets:
It is a strong horse shoe permanent magnet. An electromagnet run by a DC source can also be used for high
power generators.
ii) Armature :
It is a soft iron core on which a coil ABCD having a large number of turns of insulated copper wire is wound.
This armature (or coil) is rotated rapidly in the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet.
iii) Slip rings:
The ends of the armature (or the coil) are connected to two coaxial metallic slip rings S1 and S2 which rotate
along with the coil.
iv) Brushes :
Two brushes B1 and B2 made of carbon, press against the slip rings S1 and S2 respectively. The external circuit
(i.e, load) is connected between the other ends of brushes. The brushes B1 and B2 do not rotate along with the coil.
Working of an AC generator :

B C Shaft
Rectangular coil
(Armature) Field magnet

N S
A D

B1
S1 Slip ring
AC S2
B2
Carbon brush
Handle

Suppose the generator coil ABCD is initially in the horizontal position. Again suppose that the coil ABCD is
being rotated in the anticlockwise direction between the poles N and S of a horse-shoe type magnet.
i) As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic
lines of force near the N-pole of the magnet and side CD moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole of the
magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On applying Fleming’s right-
hand rule to the sides AB and DC of the coil, we find that the currents are in the directions B to A and D to C. Thus,
the induced currents in the two sides of the coil are in the same direction and we get an effective induced current in
the direction BADC.
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

ii) After half revolution, the sides AB and DC of the coil will interchange their positions. The side AB will be in
the right hand side. So, after half a revolution, side AB starts moving up and side DC starts moving down. As a result
of this, the direction of induced current in each side of the coil is reversed after half a revolution. Since the direction
of induced current in the coil is reversed after half revolution so that polarity (positive and negative) of the two ends
of the coil also changes after half revolution. The end of the coil which was positive in the first half of rotation
becomes negative in the second half and the end which was negative in the first half revolution becomes positive in
the second half of revolution. Thus, in 1 revolution of the coil, the current changes its direction 2 times.
After every half revolution, each side of the generator coil starts moving in the opposite direction in the magnetic
field. The side of the coil which was initially moving upwards, after half revolution, it starts moving downwards. Due
to the change in the direction of motion of the sides of the coil in the magnetic field after every half revolution, the
direction of current produced in them also changes after every half revolution.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Every motor has a shaft or spindle
which rotates continuously when current is passed into it. The rotation of its shafts is used to drive the various types
of machines in homes and industry. Electric motor is used in electric fans, washing machines, refrigerators, mixer and
grinder and many other appliances. A common electric motor works on direct current. So, it is also called DC
motor, which means a direct current motor. The electric motor which we are going to discuss now is actually a DC
motor.
a) Principle of a motor:
An electric motor utilizes the magnetic effect of current. A motor works on the principle that when a rectangular
coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, a torque acts on the coil which rotates it continuously.
When the coil rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates. In this way the electrical energy supplied to the motor is
converted into the mechanical energy of rotation.
b) Construction of a motor:
An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire, wound on a soft iron core
called armature. The soft iron core has not been shown in figure to make things simple. The coil is mounted between
the curved poles of a U-shaped permanent magnet in such a way that it can rotate between the poles N and S. The
two ends of the coil are soldered (or welded) permanently to the two half rings X and Y of a commutator.

Anticlockwise

B C Shaft
Rectangular coil
(Armature) Permanent magnet
F F (field magnet)

N S
A D

Commutator X Y
(split ring)
P y Q

Carbon brushes Battery

A commutator is a copper ring split into two parts X and Y, these two parts are insulated from one another and
mounted on the shaft of the motor.
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

End A of the coil is welded to part X of the commutator and end D of the coil is welded to part Y of the
commutator. The commutator rings are mounted on the shaft of the coil and they also rotate when the coil rotates.
The function of commutator rings is to reverse the direction of current flowing through the coil every time the
coil just passes the vertical position during a revolution.
To pass the electric current to the coil, we use two carbon strips P and Q known as brushes. The carbon
brushes P and Q are fixed to the base of the motor and they press lightly against the two half rings of the commutator.
The function of carbon brushes is to make contact with the rotating rings of the commutator and through them to
supply current to the coil. It should be noted that any one brush touches only one ring at a time, so that when the coil
rotates, the two brushes will touch both the rings one by one.
Working of a motor
Suppose that initially the coil ABCD is in the horizontal position as shown in figure. On pressing the switch, the
current enters the coil through carbon brush P and commutator half ring X. The current flows in the direction ABCD
and leaves via ring Y and brush Q.
(i) In side AB of the coil, the direction of current is from A to B and the direction of magnetic field is from N to S
pole. So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the side AB of the coil we find that it will experience a force in
the downward direction.
(ii) In side DC of the coil, the direction of current is from C to D towards but the direction of magnetic field remains
the same from N to S pole as shown in figure. So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the side DC of the
coil, we find that, it will experience a force in the upward direction.
(iii) We find that the force acting on the side AB of the coil is in the downward direction whereas the force acting on
the side DC of the coil is in the upward direction. These two equal, opposite and parallel forces acting on the
two sides of the coil form a couple (torque) and rotate the coil in the anticlockwise direction.
(iv) While rotating, when the coil reaches the vertical position, then the brushes P and Q will be in the gap between
the two commutator rings and current to the coil is cut off. Though the current to the coil is cut off when it is in
the exact vertical position, the coil doesn’t stop rotating because it has already gained momentum due to which
it goes beyond the vertical position.
(v) When the coil goes beyond the vertical position, the two commutator’s half rings automatically change contact
from one brush to the other. This reverses the direction of current through the coil which, in turn, reverses the
direction of forces acting on the two sides of the coil. The side AB of the coil will now be on the right hand side
with a upward force on it, whereas side DC of the coil will come on the left hand side with an downward force
on it. In this position also a couple acts on the coil which rotates it in the same direction (anticlockwise direction).
This process is repeated again and again and the coil continues to rotate as long as the current is passing. This
is how an electric motor works.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. A long magnet is cut into two parts in such a way that the ratio of their lengths is 2 : 1. The ratio of pole-strengths
of both the sections is
A) 1 : 1 B) 2 : 1 C) 1 : 2 D) 4 : 1
2. A magnetised thin rod of length L and magnetic moment M is bent in the form of a semicircle. Its new magnetic
moment will be
2M M
A) M B) C) D) M
 
3. A long magnetic needle of length 2l magnetic moment M and pole-strength m is divided along the axis into two
parts of equal length. The magnetic moment and pole-strength of each half will be
M m m M
A) and B) M and C) and m D) M and m
2 2 2 2
4. The radius of a circular loop is r. A current i is flowing in it. The equivalent magnetic moment will be
A) i  r 2 B)  i 2 r 2 C) 2 i r D)  r 3
5. A magnetic field of 5 T is produced by a long wire carrying a current of 5 A at a point 2 m away from it. What
will be the magnetic field if the distance of the point is made four-fold?
A) 12.5 T B) 1.25 T C) 125 T D) 0.125 T
6. Two identical thin bar magnets are placed mutually at right angles such that the north pole of one touches the
south pole of the other. The length and the pole strength of each bar are l and m. The resultant magnetic
moment of the system is
A) ml B) 2 . ml C) 3 . ml D) 2 ml
7. A solenoid of 1.5 m length and 4.0 cm diameter has 10 turns per cm. A current of 5 amp is flowing through it.
The magnetic induction at axis inside the solenoid is
A) 2 105 tesla B) 2 103 tesla C) 4 102 tesla D) 4 103 tesla
8. A magnetic field due to 0.1 A current flowing through a circular coil of radius 0.1 m and 1,000 turns at the
centre of the coil is
A) 2  101 T B) 4.31 102 T C) 6.28  104 T D) 9.8110 4 T


9. An arc of a circle of radius R subtends an angle at the centre. It carries a current I. The magnetic field at the
2
centre will be
0 I 0 I 0 I 2 0 I
A) B) C) D)
2R 4R 8R 5R
10. A magnetised wire of magnetic moment M is bent into an arc of a circle that subtends an angle of 60o at the
centre. The equivalent magnetic moment is
M 2M 3M 4M
A) B) C) D)
   

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

11. An electric charge in uniform motion produces

A) Neither electric nor magnetic field B) An electric nor magnetic field
C) A magnetic field only D) Both electric and magnetic fields

12. A conducting circular loop of a radius r carries a constant current i. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B

such that B is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnetic force acting on the loop is
  
A) Zero B) ir B C) 2 ir B D)  ir B
13. Two parallel wires are carrying electric currents of equal magnitude and in the same direction. They exert
A) A repulsive force on each other B) An attractive force on each other
C) No force on each other D) A rotational torque on each other
14. A proton enters a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 weber/m2 with a velocity of 2 × 107 m/s at an angle of 30o
with the field. The force on the proton will be
A) 2.4 1012 N B) 0.24  10 12 N C) 2.4 1015 N D) 0.024  10 12 N

15. An elastic circular wire of length l carries a current I. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B (out of paper)

such that its plane is perpendicular to the direction of B . The wire will experience

A) No force B) A stretching force C) A compressive force D) A torque

16. At a place the Earth’s horizontal and vertical components of magnetic fields are equal, then the angle of dip will
be
A) 30o B) 90o C) 45o D) 0
17. The charge on a particle Y is double the charge on another particle X. These two particles X and Y, after being
accelerated through the same potential difference, enter a region of uniform magnetic field and describe circular
paths of radii R1 and R2 respectively. The ratio of the mass of X to that of Y is
2 2 2
 2R1   R1  1 R  Bq
A)   B)   C) . 1  D)
 R2   2R 2  2  R2  2m
18. A metallic ring is attached with the wall of a room. When the north pole of a magnet is brought near it, the
induced current in the ring will be

S N

A) In clockwise direction B) First clockwise then anticlockwise

C) First anticlockwise and then clockwise D) In anticlockwise direction

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

19. In what form is the energy stored in inductor?

A) Electrical B) Heat C) Magnetic D) Magnetic + electrical
20. Lenz’s law is the consequences of the law of conservation of
A) Charge B) Mass C) Energy D) Momentum
21. To induce an e.m.f. in a coil, the linking magnetic flux
A) Must decrease B) Can either decrease or increase
C) Must increase D) Must remain constant
22. In the diagram shown if a bar magnet is moved along the common axis of two single turn coils A and B in the
direction of arrow
A B

N S

A) Current is induced only in A and not in B

B) Induced current in A and B are in opposite directions
C) Induced currents in A and B are in same direction
D) Current is induced only in B and not in A
23. A wire of length L metre carrying a current of I amp is bent in the form of a circle. Magnitude of its magnetic
moment will be
IL I2 L I2 L2 IL2
A) B) C) D)
4 4 4 4
24. A power transformer is used to step up an alternating emf of 220 V to 11 kV to transmit 4.4 kW of power. If
the primary coil has 1,000 turns, what is the current rating of the secondary? Assume 100% efficiency for the
transformer.
A) 0.4 amp B) 4 amp C) 0.04 amp D) 0.2 amp
25. The secondary of a transformer gives 200 volt when 2 kilowatt power is supplied to its 500 turns of primary at
0.5 A. The number of turns in the secondary is
A) 30 B) 25 C) 40 D) 35

LEVEL II
1. A proton enters a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 weber/m2 with a velocity of 2 × 107 m/s at an angle of 30o
with the field. The force on the proton will be
A) 2.4 1012 N B) 0.24  10 12 N C) 24  1012 N D) 0.024  102 N
2. A magnetic field
A) always exerts a force on charged particle
B) never exerts a force on charged particle
C) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving across the magnetic field line
D) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving along the magnetic field line
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

3. Calculate the value of magnetic field in air at a point 10 cm from a long straight wire carrying a current of 15A.
A) 3 × 10–5 T B) 3 × 10–4 T C) 3 × 105 T D) 3 × 104 T
4. An electron (mass = 9 × 10–31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) is moving in a circular orbit in a magnetic field of
1.0 10 4 Wb/m 2 . Its period of revolution is
A) 7.0  107 sec B) 3.5  107 sec C) 1.05  107 sec D) 2.1 10 17 sec
5. A long hollow copper pipe carries a current, then magnetic field is produced:
A) Inside the pipe only B) Outside the pipe only C Both inside and outside pipe D) No where
6. A uniform wire is bent in the form of a circle of radius R. A current I enters at A and leaves at C as shown in the
figure. If length ABC is half the length ADC, the magnetic field at the centre O will be
B

I C I
A R
O

0 I 0 I 0 I
A) B) C) Zero D)
2R 4R 6R
7. A flat circular coil with 20 loops of wire has a radius of 40 cm. What current must flow in it to produce a
magnetic field of 3 × 10–4 T at its centre?
A) 0.95 A B) 0.095 A C) 9.5 A D) 95 A
8. A coil has an area of 0.05 m and it has 800 turns. It is placed perpendicularly in a magnetic field of strength 4
2

× 10–5 Wb/m2. It is rotated through 90o in 0.1 sec. The average e.m.f. induced in the coil is
A) 0.026 V B) 0.016 V C) 0.052 V D) 0.032 V
9. The magnetic field at the point O due to the current flowing in the current loop shown in the figure is

0 I  r1  r2  0 I  r1  r2  0I 0 I
A)   B)   C) 4  R  R  D) 4  R  R 
4  r1r2  4  r1r2  1 2 1 2


10. A current I flows through a circular arc of wire which subtends an angle of at the centre. If the radius of the
3
circular arc is R, the magnitude of the magnetic induction B at the centre is
0 I 0 I 3 0 I  0 I
A) B) C) D)
4 R 12 R 2r 6r

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

11. Weber ampere per metre is equal to

A) Joule B) Henry C) Newton D) Watt
12. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field has increased its velocity, then its radius of the circle
A) decreases B) increases C) remains the same D) becomes half
13. An electron having charge e and mass m is moving in a uniform electric field E. Its acceleration will be

e2 Ee 2 Ee mE
A) B) C) D)
m m m e

14. When a charged particle moving with velocity v is subjected to a magnetic field of induction B , the force is
non zero. This implies that
A ) angle between B and v is either zero or 180o
B) angle between B and v is necessarily 90o
C) angle between B and v can have any value other than 90o
D) angle between B and v can have any value other than zero and 180o
15. A proton projected with a velocity v describes a circle of radius R in a uniform magnetic field B. The velocity
with which an  -particle should be projected so that it describes a circle of the same radius R in the same
magnetic field, is
v v
A) B) C) v D) 2 v
4 2
16. An  -particle and a proton are accelerated through the same potential difference from rest. Find the ratio of
their final velocity
A) 4 : 1 B) 1 : 1 C) 1: 2 D) 1 : 2
17. A positive charge is moving upward in a magnetic field which is towards north. The particle will be deflected
towards.
A) east B) west C) north D) south
18. The value of angle of dip is zero at the magnetic equator because on it.
A) V and H are equal B) the value of V and H are zero
C) the value of V is zero D) the value of H is zero

19. At a certain place, horizontal component is 3 times the vertical component. The angle of dip at this place is

   
A) B) C) D)
2 3 6 4

1  Wb 
20. A circular disc of radius 0.2 meter is placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction   in such a way that
  m2 
the axis makes an angle 60o with the magnetic field. The magnetic flux linked with the disc is
A) 0.08 Wb B) 0.01 Wb C) 0.02 Wb D) 0.06 Wb

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

21. A magnetic flux 5 × 10–4 is passing through a coil of 1000 turns. If the e.m.f. induced through coil is 5 volt, the
time interval will be
A) 1 sec B) 0.1 sec C) 0.01 sec D) 0.001 sec
22. When the plane of the armature of an a.c. generator is parallel to the field, in which it is rotating
A) both the flux linked and induced e.m.f. in the coil are zero
B) the flux linked with it is zero, while induced e.m.f. is maximum
C) flux linked is max. while induced e.m.f. is zero
D) both, the flux and e.m.f. have their respective maximum values
23. When the current through a solenoid increases at constant rate, the induced current.
A) increases gradually but in a direction opposite to the inducing current.
B) increases gradually but in a direction along the inducing current
C) is constant but it flows in a direction opposes to the inducing current
D) is constant but it flows in a direction along the inducing current
24. The magnitude of the emf induced across the secondary of a transformer does not depend on
A) the magnitude of the emf applied across the primary B) the number of turns in the primary
C) the number of turns in the secondary D) the resistance of the primary and the secondary
25. A transformer rated at 10 kW is used to connect a 5 kV transmission line to a 240 V circuit. The turns ratio in
the windings of a transformer is.
A) 5 B) 20.8 C) 104 D) 40
LEVEL III
More than one correct options
1. A particle of charge +q and mass m moving under the influence of a uniform electric field Eiˆ and a uniform
magnetic field Bkˆ vector follows trajectory from P to Q as shown in figure. The velocities at P and Q are viˆ
and 2vjˆ respectively. Which of the following statements (s) is/are correct?

3mv 2
A) E 
4qa
3mv 2
B) rate of work done by electric field at P is
4a
C) rate of work done by electric field at P is zero
D) rate of work done by both the fields at O is zero
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

  
2. A conductor AB of length l carries a current I in a magnetic field B . If AB  l and the force on conductor is

F , then
     

A) F  I l  B  
B) F  I B  l 
   
 
C) | F |  I l . B D) F does not depend on shape of AB
3. Current flows through a straight cylindrical conductor of radius R. The current is distributed uniformly over its
cross-section. If the magnitude of magnetic field induction at a distance r from the axis of the conductor is B,
then
1
A) B = 0 at the axis B) B  r for 0 < r < R C) B  for r > R D) B is maximum for r = R
r
4. If a charged particle moving with velocity v goes unaccelerated and undeflected in a region containing electric
 
E and magnetic field B . Then
  
A) E must be perpendicular to B B) v must be perpendicular to E

C) v must be perpendicular to B D) E = vB
5. A particle having a mass of 0.5 g carries a charge of 2.5 × 10–8 C. The particle is given an initial horizontal
velocity of 6 × 104 ms–1. To keep the particle moving in a horizontal direction
A) the magnetic field should be perpendicular to the direction of the velocity
B) the magnetic field should be along the direction of the velocity
C) magnetic field should have a minimum value of 3.27 T
D) no magnetic field is required’
6. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are in the y – z plane. The separation between the plates is 3 mm and
a potential difference of 600 V is applied across the plates. An electron is projected between the plates with a
velocity of 2 × 106 ms–1 along the positive y-direction. The elctron moves undeflected between the plates.

E
+
+ y
+
+ x
+
+ z
+
v
+
+

A) The electric field between the plates is 2 × 105 V m–1.

B) The magnitude of the magnetic field in the region between the plates is 0.1 T
C) The direction of the magnetic field is along the positive z-direction
D) The direction of the magnetic field is along the negative z
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Passage Comprehension
Passage I
A proton, an  particle, a doubly ionised Lithium atom (6Li)2+ and triply ionised carbon atom (12C)3+ are
projected in a region having uniform magnetic field. Subsequently they exhibit helical motion (or circular motion
depending on direction of projection) with radius r1, r2, r3, r4 and pitch P1, P2, P3, P4 respectively.
7. If each is projected perpendicular to the magnetic field with same kinetic energy, then

A) r1  r2  r3  r4 B) r4  r3  r2  r1 C) r1  r2  r3  r4 D) r3  r4  r2  r1

8. If each is projected with same velocity each at an angle of 45o with respect to the magnetic field, then

A) P1  P2  P3  P4 B) P1  P2  P3  P4 C) P4  P3  P2  P1 D) P4  P3  P2  P1

9. If each particle were accelerated through the same potential difference and then projected at 45o to the magnetic
field then
A) r4 = r3 = r2 = r1 B) r1 > r2 > r3 > r4 C) r4 > r3 > r2 > r1 D) r4 > r3 > r2 = r1
Passage II

In the above figure, NS is a permanent magnet with its poles as shown N and S, P and Q are two coils with
iron core, connected to resistors AB (for P) and CD (for Q) respectively lying on the common axis of the
magnet to its left and right respectively as in the figure. The windings on the coil are similar as shown.
10. If the magnet is now moved to the left, then during its motion,
A) a current will flow from A to B in P and from C to D in Q
B) a current will flow from A to B in P and from D to C in Q
C) a current will flow from B to A in P and from C to D in Q.
D) a current will fow from B to A in P and from D to C in Q.
11. If the magnet is kept fixed, and the coil P is moved to the left with coil Q fixed, then during its motion,
A) a current will flow from B to A in P and no current will flow in Q
B) a current will flow from B to A in P and from C to D in Q
C) a current will flow from B toA in P and from D to C in Q
D) a current will flow from A to B in P and no current will flow in Q

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Matrix Match.
12. Match the column I and column II.

Column I Column II
A) A charged capacitor is connected p) A constant current flows through the wire
to the ends of the wire
B) A wire is moved perpendicular q) Thermal energy is generated in the wire
to its length with a constant
velocity in a uniform magnetic
field
C) A wire is placed in a constant r) A constant potential difference develops
electric field that has a direction between the ends of the wire
along the length of the wire
D) A battery of constant emf is s) Charge of constant magnitude appear at the
connected to the ends of the wire ends of the wire

13. Match the following.

Column I Column II
A) AC generator p) Laminated core
B) DC generator q) Ohmic Resistance = 0
C) Transformer r) Slip Ring arrangement
D) Choke coil s) Split Ring arrangement

14. Equal currents are flowing in two infinitely long wires lying along x and y axis in the directions shown in figure.
Match the following two columns.
y

O x

Column I Column II
A) Magnetic field at (a, a) p) along positive y-axis
B) Magnetic field at (–a, –a) q) along positive z-axis
C) Magnetic field at (a, –a) r) along negative z-axis
D) Magnetic field at (–a, a) s) zero

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

15. Match the physical quantities in Column-II with the respective SI units in Column-I.

Column I Column II
A) NA 1m 1 p) Magnetic permeability   0 

B) Am2 q) Magnetic flux

C) NmA–1 r) Magnetic potential energy
D) NA–2 s) Magnetic flux density
t) Magnetic dipole moment

16. Match the Column-I with Column-II.

Column I Column II
A) Magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid is p) Not constant
B) Magnetic field inside a toroidal solenoid is q) Zero
C) Magnetic field inside a conducting hollow pipe r) Constant
having current parallel to its axis
D) Magnetic field due to current carrying wire on s) Maximum
its surface is

Integer Answer type.

17. A stream of charged particles is moving undeviated with a velocity of 500 ms–1 in a region of crossed fields.
If the magnitude of electric field is 1000 V m–1, find the magnitude of the magnetic field.
18. A 2 MeV proton is moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 2.5 tesla. What is the magnetic force
on the proton? (mass of proton = 1.6 × 10–27 kg) in terms of power 10–12 N.
19. A long straight thin conductor carries a current of 40 A in South to North direction. What is the magnetic field
at a point 2.0 m West of the wire in terms of power 10–6 T
20. A toroidal electromagnet has 1000 turns and mean radius of 0.1 m. The magnetic core has a relative permeability
of 2000. If a current of 1 A is passed, find the magnetic induction in Telsa.
21. The frequency of an a.c. supplied is 50 Hz. The time in milli second with which the current rise from zero to its
maximum value is
22. An ac generator consists of a coil of 50 turns and area 2.5 m2 rotating at an angular speed of 60 rads–1 in a
uniform magnetic field B = 0.3 T between two fixed pole pieces. The resistance of the circuit including that of
the coil is 450  . Find the maximum current drawn from the generator..

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Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
23. Statement I : A charged particle moves perpendicular to a magnetic field. Its K.E. remains constant, but
momentum changes.
Statement II : Force acts on the moving charged particle in the magnetic field.
24. Statement I : When equal currents are passed through two coils, equal magnetic field is produced at their
centres. If the ratio of number of turns in the coils is 8 : 15, then the ratio of their radii will be
8:15.

 0 NI
Statement II : Magnetic field at the centre of circular coil carrying current is B  .
2R
25. Statement I : When a dip needle oscillates in a vertical plane in magnetic meridian, it oscillates under the
action of total intensity R of earth’s field.
Statement II : In magnetic meridian, both H and V are effective.
26. Statement I : Electricity is generated by rotating a copper coil in a magnetic field.
Statement II : On rotating the coil,  changes. Therefore, magnetic flux  linked with the coil changes. Hence
an emf is induced.
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
1. An AC generator is connected to an electric appliance. In 10 revolutions of the armature the current in the
appliance changes direction:
A) 5 times B) 10 times C) 20 times D) 40 times
2. The length of a bar magnet is 2l, the distance between magnetic poles will be :
A) between 0 – l B) between l – 2l C) equal to 2l D) equal to l
3. A rectangular coil of copper wire is rotated in magnetic field. The direction of the induced current changes one
in each:
A) revolution B) two revolution
C) half revolution D) one fourth of a revolution
4. A high energy electron enters into a strong magnetic field which is perpendicular to its velocity plane in which
path is it expected to move?

A) B) C) D)

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

5. A primary coil of a transformer has 800 turns and the secondary coil has 8 turns. This transformer is connected
to a 220 volt A.C. supply. Then the output voltage will be:
A) 1.5 volt B) 2.2 volt C) 3.5 volt D) 3.3 volt
6. Two wires each carrying current i are shown. The magnetic field at P (midway between the wires) is described
by which statement:

A) Magnetic fields are in opposite direction and net field is equal to zero
B) Magnetic fields due to two wires are in the same direction
C) Magnetic fields are in opposite direction but net field is not zero
D) Magnetic fields are in the same direction and equal to two times the field due to one wire
7. An electron moving with uniform velocity in x direction enters a region of uniform magnetic field along y direction.
Which of the following quantities is (are) non zero and remain constant?
y

B x

e–

(I) Speed of the electron (II) Momentum of the electron (magnitude)

(III) Kinetic energy of the electron (IV) Force of the electron (magntidue)
A) only I and II B) only III and IV C) all four D) only II and IV
8. A uniform magnetic field exist in the plane of the paper pointing from bottom to top while a proton and an
electron are moving from left to right as shown in figure. The force experienced by them will be :

Magnetic field

Electron

Proton

A) Outward for both B) Inward for electron, outward for proton

C) Inward for proton, outward for electron D) Inward for both
9. An electron enters in a magnetic field from south to north direction and magnetic field lines are from east to west
direction. The direction of force acting on the electron will be
A) to the right B) to the left C) out of paper D) into the paper
10. Which of the following is correct?
A) 1 tesla = 4  × 10–7 gauss B) 1 tesla = 8.89 × 109 gauss
C) 1 tesla = 104 gauss D) 1 tesla = 1.98 gauss

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11. Two circular coils having identical turns and radius in the ratio 1 : 3 are joined in series. Find the ratio of
magnetic fields at the centres of coils:
A) 1 : 9 B) 1 C) 3 : 1 D) 9 : 1
12. An electric current is passed through a straight wire. Magnetic compasses are placed at the points A and B.
True statement is
A
B
A) their needles will not deflect B) only one of the needles will deflect
C) both the needles will deflect in the same direction D) the needles will deflect in the opposite direction
13. Which one of the following not a part of direct current generator?
A) Split Rings B) Slip Rings C) Aramture D) Carbon brushes
14. If a charge 3 C experiences a force of 3000 N when it is moved in a uniform electric field, then the potential
difference between two points separated by distance of 1 cm is
A) 10 V B) 1000 V C) 3000 V D) 9000 V
15. The two ends of a horizontal conducting rod of length l are joined to a voltmeter. The whole arrangement
moves with a horizontal velocity u, the direction of motion being perpendicular to the rod. The vertical component
of earth’s magnetic field is B. The voltmeter reading is (NTSE, AP, 2016)
A) Blv only if the rod moves eastward B) Blv only if the rod moves westward
C) Blv only if the rod moves in any direction D) zero
16. Consider two conducting plates A and B, between which the potential difference is 5 V, plate A being at a
higher potential. A proton and an electron are released at plates A and B respectively. The two particles then
move towards the opposite plates - the proton to plate B and the electron to plate A. Which one will have a
larger velocity when they reach their respective destination plates?
A) Both will have the same velocity
B) The electron will have the larger velocity
C) The proton will have the larger velocity
D) None will be able to reach the destination point
17. Which one of the following statemements best describes the nature of the field lines due to a bar magnet?
A) Field lines start from the north pole and end on the south pole. Any number of field lines can pass through
a point
B) Field lines start from the north pole and end on the south pole.
C) Field lines are continuous lines passing inside and outside the magnet. Only one field line passes through a
point
D) Field lines are continuous lines passing inside and outside the magnet. Any number of field lines can pass
through a point

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18. Which of the following statements is correct?

A) AC generator generates a higher voltage

B) DC generator generates a higher voltage

C) AC generates has a permanent magnet whereas a DC generator has an electromagnet

D) There is a split-ring commutator in a DC generator but not in an AC generator

19. Three rings P, Q and R are dropped at the same time over identical hollow magnets as shown below:

Which of the following describes the order in which the ring P, Q and R reach the bottom of the magnet?

P Q R Copper rings
Plastic ring

N N N

S S S

A) Rings P and R arrive simulataneously, followed by Q

B) They arrive in the order, P, Q, R

C) They arrive in the order P, Q, R

D) Rings Q and R arrive simultaneously, followed by P

20. Two coils C1 and C2 are arranged coaxially as shown in figure. The ends of the coil ‘C2’ are connected to an
ammeter A. The current sent through the coil C1 is directly proportional to the time. If the magnetic field
induction produced by the coil C1 is proportional to the current in it, then the induced current through the coil
C2 is

C1 C2

+ – A

A) zero B) increasing with time C) constant D) decreasing with time

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CHAPTER - 03
LIGHT

Light is a form of energy which makes objects visible to our eye. Study of nature of light, source, image, its
properties, vision etc. is dealt in the branch of Physics called Optics.
Optics is divided into Geometrical optics and physical optics.
Geometrical optics or ray optics describes light propagation in terms of rays. With the help of them we can
study the image formation, rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction etc.
Physical optics is divided into wave optics and quantum optics.
In wave optics light is treated as a wave and can study phenomena like interference, diffraction, polarisation
etc.
Quantum optics considers light as packets of energy called photon which can explain photoelectric effect,
Raman effect, Laser etc.
Properties of light
Light is a form of energy propagated as electromagnetic waves.
It does not require a medium for its propagation. The speed of light in vaccum or free space is 3 × 108 m/s. Light
waves are transverse in nature and so it can be polarised.
Light is electrically neutral and is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their wavelength or frequency.

 rays X rays Light Infra red Micro Radio

UV rays
wave wave
o o o o
0.1 A 100 A 4000 A 7000 A 1 mm 1m km
wave length
1 Angstrom = 10–10 m
Visible light itself is classified according to wavelength; each rays of wavelength have a particular colour.

UV 1 2 3 4 5 6
Violet Green Yellow Orange Red I.R.
Blue
o o o o o o o
4000 A 4500 A 5000 A 5500 A 6000A 6500A 7000A
wave length
o
Eye is most sensitive to light of wavelength 5550 A . So light of wavelength in this range is used in traffic signals.

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Relation between frequency, wavelength and velocity of light.

v
Velocity of light = frequency × wavelength, v  f . f 
the velocity of light in a medium is a constant. When

medium changes velocity of light and wavelength may change, but frequency and colour of light does not change.
In free space v = 3 × 108 m/s
Since f remains constant.
v   . i.e., light of larger the wavelength, greater will be the velocity..
 red   blue

 v red  v blue
Light of single wavelength is called monochromatic and light of multiple wavelength or white light is hetero-
chromatic.
Laser is a monochromatic, intense, unidirectional beam of light which is having very small spreading.
Reflection of light
When light incident on a boundary and most of it comes back to the same medium it is called reflection.

Reflection

The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called angle of incidence and the angle between the
reflected ray and normal is angle of reflection. The plane containing the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal is
called plane of incidence.
Normal
Incident ray Reflected ray
i r

O
Laws of reflection
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface are all in one plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence = angle of reflection, (i = r).
If i = 0, r = 0, i.e., a ray incident normally on a surface after reflection retraces its path.

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Rectilinear propagation of light

Rectilinear propagation of light means that light energy travels in straight lines.
Image
The apparent reproduction of an object formed by a lens or mirror system from reflected, refracted or diffracted
light waves is an optical image.
An optical image is formed at a point where rays of light actually converge or appear to diverge.
Real image
If the rays of light after reflection (or refraction) actually converges to a point then the image is real. Real image
can be seen as well as obtained on a screen placed at the position of the image.
Virtual Image
If the rays of light does not actually converge to a point but appear to diverge from a point then the image is
called virtual image. It cannot be produced on a screen.
A real image is always inverted w.r. to the object. A virtual image is erect with respect to the object.
Formation of image by Plane Mirror
The image formed is always erect, virtual and of same size as the object. It is at the same distance behind the
mirror as the object is infront of it.

A A'
O 1 i r 2 I
3 4
B D B'

M'

Consider an object AB placed infront of a plane mirror MM'. The virtual image is formed at A'B'; which is a
virtual and erect image.
From the figure,
i  r ---------(i)
also i  1 --------(ii) (alternate interior angles)
r   2 ---------(iii)
From (ii), (iii) 2  1 -------(iv)
3  4  90o
Also BDA  BDA
All the three angles are the same.
So the triangle BDA and B'DA' are congruent. So their corresponding sides are the same.
i.e., AB  AB - i.e., size of image is as the same size as the object.
BD = B'D i.e., image is at the same distance from the mirror as the object from the mirror.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Properties of image
(1) It is of the same size as that of the object.
(2) It is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object infront of it.
(3) It is laterally inverted.
(4) It is virtual and erect.
(5) If keeping the incident ray fixed, the mirror is rotated through an angle  , about an axis in the plane of the
mirror, the reflected ray is rotated through an angle 2 .

M M

Incident ray 
Incident ray


Reflected ray M'

M Reflected ray

(6) Every part of the mirror forms a complete image of an object, but we can see only that part of it from which light
after reflection from the mirror reaches our eye.
Due to this:
(A) To see a full image in a plane mirror a person requires a mirror of at least half of his height.
(B) To see a complete wall behind himself, a person requires a mirror of at least 1/3rd the height of the wall and he
must be in the middle of the wall and the mirror.
(7) Angle between direction of incident ray and emergent ray is called deviation  .


r
i
  180   i  r   180  2i

(8) If an object moves towards (or away from) a plane mirror with a speed v the image will also approach (or
recede) at the same speed v.
 speed of image relative to the object is 2 v..
(9) During reflection speed, wavelength and frequency of light does not change.
(10) The amplitude or intensity of the reflected light is less than that of the incident light.
(11) If two mirrors are placed at an angle  , then after two consecutive reflections, the deviation produced is
1  2  2  2 .

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(12) A thick plane mirror forms multiple images due to multiple reflection of light. Of these the second image is the
brightest image and the intensity of others goes on decreasing.
Plane mirrors are used in kaleidoscope, periscope, sextant etc.
No. of images formed when the object is placed between two mirrors.
When two plane mirrors are placed facing, each other at an angle  and an object is placed between them,
multiple images are formed due to multiple reflections.
360 360
If is an even integer, then no. of images formed, n  1
 
360
If is odd integer, then two cases arise.


 360  360
n   1 n
   

Case I : If the object lies symmetrically then,

360
n 1

360
Case II : If is equal to a fraction then the no. of images = (n) i.e., only integer part.

Water at a grazing incidence  i  90  is a good reflector of light.
Due to this, we can see image of the sun or other objects in a river or a pond in morning and evening but not at
noon.

Normal
Normal
O

I
Morning
Noon

o
Example 1 : Light of wavelength 6000 A falls on a plane reflecting surface. What are the wavelength and frequency
of reflected light. If angle between incident ray and reflected ray is 60o, what is the angle of incidence?
o
Solution : As wavelength and frequency remain unchanged on reflection, therefore,     6000 A

c 3  108
'     10
 5  1014 Hz
 6000  10

Now, r  i  2i  60o ; i = 30o

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Spherical Mirrors
A mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow sphere of glass is known as a spherical mirror. There
are two types of spherical mirrors, convex and concave.

transparent
transparent opaque
opaque

convex mirror concave mirror

Definition
(1) Pole or vertex - is the midpoint P of the mirror.
(2) Centre of curvature - is the centre C of the sphere of which the mirror is a part (C)
(3) Radius of curvature (R) is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
(4) Principal axis is the line CP joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror.
(5) Principal focus (F) is a point on the principal axis at which the image is formed when the object is at infinity.

concave mirror convex mirror

M
M

C F f P P F C

(6) Focal length (f), is the distance PF between pole and focus along principal axis.

(7) Aperture of a mirror is the effective diameter of the light reflecting area of the mirror. (size of the mirror)

Sign convention

(1) Whenever possible the light ray is taken to travel from left to right.

(2) All distances are measured from the pole.

(3) The direction of the incident ray is taken to be positive and in the opposite direction negative.

(4) Distance above principal axis is positive and below is taken as negative.

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Convex and Concave Mirror

A convex mirror is spherical mirror whose inner surface is silvered and reflection takes place from outer surface
(convex).

A concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose outer surface is silvered and reflection takes place from inner
surface.

Rules for formation of images

(1) A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection from the mirror passes or appears to pass through its focus.

A M r
i i
r

C F P F C

(2) A ray passing through or directed towards focus, after reflection from mirror, becomes parallel to the principal
axis.

C F F C

(3) A ray passing through or directed towards centre of curvature retraces its path, since  i  0 , r  0

M
M

C F F C

(4) Incident rays and reflected rays at the pole of a mirror are symmetrical about principal axis.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Image formation
(a) For concave mirror
Sl.
Position of object Ray Diagram Details of image
No.
1. At inifinity Real, inverted,
very small (m << –1),
At F

2. Between  and C Real, inverted

diminished (m <–1),
between F and C

3. At C Real, inverted, equal

(m = –1), at C

4. Between F and C Real, inverted, enlarged

(m > –1), between
C and 

5. At F Real, inverted, very large

(m >> –1), at infinity

6. Between F and P Virtual, erect, enlarged

(m > +1), behind the
mirror

(b) For convex mirror

Sl.
Position of object Ray Diagram Details of image
No.
1. At infinity Virtual, erect, very small
(m << + 1), at F

2. In front of mirror Virtual, erect,

diminished (m < + 1),
between P and F

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Uses of convex mirror

Rear view mirror in automobiles, street lamps, security mirrors.
Uses of concave mirror
Used in shaving mirror, reflectors in car head light, search lights, torches etc. used as reflecting mirrors by
doctors in observation of body parts.
In solar cookers, concave mirror focuses sun-rays on to the objects to be heated.
Relation between f, R, u and v
R
The focal length (f) of a spherical mirror of radius of curvature R is given by f 
2
If a thin object of linear size O is situated vertically on the axis of a mirror at a distance u from the pole and its
image of size I is formed at a distance v from pole, then magnification
I v
m   
O u
The negative sign indicates the image is inverted w.r. to object.
v f
m 
u f u
If the object is at a distance u from the mirror and an image is formed at v from the pole, mirror formula can be
written as
1 1 1
 
f u v
R 1 1
If R   , also f       0 , i.e., v = – u.
2 v u
i.e., image lies at the same distance as the object from mirror and the mirror becomes plane.
Examples 2 : An object of length 10 cm is placed at right angles to the principal axis of a mirror of radius of
curvature 60 cm such that its image is virtual, erect, and has a length 6 cm. What kind of mirror it is and also
determine the position of the object.
Solution : Since the image is virtual, erect, and of smaller size, it is a convex mirror.
R
R = + 60 cm, f   30 cm
2
I 6
Transverse magnification  m    0.6
O 10
v 3u
m  0.6, v  
u 5
1 1 1 5 1 1
  ,   
v u f 3u u 30
5  3 1
 , u = –20 cm
3u 30
Object is at distance 20 cm from the pole infront of the mirror.
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Example 3: A 12 m tall tree is to be photographed with a pin hole camera. It is situated 15 m away from the pin
hole. How far should the screen be placed from the pin hole to obtain a 12 cm tall image of the tree?
Solution : Here, h1 = 12 m, u = 15 m
v = ?, h2 = 12 cm = 0.12 m

h2 v h2 0.12
As h  u v
h1
u 
12
 15  0.15 m  15 cm
1

Example 4: A dentist’s concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 30 cm. How far must it be placed from a small
cavity in order to get a virtual image magnified 5 times?
Solution : Here, R = –30 cm, u = ?, m = 5

v 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
From m    5 , v = –5 u; As      ;   , u  12 cm
u v u f 5u u 15 5u 15
Refraction of light
When a beam of light travelling in one transparent medium falls on another medium a part of light gets reflected
back into the first medium and the rest of light passes into the other medium. The direction of propagation of the ray
that enters a medium obliquely, changes its direction at the interface of the two media. This phenomenon is called
refraction of light.
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in path of light when it goes from one medium to another. The
basic cause of refraction is the change in velocity of the light in going from one medium to another.
When light goes from one medium to another, the frequency of light, and phase of light do not change but
wavelength and velocity of light changes.
Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
2. Snells law : The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant called
refractive index of the medium w.r.t to the other.

sin i  2 1
    2 . ( 1  - refractive index of medium 2, w.r. to medium 1.)
sin r 1 2

Normal
Incident ray Reflected ray

i =i

r i - angle of incidence. r = angle of refraction.

Refracted ray

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Normal
Normal
Incident ray
i  i  Incident ray

 r
r  Refracted ray
Refracted ray
 
(A) (B) (C)

(A) When a ray of light passes from an optically rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal so
that r   i [as in fig. (A)]
(B) When a ray of light from an optically denser medium passes into a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal
r  i , [as fig. (B)]

(C) A ray incident normally on a refracting surface passes undeflected, i  r  0o .

Different materials have different optical density by which it determines the velocity of light in a medium.
In an optically rarer medium velocity of light in that medium is high. In this medium light travels faster. Speed of
light in air is greater than that in water so air is an optically rarer medium.
In an optically denser medium the speed of light will be smaller or in other words medium in which speed of light
is less is known as optically denser medium. e.g, glass, water, compared to air.
When light travels from glass to air it bends away from the normal.
When light travels from air to glass, it bends towards the normal.
Effects of Refraction
Real depth and apparent depth of a tank.
A water tank appears less deep (shallower) than what it actually is. This is due to refraction of light. Let O is an
object placed under water.
A'
Air
N C
r
A
X Y
Apparent B
depth i
Real depth I

O
A ray of light OB incident on surface XY at an angle i passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, refracts
to BC at an angle r. Another ray OA incident normally on XY refracts without deviation along AA'. On producing
BC back, the two rays meet at the Point I. So I will be the virtual image of O, or looking through water, we feel that
the object is at I. Thus I is the virtual image of O.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

 Apparent depth IA is less than real depth OA.

AB
In OAB, sin i 
OB

AB
In IAB sin r 
IB
sin i sin r AB OB OB
w
a  ;
a
w    
sin r sin i IB AB IB
when angles are small. B is close to A. In that case

OA real depth x x
a
    ; y
IA apparent depth y a

Refraction effects at sunset and sunrise
Sun is visible to us before actual sunset and sunrise. It is due to atmospheric refraction of light.
S'
observer

Horizon
Earth
Horizon
S
S is the actual position of sun below the horizon and cannot be seen directly. Light when reaches different
layers of atmosphere bends towards the normal as it is travelling from rarer to denser medium. Since they are
bending towards the normal at each refraction, the rays appears to come from S'. Therefore the sun appears above
the horizon. So it is seen a few minutes before sun rise and after sunset.
A rod put into water appears bent and short in water.

P
A
B

A rod PQ in water appear to be shortened. When inside the water PB is the length observed by the observer
and it appears to be bent inside water.
Twinkling of stars
During a clear night it has been observed that stars twinkle, this is due to atmospheric refraction. As we go up
in the atmosphere, the density decreases so there can be different layers of atmosphere. The light from a star when
travels through this medium goes on gradually bending towards the normal. Due to this the star is seen higher up in
the sky than its actual position. Due to convection current set up on the air, there will be variation in densities of the
medium. These varying density produces variation in refractive index of various layers. Due to this, light from a star
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reaching the earth changes its path from time to time and the amount of light reaching the eye is not the same. This
increase and decrease in the intensity of light reaching the eye results in an apparent change in position of the star or
twinkling of star.
Refractive index
The refractive index of a medium is determined by the speed or the velocity of light in the medium or the
wavelength of light in a medium.
c speed of light in vacuum
Refractive index,   x  speed of light in medium

c  vac    vac
  
x  med    med
i.e., the ratio of wavelength of light in the two media.
Relative refractive index of two media
v1 1  2
1
2   
v 2  2 1

Refractive index of medium 2 w.r. to medium 1.

Significance of refractive index

The value of  gives an information about the direction of bending of refracted ray..
The refractive index of a medium indicates speed of light in that medium in relation to the speed of light in
vacuum.
Refraction through a glass slab
Consider a glass slab. Let a ray KL incident at an angle i1 is refracted along LM and r1 is the angle of
refraction. The ray LM falls on the M face of the slab at an angle i 2 and emerges out into air at r2 , r2 is the
angle of emergence.

Now the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray KL but it is laterally shifted with respect to the incident ray.
PM = d is the lateral shift. It is the perpendicular distance between the incident ray and emergent ray when the ray
falls on a refracting glass slab obliquely.
1) Lateral shift is directly proportional to the thickness of slab and angle of incidence.
2) Lateral shift is directly proportional to refractive index of the slab.
Applying Snell’s law at L
 a  sin i1   g  sin r1

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sin i1  g
  a  g --------(1)
sin r1 a
a
 g is the refractive index of glass w.r. to air..
Applying Snell’s law at M,
sin i 2 a g
   a --------(2)
sin r2 g
g
 a refractive index of air w.r. to glass.

i 2 is the angle of incidence. r2 is the angle of emergence.

Let a plane mirror is placed in the path of the emergent ray MN, then the path of the emergent ray MN will be
reversed back. i.e., the emergent ray becomes incident ray and incident ray becomes emergent ray. It is known as
the principle of reversibility of light.
In this case for the ray at M,
g sin r2 a
   g --------- (3)
a sin i 2
Multiplying (2) by (3)
sin i 2 sin r2 g
  a  a g  1
sin r2 sin i 2

1
i.e.,
a
g  g
a --------- (4)

from (1) and (3) sin r2  sin i1 .

since, i2 = r1 they are alternate angles.
i.e., r2 = i1
angle of emergence = angle of incidence.
i.e., emergent ray and incident ray are parallel to each other.
Example 5 : A coin is placed at the bottom of a water tank with water to a height of 5 m above the coin. By how
much distance from the bottom of the tank, the coin appears to be raised   w  1.33

Actual depth
Solution:   App.depth

5
 App. depth   3.75 m
4/3

Example 6: Calculate wavelength and speed of light in (1) glass, (2) water and (3) in air  a  g  1.5, a  w  1.33
frequency of light = 8 × 1015 Hz (va = 3 × 108 m/s)

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va 3 108
(1) In glass, speed of light  vg    2 108 m/s
 1.5

vg2 108
Wavelength of light  g    0.25  107 m  2.5  108 m
v 8  1015

va 3 108 9 108
(2) In water v w     2.25  108 m/s
 4/3 4

2.25  108
w   2.81 108 m
8 10 15

(3) In air va = 3 × 108 m/s

3  108
a   0.375  107  3.75  108 m
8  1015

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

(a) Prism
A prism is a wedge shaped portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane faces inclined to
each other at a certain angle. In the following figure.
The two plane faces (ABED and ACFD) inclined to each other are called refracting faces of the prism.
The line (AD) along which the two refracting faces meet is called the refracting edge of the prism.
The third face (BCFE) of the prism opposite to the refracting edge is called the base of the prism.
The angle A included between the two refracting faces is called angle of the prism.

Refracting edge
D A
Principal section
Refracting faces
A
Angle of prism E
F

B C B C

Any section of the prism cut by a plane perpendicular to the refracting edge is called principal section of the
prism.
(b) Determination of angle of deviation
Let abc be the principal section of a prism of refracting angle A. Let a light ray AB be incident on the refracting
surface AB of the prism at an angle i. After refraction at B, the ray of light bends towards the normal NO and travels
along BC. The refracted ray BC again suffers a refraction at C and bends away from the normal N’O and travel
along CD. The ray CD is called emergent ray. The angle made by the emergent ray with the normal is called angle of

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emergence (i.e., e ). When the emergent ray is produced backward, it meets the incident ray produced forward at
point M. The angle between the emergent ray and the incident ray is called angle of deviation. (  )

A
M  N'
N
B   C
i 
r1 r2 e
Incident ray Emergent ray
O
A D
b c

Angle of deviation is the angle through which incident ray is turned by the prism while passing through it. In
other words, the angle between the emergent ray and the direction of incident ray is called angle of deviation.
Angle of deviation   i  e  A
Note: If refractive index of the material of prism is less than the refractive index of the medium of its surrounding, the
emergent ray may bend away from the base of the prism as shown in the figure.

denser
denser
rarer

Factors on which angle of deviation depends

(i) The angle of incidence
(ii) The material of the prism
(iii) The wavelength of light used
(iv) The angle of the prism
(c) Dispersion of Light through a Prism :

t
t e ligh
h i R
fw
mo O
Bea B
Y
G
VI

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Colour of Objects in White and Coloured Light:

We know that white light is a mixture of seven colours. Let us understand that why different objects appear to have
different colours. A rose appear red because when white light falls on rose, it reflects only the red component and
absorbs the other components.
We conclude that the colour of an object depends upon the colour of light it reflects.
NOTE:
(i) If an object absorbs lights of all colours and reflects none, it appears black.
(ii) If an object reflects light of all colour, it appears white when seen in white light.
(iii) When we talk of colour of an object, we refer to its colour as seen in white light.
(iv) A rose will appear black in green light because there is no red component in the light and it will not reflect any
light. Hence no light will come from rose to the eye. Similarly if a green leaf is seen in red light, it appears black.
(v) If a white flower is seen in red light, it appear red because a white object reflects light of all colours falling on it.
So it reflects the red light falling on it, which then enters the eye.
The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colours is known as dispersion of light. It
was discovered by Newton.
Colour Frequency in 1014 Hz Wavelength (nearly)
o o
Violet 6.73 – 7.5 4000 A to 4460 A
o o
Indigo 6.47 – 6.73 4460 A to 4640 A
o o
Blue 6.01 – 6.47 4640 A to 5000 A
o o
Green 5.19 – 6.0 5000 A to 5780 A
o o
Yellow 5.07 – 5.19 5780 A to 5920 A
o o
Orange 4.84 – 5.07 5920 A to 6200 A
o o
Red 3.75 – 4.84 6200 A to 8000 A

Dispersion takes place because light of different colours have different speed in a medium. Therefore the
refractive index of glass is different for different colours of light. When white light is incident on the first surface of a
prism and enters it, light of different colours is refracted or deviated through different angles. Thus the dispersion or
splitting of white light into its constituent colours takes place.
Note: From the definition of refractive index
speed of light in air
 glass 
speed of light in glass
The speed of light for different colours is different in glass (medium). The speed of violet light is minimum and
the speed of red light is maximum. Therefore
 violet   red
sin i sin i
But   or sin r 
sin r 
Therefore, the angle of refraction is minimum for light of violet colour and maximum for light of red colour.

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Each colour is deviated towards the base of the prism. The violet is deviated the most and the red is deviated
the least. As a matter of fact, the colours in the spectrum do not have any sharp boundaries.
Recombination of the Spectrum
For this experiment, two prism P1 and P2 of the same material and of the same refracting angle A are arranged
as shown in figure. Sunlight from a narrow slit S falls on the first prism P1 with its base downwards and gets
dispersed into constituent colours (VIBGYOR) and the bending takes place downwards. Now this dispersed light
falls on the second prism P2 with its base upwards so that it deviates the light upwards.

A PRISM (P2)

R R
ITE v
WH T v SCREEN
H
LIG
PRISM (P1)

It is found that the light coming out of the second prism P2 is almost white and is in direction parallel to the
direction of light incident on the first prism P1. In fact the two prisms P1 and P2 combined together effectively acts
like a parallel sided glass slab. This shows that the prism P1 simply disperses the white light into its constituent
colours and the prism P2 recombines these colours to form white light. The prism P1 is called dispersing-prism and
the prism P2 is known as recombination-prism.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
When light falls on tiny particles then diffused reflection takes place and light spreads in all possible direction.
This phenomenon is known as scattering of light.
Small particles scatter mainly blue light. When size of the particle increases then the light of longer wavelength
also scatter. The path of a beam of light passing through a true solution is not visible. However, its path becomes
visible through a colloidal solution where the size of the particles is relatively larger.
Rayleigh proved that the intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength,
provides the scattering is smaller for large wavelength of light.
1
scattering 
4
(a) Tyndall Effect :
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles of dust and molecules of air. When a
beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.
The light reaches us after being reflected diffusely by these particles. The phenomenon of scattering of light by
the colloidal particle gives rise to Tyndall effect. This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a
smoke filled room through a small hole. Thus, scattering of light makes the particles visible. Tyndall effect can also be
observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest. Here, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light.
(b) Phenomena based upon Scattering of Light :
A number of optical phenomena can be explained on the basis of scattering of light :
(i) Colour of the clear sky is blue : When we look at the sky, we receive sunlight scattered by fine dust
particles, air molecules and water-vapour molecules present in the atmosphere. Since blue light, which is present in
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larger proportion than violet light in the sunlight, is scattered about ten times more than the orange-red light, the light
reaching the eye is mainly blue. Hence the sky appears bluish.
If the earth had no atmosphere, there were no scattered sunlight and the sky would have appeared black. In
fact, the sky does appear black to the astronauts in the space above the earth’s atmosphere.
1
(ii) The clouds appears white : The dependence of scattering on is valid only when the scatterer particles or
4
molecules are much smaller than the wavelength of light, as are air molecules. Clouds, however, contain water
droplets or ice crystals that are much larger than  and they hence scatter light of all wavelengths nearly equally..
Hence clouds appear white.
(iii) At sunrise or sunset the sun appears reddish :
The scattering of light also explains the reddish appearance of sun at sunrise or sunset. At sunrise or sunset, the
sun is near the horizon and the sunrays reach the earth after passing through a maximum distance in the atmosphere.
1
During this passage, the light scattered by air molecules and fine dust particles. Since scattering  , most of the
4
blue and neighbouring-coloured light is a scattered out before reaching the observer. Hence the light received by the
observer is predominantly red. (For a similar reason, the sun appears orange-red in fog or mist.)
At noon, when the sun is overhead, the sunrays travel minimum distance in the atmosphere and there is little
scattering. Hence the sun appears almost white (infact, slightly yellowish because some blue light is scattered.)

Total internal reflection of light

Consider an interface XY separates a rarer medium and a denser medium (say air and water). O is a point
object in the denser medium. A ray of light starting from O and incident normally at A passes XY straight along AB.
Another ray incident along OA1 deviates away from normal and is refracted along A1B1, so that angle of refraction
is greater than angle of incidence. For a particular value of i = C, the critical angle, the incident ray is refracted at
r  90o and goes just grazing the surface of separation. When i > C, for the ray OA3, the ray is reflected back
to the same medium along A3B3.

Air Rarer
X A A1 90o B2
Y
C
Water B3 Denser

No portion of light is refracted into the rarer medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
 Total internal reflection is the process of reflecting back all the light into the denser medium when light travels
from denser medium to rarer medium.
(1) For this light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.

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(2) The angle of incidence in denser medium is greater than critical angle.
sin i
From Snells law 
sin r
When i = C, at A2
 g sin C   a sin 90   a  1

g 1 1
 ;
a
g  -------(5)
a sin C sin C

 3
Example 7 : Calculate the minimum angle of incidence so that a ray travelling from glass     to
 2

 4
water      does not emerge out in water..
 3

3 4
Solution :  g  w  . imin = C
2 3

g 3/ 2 9 1
w
g    
w 4 / 3 8 sin C

 sin C  0.888, C  62.7 o

SOME APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
1. The brilliance of diamond
The brilliance of diamond is due to total internal reflection of light.  for diamond is 2.42, so that critical angle
for diamond - air interface as calculated from eqn. (5) is 24.4o. The diamond is cut suitably so that light entering the
diamond from any face falls at an angle greater than 24.4o. Therefore, it suffers multiple total internal reflections at
various faces, and remains within the diamond, failing to come out. Hence the diamond sparkles.
2. Mirage
Mirage is an optical illusion which occurs usually in deserts on hot summer days. The object such as a tree
appears to be inverted, as if the tree is on the bank of a pond of water.
On a hot summer day, temperature of air near the surface of earth is maximum. The upper layers of air have
gradually decreasing temperatures. Therefore, density and refractive index of air goes on increasing slightly compared
to the layer near the surface of earth for smaller heights with height above the surface of earth. Profiles for the
temperature and refractive index of air for the phenomenon of mirage are shown in figure.

A ray of light from the top O of a tree goes from denser to rarer medium bending successively away from
normal. At a particular layer, when angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection
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occurs, and the totally reflected ray reaches the observer along AE, appearing to come from I, the mirror image of
O. Thus inverted image of tree creates the impression of reflection from a pond of water. Similarly, in the mirage of
a car, the car appears upside down due to total internal reflection of light in the hot air close to the ground.

3. Totally reflecting glass prisms

Totally reflecting glass prisms are right angled isosceles prisms which turn the light through 90o or 180o. They
are based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light.  for glass is 1.5 so that critical angle for glass-air
interface is 42o. In totally reflecting glass prisms, angle of incidence is made 45o (> C). Hence light suffers total
internal reflection as shown in figure. (a) and (b).

A'B' is image of AB seen through the prism PQR after total internal reflection of light. In Fig. (a) turning of light
rays is through 90o on account of one total internal reflection on face QR of the prism. In fig. (b) turning of light rays
is through 180o on account of two total internal reflections, one on face PQ and other on face PR of the prism.
4. Optical fibres
These are also based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fibres consist of several thousands
of very long fine quality fibres of glass or quartz. The diameter of each fibre is of the order of 10–4 cm with refractive
index of material being of the order of 1.5. The fibres are coated with a thin layer of material of lower refractive
index of the order of 1.48. This coating is called cladding.
Light incident on one end of the fibre at a small angle, enters the fibre after refraction and strikes the core/
cladding interface at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle and is reflected back into the core. Light thus
travels inside the optical fiber along a zig-zag path as shown in figure. It finally comes out of the fibre at the other end,
even if the fibre is bent or twisted in any form. And there is almost no loss of light through the sides of the fibre or due
to absorption by the core.

The only condition is that angle of incidence of light must be greater than the critical angle for the fibre material
w.r.t its coating.

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Applications of optical fibres

1. A bundle of optical fibres is called light pipe. This pipe can transmit an image. Since the pipe is flexible, it can be
twisted in any desired manner. Hence it is used in medical and optical examination of even the inaccessible parts
of human body, e.g., in endoscopy.
2. Optical fibres are used in transmission and reception of electrical signals by converting them first into light
signals.
3. Optical fibres are used in telephone and other transmitting cables. Each fibre can carry upto 2000 telephone
messages with almost no loss of intensity.
SPHERICAL LENSES
A lens is a piece of transparent refracting material bounded by two spherical surfaces or one spherical and
other plane surface.
A lens is the most important optical component used in microscope, telescopes, cameras, projectors etc.
Basically lenses are of two types
(i) Convex lens or converging lens
(ii) Concave lens or diverging lens
(a) Convex lens and its types:
A lens which is thick at the centre and thin at the edges is called a convex lens. The most common form of a
convex lens has both the surface bulging out at the middle. Some forms of convex lens are shown in the figure.

Double-Convex Plano-Convex Concavo-Convex

Different types of convex lens
(b) Concave lens and its types
A lens which is thin at the middle and thick at the edges is called a concave lens. The most common form of a
concave lens has both the surfaces depressed inward at the middle. Some forms of concave lenses are shown in the
figure.

Double-Concave Plano-Concave Convexo-Concave

Different types of concave lens

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(c) Definitions in connection with spherical lens:

Optical Centre
Optical centre

Radius of Centre of Radius of

Centre of Curvature Curvature
Curvature R1 Curvature R2
C2
R2 O
C1 C1 R 1 P 1 O P2 C2
Principal
axis

(a) (b)
Characteristics of convex and concave lenses
(i) Optical centre:
If a ray of light is incident on a lens such that after refraction through the lens the incident ray passes undeviated,
then the point at which the refracted ray intersects, the principal axis is called the optical centre of the lens. In the
figure O is the optical centre of the lens. It divides the thickness of the lens in the ratio of the radii of curvature of its
two surfaces.
If the radii of curvature of the two surfaces are equal then the optical centre coincides with the geometric centre
of the lens.

O O

(ii) Principal foci and focal length

(A) First principal focus and first focal length :
It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that rays starting from this point (in convex lens) or appearing to go
towards this point (concave lens), after refraction through the lens, become parallel to the principal axis. It is represented
by F'. The plane passing through this point and perpendicular to the principal axis is called the first focal plane. The
distance between first principal focus and the optical centre is called the first focal length. It is denoted by f '.

F' O O F'

f' f'

Figure : Ray diagram showing First principal focus

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(B) Second principal focus and second focal length :

It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that the light rays incident parallel to the principal axis, after
refraction through the lens, either converge to this point (in convex lens) or appear to diverge from this point (in
concave lens). The plane passing through this point and perpendicular to principal axis is called the second focal
plane. The distance between the second principal focus and the optical centre is called the second focal length. It is
denoted by f2 or f.

O F O
F

f2 f

Figure : Ray diagram showing second principal focus

Generally, the focal length of a lens refers to its second focal length. It is obvious from the above figures, that
the foci of a convex lens are real and those of a concave lens are virtual. Thus the focal length of a convex lens is
taken positive and the focal length of a concave lens is taken negative.
If the medium on both sides of a lens is same, then the numerical values of the first and second focal lengths are
equal. Thus
f=f '
CONVEX LENS
(a) Rules for image formation by Convex Lens:
The position of the image formed by a convex lens can be found by considering two of the following rays (as
explained below.)
(i) A ray of light coming parallel to principal axis, after refraction through the lens, passes through the principal
focus (F) as shown in figure.

O F

(ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre O of the lens goes straight without suffering any deviation as
shown in the figure.

O F

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(iii) A ray of light coming from the object and passing through the principal focus of the lens after refraction through
the lens, becomes parallel to the principal axis.

F O

(b) Image formed by Convex Lens:

The position, size and nature of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the distance of the object
from the optical centre of the lens. For a thin convex lens, the position and nature of image formed is summarised in
the table.

Position of the Position of the

Size of the image Nature of the image
object image
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F At 2F Same size Real and inverted
Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Magnified Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly magnified Real and inverted
On the side of the
Between O and F Magnified Virtual and erect
object

CONCAVE LENS
(a) Rules for image formation by Concave Lens :
The position of the image formed by a concave lens can be found by considering following two rays coming
from a point object (as explained below.)
(i) A ray of light coming parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, appears to pass through the principal focus
F of the lens, when produced backward as shown in figure (a).
(ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre O of the lens goes straight without suffering any deviation as
shown in figure (b).

O
F O

(a) (b)
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(b) Image formed by Concave Lens

The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and diminished and is formed between the optical
centre O and the principal focus F of the lens. For a thin concave lens of small aperture, the position and nature of
image formed is summarised in the table:

Position of the Position of the

Size of the image Nature of the image
object image
At infinity At F Highly diminished Virtual and erect
O and  Between O and F Diminished Virtual and erect

Example 8 : Figure below shows the refracted ray BC through a concave lens and its foci marked as F1 and F2.
Complete the diagram by drawing the corresponding incident ray.
REFRACTED RAY
B
C

F2 F1

Solution : Figure shows the refracted ray parallel to the principal axis, therefore, the incident ray must be travelling
towards the first focus F1, thus, to find the incident ray, F1 is joined to the starting point B of the refracted ray and
then produced backward as BA. Then AB is the required incident ray, the completed diagram is shown in figure.
A
INC
IDE
NT REFRACTED RAY
R AY
B C

F2 F1

Example 9 : The diagram in figure shows an object OA and its image IB formed by a lens. The image is of same
size as the object.
(a) Complete the ray diagram and locate the focus of the lens by labelling it as F.
(b) State whether the lens is convex or concave? Show it in the diagram.
(c) What is the location of the object with respect to the lens?
A

I
O

B
Solution : (a) Since the ray from the object passing through the optical centre goes undeviated, therefore to find the
optical centre, join A to B to meet the line OI (principal axis) at the point P which gives the position of optical centre

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of the lens, draw a line LP through P perpendicular to the line OI, to represent the lens. Draw another ray AC from
the point A parallel to the principal axis OI to meet the lens line LP at a point C. This ray AC will reach the image
point B while passing through the focus, therefore join C to B to meet the line OI at a point F which is the focus of
the lens. The completed ray diagram is shown in figure.
L
A C

F I
O P

(b) Since the image is real and inverted, therefore the lens is convex; fig shows the convex lens L.
(c) Since the size of object and image are equal, the object must be at a distance 2f from the lens where PF = f, i.e.,
PO = 2PF.
Example 10 : Is it possible to burn a piece of paper using a convex lens in day light without using the match-box or
any direct flame? Draw a diagram to support your answer.
Solution : Yes, it is possible by converging the light rays coming from the sun on the piece of paper placed in the
focal plane of a large convex lens. The ray diagram is shown in figure.
SUN RAYS

CONVEX
LENS
F2
PAPER

Example 11 : Draw a diagram to locate the position of a convex lens kept between a candle and a screen separated
by a distance of 90 cm, so that a small image of the candle, half the size of it, may be formed on the screen. Deduce
the focal length from the diagram.
Solution : By taking the scale 2 cm = 1 mm, the candle and its image (half the size) are shown as OA and IB
respectively on the principal axis XX'.

L
A C 30 cm

F I
X O F X'
B
60 cm L' 20 cm

v 30 1
m   ; 2v = u; v = 30, u = 60 cm.
u 60 2
The complete ray diagram is shown in above figure.
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POWER OF A LENS
It is the measure of deviation produced by a lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres. Its
unit is Diopter (D) (f should always be in metres)

1
Power  P  
focal length  f in m 

Power of a convex lens is +ve (As it has a real focus and its focal length measured is +ve).
Power of a concave lens is –ve (As it has a virtual focus and its focal length measured is –ve).
NOTE:
If two thin lenses are placed in contact, the combination has a power equal to the algebraic sum of the powers
of two lenses. P = P1 + P2.

1 1 1
  
f f1 f 2

Here, f1 and f2 are the focal length of lenses and f is focal length of combination of lenses.
LENS FORMULA

1 1 1
Relation between object distance u, image distance v and focal length f is :  
v u f
Note : Lens makers formula:

1  1 1   lens  1 1 
    1     1   
F  R 1 R 2    medium   R1 R 2 

Where lens = refractive index of lens;  medium = refractive index of the surrounding medium.

3
Example 12 : A double convex lens of focal length 20 cm in air is made of glass of refractive index . When placed
2
 4
completely in water   w   , find its focal length.
 3

1  3  1 1  1 1 1 
Solution :    1       --------(1)
f a  2   R1 R 2  2  R1 R 2 

1  ng  1 1   3 / 2  1 1  1 1 1 
  1    1       ---------(2)
fm  n w   R1 R 2   4 / 3   R 1 R 2  8  R 1 R 2 
from eq. (1) and (2)

f m  4f a  80 cm

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LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
Linear magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.

AB h 2 height of image

m  
AB h1 height of object

v
also m  . if m is +ve (image is virtual & erect). if m is –ve (image is real and inverted)
u
COLOURS OF THE OBJECT
(a) Primary Colours of Light :
Red, green and blue are primary colours of light and they produce white light when added in equal proportions.
All colours can be obtained by mixing these three colours in different proportions
(b) Secondary Colours or Composite Colours of Light:
The colours of light produced by adding any of primary colours are called secondary colours. Cyan, magenta
and yellow are secondary colours of light.
Red + Green = Yellow
Green + Blue = Cyan
Red + Blue = Magenta
The method of producing different colours of light by adding the primary colours is called colour addition.

Red

Green
Blue

Additive Primaries
(c) Complementary Colours of Light :
The lights of two colours which when added in equal proportions produce white light are called complementary
colours of light and the two colours are called complements of each other.
For example, yellow and blue light are complementary colours of light because when they mixed in equal
proportions, they produce white light. We can also find the pairs of complementary colours of light as follows.
Complementary colours
(Red + Green) + Blue = Yellow + Blue = White
Red + (Green + Blue) = Red + Cyan = White
(Red + Blue) + Green = Magenta + Green = White

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

M
w

ag
llo

en
Ye

ta
G Cyan B

The above results can be diagrammatically represented in the form of a triangle as shown in figure below. The
outer limbs of the figure show the results of the addition of primary colours red, green and blue. The complementary
colour pairs such as red and cyan are opposite to each other.
(d) Primary Colours of Pigment :
Pigments are those substances that give colour to an object. The colour of a pigment as seen by us depends on
what components of light it absorb or subtract from white light before reflecting the rest to our eyes. A primary
colour (cyan, magenta, yellow) of a pigment is due to a primary colour of light being subtracted from white light.
White - Red = Blue + Green = Cyan
White - Green = Red + Blue = Magenta
White - Blue = Red + Green = Yellow
Mixing CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) pigment in the correct proportions can produce millions of colour. If
equal amount of pure CMY pigments are mixed, we should get a black pigment. However, printers use black ink in
addition to CMY links to get good results.

Magenta Red
Yellow

Blue Green

Cyan

Subtractive Primaries

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
HUMAN EYE
Mechanism of Vision
The bulged cornea, aqueous humour, and the lens together produce refraction. This produces a real inverted
image of the object on the retina. The iris (diaphragm) regulates the amount of light entering the eye. Retina has light
sensitive cells called cones and rods. These produce electrical signals corresponding to the image. These signals
reach the brain through the optic nerve. The brain recognizes the image as erect.

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Blind Spot

The place where the optic nerve leaves the eye is the blind spot. It is a small area on the retina which is
insensitive to light. The blind spots are towards the inner side, that is, on the side nearest to the nose. Therefore, the
same image in both eyes never fall on the blind spots simultaneously. Thus, any part of the image being not seen is
avoided. However, when you see by only one eye, a part of the image falling on the blind spot is not seen.

Accomodation

You know that the distance of an image from a lens varies if the object distance is varied. Thus, in a camera, the
lens has to be moved outwards to focus an object which is closer.

But in the human eye, the distance between the lens and the retina is fixed. So, the eye alters the power of the
lens itself to focus light from the objects at different distances. This is possible because the eye lens is flexible. When
the ciliary muscles are contracted, the lens is thin. Objects at infinity are focused. To focus a nearby object, ciliary
muscles relax to bulge the lens. The focal length of the lens decreases. Thus, the ciliary muscles change the curvature
of the lens. This alters the focal length and hence the power of the lens. This capacity of the eye is called its
accommodation.

Least Distance of Distinct Vision

A normal human eye can adjust its power to focus on any object at about 25 cm from the eye (near point) up
to infinity (far point).

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The smallest distance from the eye at which the objects are seen clearly is called the least distance of distinct
vision. It is about 25 cm for a normal human eye.

Adjustment to Variation of Brightness

The iris (diaphragm) shrinks or expands to vary the size of the pupil. This controls the amount of light entering
the eye. When there is a sudden change in brightness, the eye needs sometime to adjust to the altered condition.

Examples:

(a) When you enter a darkened cinema hall the eye needs a few minute for the pupil to expand and adjust to the
dim light. Till then you cannot see properly.

(b) When you suddenly walk from a dim-light condition to bright daylight, you feel the glare because the pupil
is expanded initially and it takes a few minutes to contract and adjust its size.

Colour Vision

The retina of a human eye has a large number of light sensitive cells. They are called rods and cones depending
on bright light and their shape. The rod-shaped cells are sensitive to bright and dim light. But they are not sensitive
to colours. Colour sensing is only by cone cells in the retina. There are three types of cone cells, each sensitive to
red, blue, or green. Together they sense all colours. The cones become active only in bright light. Thus, we can not
see colours clearly in dim light.

If any one or more type of cone cells are missing or not functioning properly in the retina, such people cannot
see all colours. This is genetic disorder. Such people may not have any other defect of vision, but cannot distinguish
between various colours. They are called colourblind.

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Defects of Vision

When the eye cannot clearly focus the image on the retina, the eye is said to have a defect of vision.

Table : Details about the defect, its cause, and remedy.

(a) Myopia Eyeball is too long or the focal Using a diverging lens of focal
(or nearsightedness or length of eye lens is short length equal to the distance of far
short sight) point of the defective eye.

(b) Hypermetropia Eyeball is too short or the focal Using a converging lens of focal
(or farsightedness or length of the eye lens is large. length (1/f) = (1/v) + (1/u), where u
long sight) = d = 25 cm and v = near point of
defective eye.

(c) Presbyopia The eye lens loses its flexibility Use the two separate spectacles, one
The near point is with ageing. A normal eye at the with concave lens for distant
farther than 25 cm and age of 10 years can change its objects and other with convex lens
the far point is closer power range by about 4D (from 25 for nearby objects (reading, etc). or,
than infinity. This is cm to  ). At the age of 70 years, use spectacles with bifocal lens.
normally noticed in this range is only 1 D.
aged people.
(d) Astigmatism The cornea has uneven curvature Use eye glasses with lenses having
The eye cannot clearly (non-spherical) cylindrical curvature
focus horizontal and
vertical lines
simultaneously.
(e) Cataract The eye lens becomes less The eye lens is removed by
Objects at all distances transparent (milky) due to ageing or operation. A substitue lens is
appear blur and cloudy injury. provided either inside the eye or
outside, in front of it.
(f) Night blindness Inefficient working of cells in the During early stages, can be cured
Objects cannot be seen retina due to deficiency of by intake of vitamin A.
in dim light. vitamin A

MAGNIFICATION
An object can be made to appear ‘big’ or ‘magnified’ by increasing the visual angle. This is the job of an optical
instrument. Magnification or magnifying power (m) is the ratio of the visual angle while looking through the instrument
to that with the naked eye.

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If  is the visual angle of the object in direct observation and the  is the visual angle of the image,


angular magnification m 

Microscope
Simple microscope : A convex lens of short focal length used to get a magnified virtual image, is called simple
microscope. It is used by watchmakers, jewellers, or as a reading lens, or to see textures of fibres, etc.
An object AB kept within the F of the convex lens produces a virtual magnified erect image at the least distance
of distinct vision D.
D
m  1
f
where f is the focal length of the lens and D is the least distance of distinct vision.

Compound microscope : A simple microscope cannot produce very large magnifications, required to observe
plant and animal cells, bacteria, etc. To observe such objects, we use a compound microscope. In its simple form,
it consists of two lenses fitted coaxially in a tube. The lens of shorter focal length (f0) is towards the object and is
called the objective. The other, of larger focal length (fe) is close to the eye and is called the eye piece. The ray
diagram is shown in figure.
AB = object, outside the F0, i.e., u > f0
A1B1 = real, inverted, magnified image produced by the objective. This is within the Fe.
A2B2 = virtual magnified image produced by the eyepiece. A2B2 is inverted with respect to AB.
D = least distance of distinct vision.

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L = separation between the objective and the eye piece.

The diameter of the eyepiece is greater than that of the objective. This helps to collect more light and gives a
brighter image.
The net magnification is m = m0 × me.
where m0 = magnification produced by the objective
me = magnification produced by the eyepiece.
It can be shown that (if L >> f0 and fe),
L D
m 
f0 fe
Telescope
Telescope are of two types.
(a) Reflecting telescopes: in which a combination of lenses and mirrors is used.
(b) Refracting telescopes: in which only lenses are used.

Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical refracting telescope, in its simple form, consists of two convex lenses called the objective and
the eyepiece. Objective has a large focal length (f0) and a large diameter. The eyepiece has a small focal length (fe)
and a small diameter. They are fixed coaxially in two tubes, of which one can slide in the other. The ray diagram for
the image formation is shown in figure.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

AB = object at infinity.
A1B1 = real inverted image of the object produced by the obejctive, with in the Fe.
A2B2 = virtual magnified final image.
When the final image is also at infinity, A1B1 is at Fe. The length of the telescope is said to have normal adjsutment.
fo
In normal setting magnifying power M  f ; where fo is the focal length of the objective and fe is the focal
e

length of eye piece.

Since the final image is inverted with respect to the object, this telescope is not suited for terrestrial observations.
It is mainly used for astronomical purpose. Hence, it is called astronomical telescope.
This drawback can be avoided by any one of the following methods:
• Using a concave lens as the eyepiece. This type of arrangement is called Galilean telescope.
• Using a combination of lenses, we can invert the image A1B1 to get an erect final image.
• Using total refecting prisms to invert the image A1B1.
Such a telescope producing final image which is erect with respect to the object is called a terrestrial telescope.

While observing terrestrial objects, use of both eyes is very convenient. Thus, a pair of telescopes, which is
designed to be used together is better. Such an arrangement is called a binocular.

Unlike telescope, binocular gives a 3-D image. It gives an impression of the object with depth. They are used
in bird watching, hard survey, hunting, range finding etc.

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LIGHT
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. The frequency of incident light is 3 × 1018 Hz. The frequency after reflection
A) decrease B) remains same C) increases D) either ‘a’ or ‘c’
2. Find the angle of incidence and angle of reflection from the diagram.

Mirror 35o
surface

A) 45o, 40o B) 55o, 55o C) 60o, 60o D) 30o, 30o

3. A man is 6.0 ft tall. What is the smallest size plane mirror he can use to see his entire image
A) 3.0 ft B) 6.0 ft C) 12 ft D) 24 ft
4. In case of a real and inverted image, the magnification of a mirror is
A) positive B) negative C) zero D) infinity
5. Two plane mirrors are set at right angle and a flower is placed in between the mirrors. The number of images
of the flower which will be seen is
A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four
6. An object is placed at the center of curvature of a concave spherical mirror. The image formed by the mirror is
A) located at the focal point of the mirror
B) located between the focal point and the radius of curvature of the mirror
C) located at the centre of curvature of the mirror
D) located out beyond the center of curvature of the mirror
7. A concave spherical mirror has a radius of curvature of 100 cm. What is its focal length?
A) 50 cm B) 100 cm C) 200 cm D) 300 cm
8. A full length image of a distance tall building can definitely be seen by using
A) a concave mirror B) a convex mirror
C) a plane mirror D) both concave as well as plane mirror
9. An object is placed 60 cm in front of convex mirror. The virtual image formed by the mirror is located 30 cm
behind the mirror. What is the object’s magnification?
A) +2 B) –2 C) + 0.5 D) –0.5
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10. Which statement best describes the property of light waves illustrated in the diagram below?

A) Some materials absorb light waves B) Some materials reflect light waves
C) Light waves are refracted by some materials D) Light waves are emitted by some materials
11. A tank of height 40 m is filled with oil fully. If the bottom of the tank appears to be 30 m below its top, the
refractive index of the oil should be
3 3 3 4
A) B) C) D)
4 2 8 3
12. To a fish under water, which observes obliquely, a fisherman standing on the bank of a lake, he appears to be
A) taller than what he actually is B) shorter than what he actually is
C) of the same height as he actually is D) taller or shorter depending on the obliquity
13. Morning sun is not so hot as the mid day sun because
A) Sun is cooler in the morning
B) Heat rays travel slowly is the morning
C) It is God gift
D) The sun’s rays travel a longer distance through atmosphere in the morning
14. The index of refraction of diamond is 2.0, velocity of light in diamond in cm per second is approximately
A) 6 × 1010 B) 3.0 × 1010 C) 2 × 1010 D) 1.5 × 1010
15. A glass slab is placed in the path of a beam of convergent light, then the point of convergence of light
A) moves towards the glass slab B) moves away from the glass slab
C) remains at the same point D) undergoes a lateral shift
16. If critical angle for a material to air is 30 , then refractive index of the material will be
o

A) 1.0 B) 1.5 C) 2.0 D) 2.5

17. If for a given pair of media CR, CY and CB are the critical angles for red, yellow and blue colours respectively,
then
A) CR  C Y  CB B) CB  CY  CB C) CR  C Y  CB D) CR  C Y  C B
18. The critical angle of a transparent medium denser than air
A) increases with its refractive index
B) decreases with its refractive index
C) is independent of its refractive index
D) none of these
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19. Light travels from a medium of refractive index 1 to another of refractive index 2  1  2  . For total
internal reflection of light, which is not true?

A) Light must travel from medium of refractive index 1 to that of  2

B) Angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
C) Angle of refraction in the second medium is 90o

D) Light must travel from the medium of refractive index  2 to that of 1

20. A convex lens is making full image of an object. If half of the lens is covered by an opaque object, then
A) half image is not seen B) full image is seen and of same intensity
C) full image is seen and of decreased intensity D) half image of same intensity is seen
21. A lens is behaving as convex lens in air and concave in water, then its refractive index is
A) smaller than air B) greater than both air and water
C) greater than air, but less than water D) almost equal to water
22. A lens produces a enlarged, virtual image. What kind of lens is it?
A) converging B) diverging C) it could be either diverging or converging
D) None
f
23. An object is situated at a distance of from a convex lens of focal length f. Distance of image will be
2

f  f  f 
A)    B)    C)    D) –f
2 3 4
LEVEL II
1. If a ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an angle of incidence of 30o, then deviation produced by mirror
is
A) 30o B) 60o C) 90o D) 120o
2. A convex mirror has a focal length = 20 cm. A convergent beam tending to converge to a point 20 cm behind
convex mirror on principal axis falls on it. The image is formed at
A) infinity B) 40 cm C) 20 cm D) 10 cm
3. Radius of curvature of convex mirror is 40 cm and the size of object is twice as that of image, then the image
distance is
A) 10 cm B) 20 cm C) 40 cm D) 30 cm
4. A motor car is fitted with a convex driving mirror of focal length 20 cm. A second motor car 2 m broad and 21. 6 m
high is 6 m away from first car. The position of second car as seen in mirror of 1st car is
A) 15.4 cm B) 17.4 cm C) 19.4 cm D) 25 cm
5. A real image of half the size is obtained in a concave spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of 40 cm. The
distance of object and its image will be
A) 30 cm and 60 cm B) 60 cm and 30 cm C) 15 cm and 30 cm D) 30 cm and 15 cm

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6. If an object is 30 cm away from a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm, the image will be
A) erect B) virtual C) diminished D) of same size
7. What is the distance of a needle from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm for which a virtual image of twice
its height is formed?
A) 2.5 cm B) 5 cm C) 8 cm D) 9.1 cm
8. A tank of height 33.25 cm is completely filled with liquid    1.33 . An object is placed at the bottom of the
tank on the axis of concave mirror as shown in figure. Image of the object is formed at 25 cm below the surface
of the liquid. Focal length of the mirror is

A) 20 cm B) 15 cm C) 25 cm D) 33.25 cm
4
To a fish in water, a bird in air appears to be at 30 cm from the surface. If  w 
a
9. , then the true distance of
3
the bird from the surface is
A) 40 cm B) 22.5 cm C) 80 cm D) 52.5 cm
10. A glass slab of thickness 4 cm contains the same number of waves as 5 cm of water when both are traversed
4
by the same monochromatic light. If the refractive index of water is , what is that of glass?
3

5 5 16
A) B) C) D) 1.5
3 4 15
11. Light is incident on glass-air interface plate at an angle of 30o. The reflected and refracted rays are mutually
perpendicular to each other. The refractive index of the plate is
1
A) 1.5 B) C) 1.22 D) 1.73
1.73
12. A driver in a swimming pool wants to signal his distress to a person lying on the edge of the pool by flashing his
water proof flash light.
A) He must direct the beam vertically upwards
B) He has to direct the beam horizontally
C) He has to direct the beam at an angle with the vertical which is slightly less than the critical angle of incidence
for total internal reflection
D) He has to direct the beam at an angle with the vertical which is slightly more than the critical angle of
incidence for total internal reflection.
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13. A ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium. The angle of incidence is equal to the critical
angle for this pair of media is C. The deviation of the ray is
 
A) C B)   2C C)   C D) C
2 2
14. The speeds of light in two media I and II are 2.2 × 108 m/s and 2.4 × 108 m/s respectively. The critical angle for
light refracting from I to II medium will be

1 12 1 11 1 21 1 24
A) sin B) sin C) sin D) sin
11 12 24 21

f
15. An object is placed at a distance of from a convex lens. The image will be
2

3f
A) at one of the foci, virtual and double is its size B) at , real and inverted
2
C) at 2f, virtual and erect D) at f, real and inverted
16. A convex lens is made up of three materials as shown in the figure. For a point object placed on its axis, the
number of images formed is

A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 1
17. The focal length of convex lens is 30 cm and the size of image is quarter of the object, then the object distance
is
A) 150 cm B) 60 cm C) 30 cm D) 40 cm
18. A lens of power +2 diopter is placed in contact with a lens of power –1 diopter. The combination will behave
as
A) a convergent lens of focal length 50 cm B) a divergent lens of focal length 100 cm
C) a convergent lens of focal length 100 cm D) a convergent lens of focal length 200 cm
19. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm, a concave lens of focal length 40 cm and a concave lens of focal length 15
cm are placed in contact. The power of this combination in dioptre is
A) + 1.5 B) –1.5 C) + 6.67 D) – 6.67
20. A ray of light, incident on one face of an equilateral prism, undergoes total internal reflection at another face. If
the refractive index of the material of prism is 2 , then angle of refraction (r2) at second face will be

A) 15o B) 30o C) 45o D) sin

1
 2 sin15o 
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21. When the brightness of light increases, the size of the pupil.
A) decreases B) increases
C) remains the same D) first decreases and then increases
22. Myopia is same as
A) nearsightedness B) far-sightedness C) astigmatism D) cataract
23. ..... lens is used to correct myopia.
A) concave B) convex C) bifocal D) coloured
24. The near point of a normal eye is at
A) 50 cm B) 25 cm C) 1 m D) infinity
25. The far point of a normal eye is at
A) 50 cm B) 25 cm C) 1 m D) infinity
26. For an astronomical telescope at normal adjustment, with f0 and fe as the focal lengths of objective and eyepiece
respectively, the magnification is
f0 fe
A) f0 × fe B) f C) f0 + fe D) f
e 0

27. For an astronomical telescope at normal adjustment with f0 and fe as the focal length of objective and eyepiece,
respectively, the length of the telescope is
f0 fe
A) f 0  f e B) f C) f0 + fe D) f
e 0

28. ......... has shorter focal length convex lens.

A) Objective of a telescope B) Eyepiece of a microscope
C) Eyepiece of a telescope D) Both the lenses in a telescope
d
29. A camera objective has an aperture diameter d. If the aperture is reduced to diameter , the exposure time
2
under identical conditions of light should be made.
A) 2 fold B) 2 fold C) 2 2 fold D) 4 fold
30. A compound microscope has a magnification of 30. Assuming that the final image is formed at the least distance
of distinct vision (25 cm), find the magnification produced by the objective. Given, the focal length of the
eyepiece is 5.0 cm.
A) 25 cm B) 30 cm C) 5 cm D) 10 cm
LEVEL III
More than one correct.
1. Out of the following select the correct statement.
A) Sun glasses which have curved surfaces have no power
B) When lenses are in contact, magnification gets multiplied
C) The focal length of lens does not depend upon the direction from which light is incidents
D) Decreasing the radii of the two surface of a double convex lens or double concave lens increases its focal
length
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2. Choose the wrong statements regarding the image formation in a convex spherical mirror
A) Images are always larger than the actual object
B) Images are always smaller than the actual object
C) Images are always of the same size as the actual object
D) Images are always half of the actual object
3. Choose the wrong statements regarding refraction of light
A) The bending of light rays when they enter from one medium to another medium
B) Splitting of white light into seven colours when it passes through the prism
C) Bending of light round corners of obstacles and apertures
D) Coming back of light from a bright smooth surface
4. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium falls on a surface separating the medium from air, at an angle of
incidence of 45o. The ray undergoes total internal reflection. If n is the refractive index of the medium with
respect to air, select the possible values of n from the following:
A) 1.3 B) 1.4 C) 1.5 D) 1.6
5. The final image produced by a compound microscope is
A) erect with respect to object B) erect with respect to first image
C) virtual D) magnified
6. A fly is slitting on the objective of a telescope pointed towards the moon. When the photograph of moon is
taken through the telescope, the fly does not affect.
A) the field of view B) the portion of image C) size of the image D) intensity of the image
Passage Comprehension.
Passage I
There is one plane mirror in a room. Ram and Shyam are two friends; they are together standing in front of the
mirror, Ram is standing 4 m from the mirror and the distance between Shyam and thei mage of Ram is 10 m.
7. What is the distance between Ram and Shyam?
A) 2 m B) 3 m C) 4 m D) 5 m
8. The image of Ram formed by the plane mirror is:
A) Real and inverted B) Virtual and erect C) Real and erect D) None of the above
Passage II
A 5.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 20 cm. The
distance of the object from the lens is 30 cm.
9. What is the distance of image from the pole of lens?
A) v = 60 cm B) v = –60 cm C) v = 30 cm D) v = –30 cm
10. The size of the image formed by the lens is
A) 1 twice the object size B) halved the object size
C) one-fourth the object size D) one-third the object size
11. What is the power of the used lens?
A) + 5 D B) – 5 D C) + 0.5 D D) – 0.5 D
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Matrix Match Type.

12. Match the following for real object.

Column I Column II
A) Magnification m = +1 p) Convex mirror
B) Magnification m = +2/3 q) Plane mirror
C) Magnification m = 3/2 r) Concave mirror

13. Match the following.

Column I Column II
A) Twinkling of stars p) Total internal reflection
B) Blue color of sky q) Dispersion
C) Rainbow r) Scattering of light
D) Mirage s) Refraction of light
E) Lateral shift t) Reflection of light

Integer answer type.

14. If the velocity of radio waves is 3 × 105 km/s, the frequency corresponding to wavelength of 300 m is (in MHz)
15. A fish at a depth of 12 cm in water is viewed by an observer on the bank of a lake. Through what height is the
 4
image of fish raised?    
 3
16. The minimum distance between an object and its real image formed by a convex lens is ......f
17. An object of height 1.5 cm is placed on the axis of a convex lens of focal length 25 cm. A real image is formed
at a distance of 75 cm from the lens. The size of image will be
18. An object 20 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 30 cm tall image is formed on the
screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true

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19. Statement I : In going from a denser to a rarer medium, a ray of light bends away from normal.
Statement II : This occurs because light travels faster in a rarer medium than in a denser medium.
20. Statement I : Magnification of a convex mirror is always positive, but that of a concave mirror may be both
positive or negative.
Statement II : It depends on the sign convention chosen.
21. Statement I : Refractive index of a medium varies inversely as the temperature of the medium.
Statement II : Refractive index of a medium varies directly as the density of medium.

NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1. White light is incident on the interface of glass and air as shown in the figure. If green light is just totally
internally reflected then the emerging ray in air contains: (2014)

A) yellow, orange, red B) violet, indigo, blue

C) all colours except green D) all colours
2. If a lens of focal length ‘f’ is cut in two equal parts shown as : (2014)

are put in contact as shown in figure (i) and (ii)

the resulting focal length of fig (i) and (ii) will be :

A) f/2, 0 B) 0, f/2 C) f, f D) f/2, (infinity)

 4
3. The focal length of a concave mirror in air is f. If it is immersed in water     , then the focal length will be:
 3

4 3
A) f B) f C) f D) 4f (2015)
3 4
4. The far point of a myopic person is 75 cm in front of the eye. The nature and power of the lens required to
correct the problem, will be : (2015)
A) convex lens, –1.33 D B) concave lens, – 1.33 D
C) concave lens, +1.33 D D) convex lens, +1.33 D

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3 4
5. A glass prism of refractive index is immersed in water of refractive index . A light beam incident normally
2 3
on the face AB is totally reflected to reach the face BC if : (2014)

8 2 8 2 3
A) sin   B)  sin   C) sin   D) sin  
9 3 9 3 2
6. If a part of convex lens is covered, its focal length will be : (2014)
A) remain unchanged B) become twice
C) become half D) depend on the covered area
7. The minimum distance between an object and its real image in a convex lens is : (2014)
A) 2.5 times its focal length B) 2 times its focal length
C) 4 times its focal length D) equal to its focal length
8. A convex lens forms a real image of a point object placed on its principal axis. If the upper half of the lens is
cut then: (2014)
A) The image will be shifted downwards B) The image will be shifted upward
C) The intensity of the image will decrease D) None of the above
9. Velocity of light travelling from rarer medium to denser medium decreases by 30%. Find the refractive index
of the denser medium with respect to rarer medium? (2015)
A) 1.35 B) 1.5 C) 1.4 D) 1.428
10. The refractive index of glass is maximum for: (2015)
A) red colour B) yellow colour C) violet colour D) green colour
11. The human eye can focus objects at different distances by adjusting the focal length of the eye-lens. This is due
to : (2015)
A) presbyopia B) near-sightedness C) accommodation D) far-sightedness
12. Most of the refraction takes place at .......... when light enter the eye. (2015)
A) Pupil B) Iris
C) Outer surface of cornea D) Crystalline lens
13. You are provided with a concave lens having focal length 15 cm. If it diminishes the image by one-third,
calculate the distance of image from lens? (2015)
A) 5 cm B) 10 cm C) 5 m D) 10 m
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14. A convex lens of glass has power P in air. If it is immersed in water, its power will be : (2015)
A) more than P B) less than P C) P
D) more the P for some colours and less than P for others
15. A converging bundle of light rays in the shape of cone with a vertex angle of 45o falls on a circular diaphragm
of 20 cm diameter. A lens with power 5D is fixed in the diaphragm. Diameter of face of lens is equal to that
of diaphragm. If the vertex angle of new cone is  , then tan   (2015)

A) 1.5 B) 2 C) 3 D) 3
16. A person is suffering from both near sightedness and far sightedness. His spectacles would be made of :
(2015)
A) two-concave lenses with the upper lens having a larger focal length than the lower lens
B) two concave lenses with the upper lens having a smaller focal length than the lower lens
C) a concave lens as the upper lens and a convex lens as the lower lens
D) a convex lens as the upper lens and a concave lens as the lower lens
17. A car of length 3 m moves at a constant velocity 36km/hr. A man wants to take a photo of side view of the car.
The size of the image of the car is 1.5 cm long. The time of exposure needed for the car to get a clear picture,
if the image should not move more than 0.1 mm, is: (2015)
A) 1.5  103 s B) 3  103 s C) 2.8  103 s D) 2 103 s
18. The focal length of each half, if the symmetrical lens of focal length f cut along AB: (2017)
A

C D

1
A) f B)   f C) 2f D) Zero
2
19. The dispersive power of a medium is: (2017)
A) the greatest for red light B) the least for red light
C) the least for yellow light D) the same for all colours
20. A swimming pool appears less deeper than its deal depth : (2017)
A) due to reflection B) due to refraction
C) due to dispersion D) due to lateral displacement
21. If an object is placed between two plane mirror placed parallel to each other, how many images will be
formed: (2017)
A) Only one B) Two C) Infinite D) None of these

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22. If ‘p’ and ‘q’ are distance of object and image from principal focus of a concave mirror then what is the
relation between ‘p’, ‘q’ and ‘f’? (2017)
1
A) pq  f B) pq = f C) pq = f2 D) pq 
f
23. Between two plane parallel mirrors an object P is placed as shown in figure. Distance of first three images
from mirror M2 will be (in cm): (2017)

5 cm
P

15cm
M1 M2
A) 5, 10, 15 B) 5, 15, 30 C) 5, 15, 25 D) 5, 25, 35
24. Two light rays P and Q are incident an optical device ‘X’ which finally goes along ‘R’ and ‘S’. Identify optical
device ‘X’. (2017)
R

P X
Q
S

A) Concave lens B) Concave mirror C) Convex lens D) Convex mirror

25. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is cut into two halves, each of which is displaced 0.5 mm as shown and
a point object placed at a distance of 30 cm from the lens. Then the image is at (2019)

A) 50 cm B) 30 cm C) 60 cm D) 70 cm
26. The radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens which has refractive index 2 is 20 cm. By applying Silver
Bromide on its surface to change it as a concave mirror, what is the focal length of the formed mirror?
(2019)
A) 5 cm B) 20 cm C) 10 cm D) 40 cm
27. A point object is placed at a distance of 10 cm and its real image is formed at a distance of 20 cm from a
concave mirror. When the object is moved by 0.1 cm towards the mirror, then the image will be moved by
about (2019)
A) 0.4 cm away from the mirror B) 0.4 cm towards the mirror
C) 0.8 cm away from the mirror D) 0.8 cm towards the mirror

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28. The mirror which produces the magnifications of m > –1, m < –1 and m > + 1 is ....... (2019)

A) convex mirror B) concave mirror C) plane mirror D) spherical mirrors

29. The smallest unit of length among the following is (2019)

A) Micrometer B) Nanometer C) Millimeter D) Light year

30. An object is kept at a distance of 1 m from a convex lens of power 2 dioptre. The image is formed at a
distance ........ from the object. (2019)

A) 0.5 m B) 1 m C) 2 m D) 0.75 m

31. Figure shows a ray of light as it travels from medium 1 to medium 2. If reflactive index of medium 1 with
2
respect to medium 2 is then the value of angle x is (2019)
3

Medium 2
45o
45o
x=?
Medium 1

A) 30o B) 60o C) 15o D) 45o

32. Observing the following table, choose the correct alternative. (2019)

Column I Column II
A) O p) Image formed by concave lens
A B
I
B) I O q) Image formed by convex lens
A B with object at 2F
C) O I r) Image formed by convex lens
A B with object beyond 2F
D) O s) Image formed by convex lens
A B with object within focal length
I

In Column I, AB - principal axis of lens, O - point object, I - point image. Match the two Columns.

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

33. A ray falls on a prism ABC (AB = BC) and travels as shown in figure. If refractive index of glass with respect
to air is 1.5, find sin r (2019)

135o
45o C
B

3 3 2 2 2
A) B) C) D)
2 2 2 3 3

1
34. A convex lens produces an image of an object on a screen with a magnification of . When the lens is moved
2
30 cm towards the object, the magnification of the image is 2. The Focal length of the lens is (2019)
A) 20 cm B) 25 cm C) 30 cm D) 35 cm
35. Two plane mirrors at an angle (x0) produces 5 images of a point. The number of images produced when x0 is
decreased to (x – 30)o is (2019)
A) 9 B) 10 C) 11 D) 12
36. The radii of curvature of two faces of a biconvex lens of refractive index 1.5 are in the ratio of 2 : 3. The focal
length of the lens is 12 cm. The radius of curvature of the surface with low value of radius of curvature is
(Refractive index = 1.5)
A) 5 cm B) 10 cm C) 15 cm D) 20 cm
37. The path of ray of light in different media of refractive indices n1, n2, n3 and n4 is shown in figure. The velocity
of light will be maximum in the medium whose refractive index is

n1
n2
n3

n4

A) n1 B) n2 C) n3 D) n4
38. Which one of the following phenomena is an example of scattering of light?
A) Bending of rod at interface of air and water B) Twinkling of stars
C) Tyndall effect D) Mirage in desert during summer
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39. Which are the following correct depicts reflection. When two mirrors are inclined at an angle of 50o? (NTSE,
Delhi, 2017)

N N N N
o
85
A) B) C) o
50
D) o
36
o o o o
50 50o
50 60o
50 50

40. A narrow beam of light is incident on a 30o – 60o – 90o prism perpendicular to the surface AB. Assume that
1  10 
light beam is close to A. The index of refraction of prism is 2.1. See figure and take sin    28 26 . The
o

 21 
beam emerges from the face (NTSE, AP, 2016)

o
A 60
B

A) CB B) AB C) AC
D) Some light through AC and remaining light through AB
41. A convex lens has a focal length of 0.5 m. It has to be combined with a second lens, so that the combination
has a power of 1.5 dioptre. Which of the following could be the second lens?
A) A concave lens of focal length 2 m
B) Another convex lens of focal length 0.5 m
C) A concave lens of focal length 0.5 m
D) A convex lens of focal length 2 m
42. As shown in figure, a liquid of refractive index n2 is poured onto the concave surface of concavo convex lens.
R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of convex and concave surfaces of the lens respectively and R1 = 2R2. the
refractive index of material of lens is n1 For which combination of n1 and n2 the whole system behaves as a
diverging lens.

R2

R1

A) n1 = 1.2 and n2 = 1.8 B) n1 = 1.56 and n2 = 1.33

C) n1 = 1.63 and n2 = 1.35 D) n1 = 1.7 and n2 = 1.33

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CHAPTER - 04
HEAT
Concept of Heat
Consider a nail when it is hit by a hammer we can see that it becomes hot. Rubbing two stones together also
generates heat. According to James Prescot Joule showed in 19th century that mechanical energy and heat energy
are equivalent. During the above two examples, the mechanical energy spent is converted to heat. Thus heat is a
form of energy. Atoms and molecules in matter are in continuous motion and are held by inter atomic or intermolecular
forces. So the atoms and molecules possess KE and PE. The total energy (sum of PE and KE) of molecules is
called thermal energy of the substance.
When a hot body is kept in contact with cold body, the rigorously vibrating molecules of the hot body disturbs
the molecules of the cold body. Thus they transfer thermal energy to the cold body. The part of the thermal energy
flowing from hot body to cold body is called heat. Since mechancial energy can be used to generate heat, and heat
is also a form of energy it is measured by the unit of mechanical energy called Joule.
Heat possessed by a body is the total thermal energy of the body which is the seem of KE of all the individual
molecules of the body due to translational, rotational and vibrational motion of the molecules. In general, the energy
associated with the random motion of the atom/molecules of the body is called internal energy of the body. Heat
energy is a form of internal energy which is transferred from one body to another when there is a temperature
difference between the two bodies. Then heat energy is the internal energy of a body is transit.
SI unit of heat is joule.
cgs unit of heat is calorie.
One calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water through 1oC. (i.e.,
from 14.5o C to 15.5oC)
Mechanical work is converted to heat by the relation W = JQ, Where W - work done, Q - heat generated, J -
the mechanical equivalent of heat.

 W  JQ or

W
J , J = 4.186 Joule/calorie.
Q

1 calorie = 4.18 Joule

Calorific value of a fuel
The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called calorific value. The unit
of calorific value is kJ/kg (kJ-kg–1)
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TEMPERATURE
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body and its measurement is thermometry.
Temperature is a fundamental quantity. It is a scalar with SI unit kelvin.
Temperature decides the direction of heat flow (Heat flows from a point of higher temperature to a point of
lower temperature.)
When heat is given to a body, temperature rises and when heat is taken, temperature falls.
Two bodies will be in thermal equilibrium, if they are at the same temperature.

Temperature of a body is a measure of average translational KE of a molecule. TK   KE molecule

Temperature of a body can be raised without limit, but the lowest temperature attainable is zero kelvin.
Production and measurement of very low temperature (below Boiling Point of liquid nitrogen ie 77K) is called
cryogenics while measurement of very high temperature (> 1000 K) is called pyrometry.
Scales of temperature
The SI unit of temperature is kelvin.
Celsius scale or centigrade scale and Fahrenheit can be used for temperature measurement.

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin

B.P. of water 100oC 212oF 373.15 K

o o
Melting point of ice 0C 32 F 273.15 K

Conversion between different scales.

TC  0 T  32 TK  273.15
 F  --------(1)
100  0 212  32 373.15  273.15
To define a scale of temperature two fixed points are taken and the interval between them is divided into ‘n’
equal parts. Usually B.P. of water and M.P. of ice is taken as fixed points.
Instead of taking two fixed points in old thermometry, nowadays in new thermometry triple point of water
273.16 K is taken as the reference point.
Triple point of water is 0.01oC in Celsius scale and 273.16 K in Kelvin scale.
Kelvin scale is also called absolute scale. The lowest possible temperature in the universe is –273.15oC. This
is called absolute zero of temperature. The magnitude of Kelvin scale and celesius scale is the same.
Example 1 : Convert 40o C into farenheit and kelvin scales
TC TF  32
Solution : 
100 180
TC  180 40  180
TF   32   32  104o F
100 100
TC  100
TK   273.15  313.15 K
100
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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

Example 2 : At what temperature, if any, do the following pairs of scales give the same reading: (a) Celsius and
Fahrenheit, (b) Fahrenheit and Kelvin and (c) Kelvin and Celsius?
Solution : If the temperature is  at which the reading of the two scales coincide, then from

TC  0 TF  32 TK  273.15
 
100 180 100

   32
(a)  , i.e.,   40
100 180
i.e., reading of Celsius and Fahrenheit scale coincides at –40o.

  32   273.15
(b)  ; i..e,   574.6
180 100
i.e., reading of Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale coincides at 574.6o.

  273 
(c)  which is not possible.
100 100
So reading of Celsius and Kelvin scale can never coincide.

THERMOMETRY
Thermometry is the measurement of temeprature. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of a body.
The variation of some physical property of a substance is used to measure temperature.
Mercury Thermometer
Thermal expansion of mercury, in a narrow tube is used to measure temperature. Such thermometer is used to
measure temperature from –50oC to 350oC.
Mercury is preferred as the liquid, because of its uniform and large expansion and high thermal conductivity and low
specific heat capacity. The range of such thermometer is –50oC to 350oC.

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Gas Thermometer
For accurate temperature measurement gas thermometers are used. It has a wide range. It makes use of
increase in volume or pressure of a gas to determine the temperature.
Resistance Thermometer
Variation of resistance of metals with temperature is used to measure temperature. Usually platinum is used to
measure temperature. The melting point of platinum is high, it is an unreactive metal and can easily be drawn into fine
wires. Because of these properties, platinum is used as a sensing element in the thermometer.
The resistance thermometers have range from –200oC to 1200oC.
Thermoelectric Thermometer
Thermocouples also can be used to measure temperature. Thermo-emf will be generated in the thermocouple,
when two junctions of the thermocouple are placed at different temperatures.
The thermo emf will vary with the temperature difference and it is used to determine temperature.

Pyrometers
As the word ‘pyro’ means fire, pyrometers are used to measure very high temperature such as of a furnace or
glowing filament.
In these thermometers the intensity of radiations is measured and is used to determine the temperature of the
body. These thermometers are usually employed to measure temperature higher than 1000oC (~MP of gold). The
temperature of sun is measured by the ‘pyrheliometer.’

THERMAL EXPANSION
When matter is heated the energy of atoms increases, the distance between the atoms increases, and the matter
as a whole expands. Inter molecular forces for solids are maximum and least for gases. So expansion for solids are
minimum and gases are maximum.
Solids have linear expansion, superficial expansion and volume expansion while liquids and gases have only
volume expansion. The change in dimension is proportional to rise of temperature and original dimension.
Change in dimension 1

Original dimension rise of temeprature is called the coefficient of expansion.

Units - oC–1, K–1

change in length 1 l
For eg. coefficient of linear expansion   original length  rise of temperature  l  T
  l  l T

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change in area 1
Coefficient of superficial expansion   original area  rise of temperature ,

a
 , a   a T
a  T

change in volume 1
Coefficient of volume expansion   original volume  rise in temperature ,

v
 , v   v T
v  T

,  and  are constants for a material.

i.e., change or final value of length, area or volume depends on its initial values, change in temperature and
nature of material.

Relations between α, β and γ

Comparing these equations

2  

3  

 :  :   1: 2 : 3

  
  or 6  3  2 
1 2 3
Application of thermal expansion in solids
A. Bimetallic strip
It is used in a thermostat. Two strips of equal length but different expansions are joined together. When heated
the strip will bend with metal of greater  on the outer side (convex side).

This type of arrangement is used in electrical heating circuits.

B. A Scale gives correct reading at a temperature  , at a different temperature    , the scale expands and the
reading will be less than actual length. Due to this, readings taken using the scale will be in inaccurate.

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C. Thermal Expansion of an isotropic object.

If there is a cavity in a plate, and when it is heated, the size of the cavity increases as well as the size of the plate.
(It is like a photo graphic expansion).

plate

cavity

Precautions taken for expansion or contraction

1. When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between two rails.
2. The transmission cables are not tightly fixed to the poles.
3. Materials of low value of coefficient of expansion is used to make test tubes, beakers etc.
4. The iron rim to be put on a wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of the wheel.
Thermal Expansion in Liquids
Liquids have only volume expansion. When a liquid is heated in a container, the container also expands with
liquid. Due to this the level of the liquid falls initially and later when the liquid expands faster, the level of the liquid
rises.
The actual increase in volume of liquid
= The apparent increase in volume of liquid + The increase in the volume of the vessel.
Anomolous expansion of water
Normally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. For water it expands at heating if its temperature
is greater than 4oC. In the range of 0oC to 4oC water contracts on heating and expands on cooling (coefficient of
volume expansion in this range is negative). This behaviour of water in the range 0oC to 4oC is called anomolous
expansion. At 4oC density of water is maximum and specific volume is minimum.
Example 3 : A metal pendulam clock gives correct time at a temperature of 20oC. How much time does it lose in a
day if the room temperature is 35oC. Given  of metal = 1.25 × 10–5 K–1.
Solution : For a pendulam clock, the time period is 1 sec. As temperature increases, it expands, the length of the
pendulum increases and time period increases. Then it will take more than 1 sec. to oscillate once. Even now the
clock shows only 1 sec. On a long run the clock shows less time i.e., it will run slow.
The period of the pendulum before increase of temperature

l
1  2 -------- (3.1)
g

l
When temperature increases T  2 --------(3.2)
g

l l 1  T 
Dividing T  
l l

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l  l T T
i.e., T  ; T   l  T  ; T  1 
1/2

l 2
The difference in time period or time loss per second
1
T 1  T
2
1 1
 Time lost in a day  T   24  3600    1.25  10 5  15  24  3600  8.1 sec
2 2
Example 4 : A steel - scale is to be prepared such that the millimetre intervals are to be accurate within 5 × 10–4mm
at a certain temperature. Determine the maximum permissible temperature variation during the ruling of the millimetre
marks if  steel  13.22 106 / Co .

Solution : We know that in case of linear expansion L  L .

Here L  5  104 mm ;

L = 1 mm and   13.22  106 / C o

So,  
L

  5 10  4

L 1 13.22  106

i.e.,   37.83 Co

or   max  37.83 Co

Example 5 : A glass flask of volume one litre at 0oC is filled level full of mercury at this temperature. The flask and
mercury are now heated at 100oC. How much mercury will spill out if coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is
1.82 × 10–4/Co and linear expansion of glass is 0.1 × 10–4/Co respectively?
Solution : In case of thermal expansion of liquid, change in volume of liquid relative to container is given by

V  V   L   S  

Here V = 1 litre = 1000 cc and  S  3 G  0.3  104 / Co

So, V  1000 1.82  0.3 10 4  100  0   15.2 cc

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
Heat is transferred from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature.
The transfer of heat from one body to another takes place by conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction
Conduction is the process of transfer of heat from particle to particle without the actual movement of the
particles. In solids heat is transferred by conduction.

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At the hot end of a solid the atoms and electrons have higher vibrational amplitudes due to the high temperature.
These increased amplitudes are transfered to the nearby atoms during collision between atoms. In this way heat is
transferred from one region to another of low temperature.
Consider a slab of face A rea A , and lateral thickness L, whose face have temperatures T H & TC,
(TH > TC)

L
TC

A
TH
Q2
Q1
x
dx

Quantity of heat flowing between the ends of the rod is

Q  KA
 TH  TC  t
---------(8)
L
K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity.
Q is the heat flowing through a slab of area A and length L for a time t.
Unit of thermal conducting is W m–1 K–1 or cal s–1 cm–1 oC–1
Convection
When heat is transferred from one place to another by actual movement of heated substance (fluids) is called
convection. Convection requires a medium. Convection can be due to natural movement called natural convection
and forced convection due to forced movement. The rate of heat convection is proportional to the temperature
difference between the object and convective medium and the area of contact A.
Due to convection
a) Land and Sea breeze occur
b) Trade winds are formed
c) Monsoons are originating
d) Ventillation becomes possible
e) Regulation of temperature in human body
Convection currents in nature
Land and Sea Breez - They are caused by convection currents. During the day land is hotter than the sea, air
rises up near land. The cold air above the sea blows towards land to occupy the space left by rising hot air which
produce sea breeze. In night the situation reverses. At nights the land cools down faster than the sea. And wind
blows from land to sea called land breeze.
Wind
The air heated by sun rises and cold air rushes to take the place of hot air. This causes wind above the land. As
wind blows, pressure also varies. This along with rotation of earth causes cyclone.

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Ocean currents
Heat from sun warms up the top layer of ocean water. This hot water expands and spreads outwards. Its
place taken by cold water from deeper parts of the ocean. The hot currents flow from equator to polar region in top
layers. The cold currents in deeper parts of ocean flow from polar region to equator region. These currents, along
with the effects of earths rotation, cause different types of ocean currents.
Uses of Convection Currents
During earlier days, convection of air was used for central heating system for buildings in cold countries. A fire
place was kept at the bottom of a flat. A network of metal pipes carried the hot air by convection to all the upper
floors and kept them warm. Now, fans are used to assist the air flow.
Natural ventillation is facilitated using air convection. Windows are kept lower while venitlators are kept higher
in walls. Warm and impure air rises up and escapes through the ventilators. Fresh air rushes in through the windows.
Chimneys of factories are kept high. The hot gases from a furnace rise up through the chimneys by convection.
They suck fresh air into the furnace and help burning.
In a refrigerator, the deep freezer is fitted near the top. The warm air in the refrigerator rises up, gets cooled
near the freezer and comes down again. Thus, cold air is circulated throughout the interior by convection of air. This
helps to keep the whole space in the refrigerator cool.
In a solar water heater, water heated by sunlight rises up into the tank. Cold water in the tank moves out to
occupy the space left by hot water. The heating panel is kept slant to help this process. Thus, by convection current,
water is continuously circulated through the pipes in the panel and all the water in the solar tank gets heated up.
Radiation
Thermal radiation is the mode of transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic radiation, generated by the
thermal motion of particles in matter. The energy is usually transferred in the infrared region. For radiative transfer it
does not require a material medium.
a) Radiant energy Travels in straight lines.
b) It is reflected and refracted as in the case of light.
c) Intensity of radiation obeys inverse square law.
d) Every body above absolute zero emits radiations.
e) Radiation can be polarised.
Thermal radiation falling on a surface exerts pressure on the surface, called radiation pressure. When radiation
passes through a medium it absorbs radiation and due to this the temperature of the medium increases. Bolometer is
used to measure radiation intensity.
A perfect Black body is one which completely absorbs radiations falling on it.
A good absorber is a good emitter of radiation. A black body when heated to the required temperature will emit
radiation absorbed by it
Detection of Radiation
This is done by the absorption of radiation. Radiation can be detected by the following devices:
Blackened bulb thermometer
Take two thermometers. Cover the bulb of one thermometer with black cloth and other with white cloth. Keep
them in sun light. After sometime, the thermometer covered with black cloth shows greater temeprature.
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Differential air thermsocope : This consists of two identical bulbs connected by a tube. The tube is partly filled
with a coloured liquid. One of the bulbs is blackened while the other one is polished. In the absence of heat
radiations, level 1 = level 2. When radiations are incident on the bulbs, bulb A (blackened) becomes hotter than bulb
B. Air in A expands making level 2 higher than the level 1.

Blackened Silvered Blackened Silvered

A B A B

Green House Effect

Solar radiations include radiations such as ultraviolet and infrared along with the visible light. Infrared radiations
(IR) have wavelengths longer than that of red light and carry thermal energy from the sun. You know that, glass or
polythene is transparent to visible light. It is also transparent to IR rays whose wavelengths are close to the visible
red light. A peculiar property of plane glass or polythene is that they do not allow to pass through IR rays whose
wavelengths are longer than those emitted by the sun. A green house is a place where plants requiring warmth are
kept. Also, strong sunlight has to be prevented. Green houses are made with glass or polythene walls and roof. Thus,
the sunrays are allowed in. They warm up the objects in the green house. All objects start emitting IR rays as they get
heated up. But these rays have longer wavelengths compared with IR from the sun as the temperature of the objects
inside the green house is much less than that of the sun. Therefore, they are not allowed to go out through the walls.
Thus, heat energy is trapped inside a green house and its inside remains warm. This is called green house effect. The
enclosure also prevents heat loss by convection of air. Green house effect is commonly observed in cars parked in
the sun during summer. The heat-absorbing property of black surfaces and green house effect are used in making
solar cookers and solar water heaters.
Green house gases
A green house gas is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy with in the thermal infrared range. These gases
cause green house effect.
Water vapour, carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Argon are non-green house gases.
Some Applications of Absorption and Emission of Heat
We wear light coloured clothes in summer to reduce heat due to absorption.
Cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black to increase emission of radiation.
Electric heater is provided with a polished reflector to reflect radiations in any desired direction.
Rooftops are painted white during summer to prevent heating due to absorption.

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Walls of buildings are covered with shining and translucent glass panes to reflect sun light. This helps in keeping
the inside cool.
Thermos Flask
This is a flask devised by Sir James Dewar (hence called Dewar flask). It consists of a silvered double-walled
glass bottle inside the container. It is supported by pads of felt, plastic and spring.
The air in between the walls of the bottle is remvoed. This prevents heat transfer by conduction and convection.
The silvering prevents heat radiation. Thus, hot or cold liquid kept inside remains at its temperature for a considerably
long time.
Prevost’s theory of energy exchange
Above absolute zero of temperature there is a continuous exchange of heat energy between a body and its
surroundings. Heating or cooling of a body takes place depending on its temperature difference with the surroundings.
When temperatures are equal, there is no cooling or heating, the temperature remains the same.
Example 6 : The only possibility of heat flow in a thermos flask is through its cork which is 75 cm2 in area and 5 cm
thick. Its thermal conductivity is 0.0075 (cal/cm sec oC). How long will 500 g of ice at 0oC in the thermos flask take
to melt into water at 0oC? The outside temperature is 40oC and latent heat of ice is 80 cal/g.
Solution : The heat entering the flask through conduction by the cork in time t sec will be,

Q1  KA
 1  2  t  7.5 103  75   40  0  t  4.5  t cal
L 5
And heat required to melt the ice in the flask,

Q 2  mL  500  80  40  103 cal

According to given problem, Q1 = Q2, i.e.,
4.5 × t = 40 × 103 or t = 8.9 × 103 sec = 2.47 hr.

CALORIMETRY
Heat
Heat is a form of energy. SI unit of heat is Joule. Also heat can be measured in calories.
1 cal = 4.18 J
Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC.
International Calorie : It is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC at a
pressure of 1 atm.
work done
When heat is given to a body work is done. The ratio heat produced  4.18 J per cal

is called the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Specific heat capacity: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance
through unit degree.

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1 Q
The specific heat of a substance s 
m t
 Heat supplied Q  msT

where m is the mass of a substance, when Q heat is given, raises its temperature by T .
s = Q , when m = 1, T  1 .
SI Unit - J/kg-K CGS unit: cal/g-oC
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of mass m of the substance by an amount  is
Q  ms
Thermal Capacity
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the whole body through 1oK is known as its thermal
capacity.
Thermal capacity = mass × specific heat capacity = ms, unit J/k or cal/oC.
Latent heat
The heat energy to be supplied to unit mass of a substance to change its state without change of temperature is
called latent heat.
Latent heat of vapourisation
The heat energy required to convert unit mass of a liquid to the vapour state at its boiling point without change
of temperature is latent heat of vapourisation. For water it is 2.26 × 106 Jkg–1 or 536 cal/g.
Water equivalent
If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of mass of water, it is called water equivalent of a body.
Water equivalent of a body is the mass of water which when given same amount of heat as the body, changes
the temperature of water through the same range as that of the body.
W = mc g
The unit of water equivalent W is g.
Latent heat of Fusion
It is the heat energy required to convert unit mass of a solid at its melting point into the liquid state without
change of temperature.
L.H. of fusion of ice is 3.36 × 105 Jkg–1 or 80 cal/g
Let m is the mass of the substance taken and when heated to change state, let L is the latent heat of fusion or
vapourisation then the amount of heat supplied is Q = mL. The amount of heat is not manifested as a rise or fall of
temperature, but it is hidden in the body itself during the change of state.
Change of state
Melting: Conversion of a solid into liquid at constant temperature is called melting.
Evaporation: Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperature is called evaporation.
Boiling : A liquid boils when its saturated vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. During boiling
temperature does not rise.

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Sublimation
Direct conversion of a solid into vapour is called sublimation.
Heat required to change unit mass of solid directly into vapour at a given temperature is called heat of sublimation
at that temperature.
Camphor and Ammonium chloride sublimates on heating at normal conditions.
Condensation
The process of conversion from vapour state to liquid is known as condensation.
Deposition
Deposition is the phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing the liquid phase. The
reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation. The deposition of
water is called hoarfroast. It is the reverse of sublimation of water.
Regelation
It is the process of melting of ice by applying pressure and its resolidification when pressure is removed.
Principle of calorimetry or method of mixtures
When two bodies, one being a liquid and the other being a solid or both being liquids, at different temperatures
are mixed, heat will be transferred from body at a higher temperature to the body at a lower temperature till both
acquire the same temperature, so that Heat lost = Heat gained.
Conservation of heat energy is applied in the principle of calorimetry.
Temperature of the mixture will be always between the lower temperature and higher temperature.
The heat released or absorbed by a body of mass m is given by
Q  mcT , where c is the specific heat capacity and T is change in temperature.
By the method mixtures, heat lost by a hot body = heat gained by the cold body.
Let m gm of a hot body having sp. heat capacity c at a temp. t, mixed with a cold body of mass, m, sp. heat
capacity c1 and temperature t1, mixed together, let the final temperature becomes t2, then by the method of mixtures
mc  t  t 2   m1c1  t 2  t1 
Let m gm of ice at 0oC is mixed with m1 gms of water at toC, mixed together, after mixing the final temperature
becomes t1, then
Heat gained by ice = mL + ms (t1 – 0)
Heat lost by water = m1 s (t – t1)

By method of mixtures mL  mst1  m1s  t  t1 

L is the latent heat of fusion of ice and s-specific heat capacity of water.
Example 7 : 0.75 g of petroleum was burnt in a bomb calorimeter which contains 2 kg of water and has a water
equivalent 500 g. The rise in temperature was 3oC. Determine the calorific value of petroleum.
Solution : Heat absorbed by water:

Q1  mc T  2000  1 3  6 kcal
And heat absorbed by calorimeter.

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Q 2  Wc T  500  1 3  1.5 kcal

So, total heat absorbed
Q  Q1  Q 2  6  1.5  7.5 kcal
As this heat is produced by combustion of 0.75 g of petroleum,
Q 7.5 kcal kcal
Calorific value of fuel  m  0.75 g  10 g

Example 8 : How many gram of ice at –14oC is needed to cool 200 g of water from 25oC to 10oC?
(cice = 0.5 cal/g oC and LF for ice = 80 cal/g)
Solution : In cooling 200 g of water from 25oC to 10oC heat to be extracted from water,

Q1   mcT  W  200 1  25  10   3000 cal

And heat absorbed by m g ice at –14oC to convert into water of 10oC.

Q2   mcT ice  mL   mcT  W

i.e., Q 2  m  0.5 0   14   80  110  0    97 m cal

According to given problem, Q2 = Q1, i.e., 97 m = 3000, i.e., m  31g .

Conversion of mechanical energy into heat
When you rub your palms, they become warm. Here the mechancial energy is converted into heat. In fact the
energy lost during rubbing is appearing as heat energy. In a way similar to this heat energy can be converted to
mechanical energy. Such devices are heat engines.
HEAT ENGINE
A heat engine is a device that is used for converting heat into some other forms of energy. So, the device like
heat engine converts chemical energy into useful work. A portion of given energy is converted into output work. The
amount of output energy shows its efficiency.
A Heat engine converts the heat energy into the mechanical work or the energy.

SOURCE Q1 Q2 SINK
T1 T2

A heat engine essentially consists of three parts:

1. Source of heat at a high temperature T1.
2. Working substance
3. Sink of heat at a lower temperature T2.

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Source will be maintained at a higher temperature T1. A part of heat is used in doing useful work. The rest part
of heat is rejected to the sink which is at lower temperature T2.
T1 > T2

Q1 Q2
SOURCE WORKING SINK
SUBSTANCE
T1 T2

Expanding steam W
pushes piston

T2 Water
(steam)

T1 Water
Work output
(moving wheel)

Heat Input

Types of Heat Engines

The two main types of heat engines :
1. Internal Combustion Engines
2. External combustion Engines
Internal Combustion Engines
The Internal Combustion is a process in which the combustion of a fuel occurs within the system. Internal
combustion engines are type of Heat engines in which the fuel is burnt inside the engine or where fuel combustion
takes place inside the engine.The devolopement of internal combustion engine started in 1791.
The most common internal-combustion engine is the four-stroke, camles engine, operated in Homogeneous
charge comperssion ignition mode with commercial gasoline.
External Combustion Engines
External combustion engines are type of heat engines in which the fuel is burnt outside the engine or where fuel
combustion takes place outside the engine.
First practical steam external combustion engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. It was used
to pump the water out from coal mines.Steam engine is the example of an external combustion heat engine.
Efficiency of heat engine. A heat engine converts heat into mechanical work continuously. For this the
process is repeated cyclically, ie the engine passes through initial and final states again and again. During this all heat
absorbed cannot be converted to work, that is some amount of heat is given back every time. The efficiency of a
work done W
heat engine is defined as   
heat absorbed Q
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If the heat absorbed is Q1 and the heat rejected is Q2 then W  Q1  Q2

Q1  Q 2 Q
   1 2
Q1 Q1
The efficiency is always less than one.
Isothermal change
A change in pressure and volume of a gas without any change in its temperature is called an isothermal change.
There will be a free exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings. For this the gas should be enclosed in a
conducting vessel. Also the process should be a slow process.
Melting and boiling are examples of isothermal change. For isothermal change, Boyles law can be applied. Let
P is the pressure and V is the volume of a gas at constant temperature, then PV = a constant for isothermal change.
Example 9 : A block of copper of weight 3 kg falls from a height of 10 m into a bucket containing 10 L of water.
Assuming all mechanical energy is used to heat water, find the rise in temperature of water, c w  4180 J kg 1k 1
Solution : ME = KE of block = PE of the block = heat energy.

Mass of 10 L of water = 10 kg.  mgh  m 2 c w T

m1gh 3  9.8 10
T    7.03 10 3 o C
m 2 c w 10  4180
Example 10 : Earth receives solar energy at a rate of 1000 W m–2. A solar water heater of area 2 m2 absorbs 50% of
incident energy. Find the time required to raise the temperature of 50 L of water by 50oC. (cw = 4180 J kg–1 k–1)
Solution : Energy received for 2m2 = 2 × 1000 = 2000 W.

50
Total energy absorbed in t sec = Q1  2000   t  1000t J
100
Heat required to rasie the temperature of 50 lit of water by 50oC,

Q 2  mc w  T  50  4180  50  1.045  107 J

Here Q1  Q 2  1000 t  1.045  107

1.045  107
t  1.045  104 sec = 2 hr 54 min. 10 sec.
1000
Example 11 : Calculate heat of combustion of coal, when 0.5 kg of coal on burning raises the temperature of 50
litres of water from 20oC to 90oC.
Solution : Here, mass of coal, M = 0.5 kg;
mass of water, m = (50 × 1000) cc × 1 g/cc = 50 × 103 g

T  90o  20o  70o C

specific heat of water s = 103 cal. kg–1 oC–1
Total heat produced  m s T
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  50  103   1 70 cal.  35  105 cal

Heat of combustion due to coal of 0.5 kg = 35 × 105 cal

35  105 35  105
Heat of compustion of coal per kg (calorific value)    7 106 cal kg 1
M 0.5
Example 12 : An automobile engine absorbs 1600 J from a hot reservoir and expels 1000 J to a cold reservoir in
each cycle. (a) What maximum work is done in each cycle? (b) What is the efficiency of the cycle? (c) What is the
power output of the engine if it operates at 200 cycles per minute?
Solution : (a) W = QH – QL = 1600 – 1000 = 600 J

W 600
(b)   Q  1600  0.375  37.5%
H

(c) As the engine is operating at 200 cycles/min, t = (60/200) = 0.3 sec.

W 600
So, Power output   2 kW  ~ 2.7 hp 
t 0.3

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HEAT
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. Water at 0oC is taken to moon in a bottle. When bottle is opened, water will
A) Freeze B) Remain as such C) Boil D) Lose temperature
2. How much heat energy in cal/sec will be obtained from 1.5 kW heater?
A) 1.5 kcal B) 357 cal C) 735 cal D) 573 cal
3. If temperature scale is changed from C to F, the numerical value of specific heat will
A) Remains same B) Becomes 1.8 time C) Increases D) Decreases
4. At what temperature Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale give same reading?
A) 40o B) –40o C) 32o D) –32o
5. Convert 35oC temperature into Kelvin.
A) 308 K B) 273 K C) 238 K D) 0 K
6. The radius of a metal sphere at room temperature T is R and the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is
 . The sphere is heated a little by a temperature T so that its new temperature is T  T . The increase in
volume of the sphere is about

4R 3T
A) 4R 3T B) C) R 2 T D) 2RT
3
7. When a copper bar is heated, the largest percentage increase will be in its:
A) mass B) radius C) area D) volume
8. If specific heat of ice and water are taken to be the same and latent heat of fusion and vapourization of water
are 80 cal g–1 and 540 cal g–1 respectively, then the total heat required to convert 1 g of ice at –10oC completely
to vapour is
A) 80 cal B) 540 cal C) 730 cal D) 620 cal
9. A bimetallic strip consists of metals X and Y. It is mounted rigidly at the base as shown. The metal X has a
higher coefficient of expansion compared to that for metal Y. When bimetallic strip is placed in a cold bath.

A) it will bend towards the right B) it will bend towards the left
C) it will not bend but shrink D) it will neither bend nor shrink
10. Two bars of copper having same length but unequal cross sections are heated to the same temperature. The
change in length will be
A) equal in both bars B) more in thicker bar C) more in thinner bar D) cannot say

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11. Which one of the figure gives the temperature dependence of density of water correctly?

12. A beaker is completely filled with water at 4oC. It will over flow
A) when heated, but not when cooled B) when cooled, but not when heated
C) both when heated or cooled D) neither when heated nor when cooled
13. One end of a metal rod of length 1.0 m and area of cross-section 100 cm2 is maintained at 100oC. If the other
end of the rod is maintained at 0oC, the quantity of heat transmitted through the rod per minute is (coefficient of
thermal conductivity of material of rod = 100 W/m-K)
A) 3 × 103 J B) 6 × 103 J C) 9 × 103 J D) 12 × 103 J
14. Which of the following circular rods (radius r and length l) each made of the same material and whose ends are
maintained at the same temperature will conduct most heat?
A) r = r0, l = l0 B) r = r0, l = 2l0 C) r = 2r0, l = l0 D) r = 2r0, l = 2l0
15. A calorimeter full of hot water is hung in vacuum. It will:
A) cool by conduction B) cool by convection C) cool by radiation D) not cool at all
16. In a closed room, when the door of a refrigerator is left open, the temperature of room
A) increases B) decreases
C) remains same D) first increases and then gradually decreases
17. Which is not a greenhouse gas?
A) carbon dioxide B) methane C) nitrous oxide D) nitrogen
18. In a pressure cooker, cooking is faster because the increase of vapour pressure
A) increases sp. heat B) decreases sp. heat
C) decreases the boiling point D) increases the boiling point
19. One end of a thermally insulated rod is kept at temperature T1 and the other end at T2. The rod is composed of
two sections of lengths l1 and l2 and thermal conductivities k1 and k2 respectively. The temperature at the
interface of the two sections is

 k 2l1T1  k1l2T2   k1l2T1  k 2l1T2   k1l1T1  k 2l2 T2   k 2l2 T1  k1l1T2 

A) B) C) D)
 k 2l1  k1l2   k1l2  k 2l1   k1l1  k 2l2   k1l1  k 2l2 

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20. Two blocks of ice when pressed together join to form one block. This happens because
A) melting point falls with pressure B) melting point rises with pressure
C) heat is rejected to outside D) heat is absorbed from outside
21. Two liquids are at temps 20 oC and 40 oC. When same mass of both of them are mixed, the temperature of the
mixture is 32 oC. What is the ratio of their specific heats?

1 2 3 2
A) B) C) D)
3 5 2 3
22. A 2 kg copper block is heated to 500oC and then it is placed on a large block of ice at 0 oC. If the specific heat
capacity of copper is 400 J/kgoC and latent heat of fusion of water is 3.5 × 105 J/kg, the amount of ice that can
melt is:

7 8 5 7
A) kg B) kg C) kg D) kg
8 7 7 5
23. A Carnot engine takes in 3000 kcal of heat from a reservoir at 627oC and gives it to a sink at 27oC. The work
done by the engine is:
A) 4.2 × 106 J B) 8.4 × 106 J C) 16.8 × 106 J D) Zero
LEVEL II
1. Convert 20o C temperature into (i) Fahrenheit (oF) and (ii) Kelvin (K).
A) 68 oF, 293oK B) 86 oF, 273oK C) 72 oF, 303oK D) 27 oF, 300oK
2. The normal human body temperature is 98.6oF. How much is this is the Celsius scale?
A) 98.6o C B) 273o C C) 37o C D) 100o C
3. How many calories of heat will approximately be developed by a 210 watt bulb in 5 minute?
A) 63 kcal B) 15 kcal C) 36 kcal D) 51 kcal
4. A copper wire of 5 metre at 15oC is heated to 35oC. Calculate the increase in length of the wire, if coefficient
of linear expansion of copper is 1.7 × 10–5 oC–1.
a) 1.7 × 10–2 m B) 1.7 × 10–1 m C) 1.7 × 101 m D) 1.7 × 10–3 m
5. The coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid when heated in a copper vessel is C, and when heated in a
silver vessel is S. If A is coefficient of linear expansion of copper, then the coefficient of linear expansion of silver
is

C  S  3A C  3A  S C  S  3A S  3A  C
A) B) C) D)
3 3 3 3
6. An ideal gas heat engine operates in a Carnot’s cycle between 227oC and 127oC. It absorbs 6 × 104J at high
temperature. The amount of heat converted into work is
A) 6 × 104 J B) 3 × 104 J C) 1.6 × 104 J D) 1.2 × 104 J

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7. A cylindrical rod with one end in a steam chamber and the other end in ice results in melting of 0.1 g of ice per
second. If the rod is replaced by another with half the length and double the radius of the first and if the thermal
1
conductivity of the material of the second rod is that of the first, the rate at which ice melts in gm/sec will be
4
A) 3 : 2 B) 1.6 C) 0.2 D) 0.1
8. Heat is flowing through two cylindrical rods of the same material. The diameters of the rods are in the ratio 1 : 2
and their lengths are in the ratio 2 : 1. If the temperature difference between their ends is the same, then the ratio
of the amounts of heat conducted through them per unit time will be
A) 1 : 1 B) 2 : 1 C) 1 : 4 D) 1 : 8
9. One end of a copper rod of length 1.0 m and area of cross section 10–3 m2 is immersed in boiling water and the
other end in ice. If the coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper is 92 cal/m-s-oC and the latent heat of ice
is 8 × 104 cal/kg, then the amount of ice which will melt in one minute is:
A) 9.2 × 10–3 kg B) 8 × 103 kg C) 6.9 × 10–3 kg D) 5.4 × 10–3 kg
10. A heat flux of 4000 J s–1 is to be passed through a copper rod of length 10 cm and area of cross-section
100cm2. The thermal conductivity of copper is 400 W/moC. The two ends of this rod must be kept at temperature
difference of :
A) 1oC B) 10oC C) 100oC D) 1000oC
11. Equal masses of two liquids A and B contained in vessels of negligible heat capacity are supplied heat at the
same rate. The temperature vs time graphs for the two liquids are shown in figure. If S represents sp. heat and
L represents latent heat of liquid, then

B A
TEMP.

TIME x

A) SA > SB ; LA < LB B) SA > SB ; LA > LB C) SA < SB ; LA < LB D) SA < SB ; LA > LB

12. A 2 g bullet moving with a velocity of 200 m/s is brought to a sudden stoppage by an obstacle. The total heat
produced goes to the bullet. If the specific heat of the bullet is 0.03 cal/g oC, the rise in its temperature will be:
A) 15.9 oC B) 15.9 oC C) 1.59 oC D) 0.159 oC
13. 100 g water at 10oC is mixed with 200 g of water at 80oC. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture.
A) 10 oC B) 48.5 oC C) 80 oC D) 56.67 oC
14. A copper block of mass 2.0 kg is heated to a temperature of 450oC and then placed over an ice block.
Calculate the amount of ice melted. Given specific heat of copper = 0.39 J g–1oC–1 and latent heat of fusion of
ice = 335 J g–1.
A) 335 B) 2000 g C) 1047.76 g D) 35100 g
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15. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked 5 and 95. When this thermometer reads 68, the correct
temperature in Celsius is:
A) 68 oC B) 70 oC C) 66 oC D) 72 oC
16. 200 gram of a solid ball at 20 oC is dropped in an equal amount of water at 80 oC. The resulting temperature
is 60 oC. This means that specific heat of solid is
A) one fourth of water B) one half of water C) twice of water D) four times of water
17. The height of Niagra fall is 50 m. The difference between the temperatures of water at the top and the bottom
of the fall is
A) 117 oC B) 11.7 oC C) 1.17 oC D) 0.117 oC
18. Rays from the sun are focussed by a lens of diameter 5 cm on to a block of ice (L = 80 kcal/kg) and 10 g of ice
is melted in 20 minutes. Calculate the heat received from the sun on 1 cm2 per minute.
A) 2.04 cal/cm2 min B) 20.4 cal/cm2 min C) 204 cal/cm2 min D) 0.204 cal/cm2 min
19. 1 g of ice at 0oC is added to 5 g of water at 10oC. If the latent heat is 80 cal/g, the final temperature of the
mixture is
A) 5 oC B) 0 oC C) –5 oC D) none of these
20. A Carnot engine whose sink is at 300 K has an efficient of 40%. By how much should the temperature of
source be increased so as to increase its efficiency to 50%.
A) 100 K B) 200 K C) 350 K D) 3500 K
21. A heat engine of 40% efficiency takes 10 kJ of heat energy per sec. Find the time required by this engine per
sec to lift a weight of 1000 kg to a height of 10 m from ground.
A) 15 sec B) 20 sec C) 25 sec D) 30 sec

LEVEL III
More than one correct.
1. If ,  and  are coefficients of linear, superficial and volume expansion respectively, then

 1  2  3  
A)  B)  C)  D) 
 2  3  1  
2. For transmission of heat from one place to the other, medium is required in
A) conduction B) convection C) radiation D) all
3. Thermal capacity of a body depends on
A) the heat given B) the temperature raised C) the mass of the body D) material of the body
4. The energy radiated by a body depends on
A) area of body B) mass of body C) temperature of body D) nature of surface

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–1 –1 o
5. A bullet of mass 50 g and specific heat capacity 800 J kg K is initially at a temperature 20 C. It is fired
vertically upwards with a speed of 200 ms–1 and on returning to the starting point strikes a lump of ice at 0oC
and gets embedded in it. Assume that all the energy of the bullet is used up in melting. Neglect the friction of air.
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 × 105 Jkg–1.
A) Energy of bullet used in melting is 1000 J
B) The mass of ice melted = 5 g
C) The mass of ice melted is slightly greater than 5 g
D) The mass of ice melted is less than 5 g
6. The figure below shows the variation of specific heat capacity (c) of a solid as a function of a temperature (T).
The temperature is increased continuously from 0 to 500 K at constant rate. Ignoring any volume change, the
following statement(s) is (are) correct to reasonable approximation .

T(K)
O 100 200 300 400 500

A) The rate at which heat is absorbed in the range 0 – 100 K varies linearly with temperature T
B) Heat absorbed in increasing the temperature from 0 – 100 K is less than the heat required for increasing the
temperature from 400 – 500 K.
C) There is no change in the rate of heat absorption in the range 400 – 500 K.
D) The rate of heat absorption increase in the range 200 – 300 K.
Passage Comprehension.
Passage I
A source of heat supplies heat at a constant rate to solid cube. The variation of temperature of the cube with
heat supplied is shown

T F
D
E
B
C

A Q

7. The portion DE of graph represents conversion of:

A) solid into liquid B) liquid into vapour C) solid into vapour D) vapour into liquid
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8. The reciprocal of the slope of the portion EF of the graph shown in figure represents:
A) latent heat of fusion B) latent heat of vaporization
C) thermal capacity of liquid D) thermal capacity of the vapour
9. In the figure it is observed that DE = 3 BC. This means that:
A) the thermal capacity of the vapour is 3 times that of liquid
B) the specific heat of vapour is 3 times that of liquid
C) the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid is 3 times the latent heat of fusion of liquid
D) the latent heat of fusion of the solid is 3 times the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid
Passage II
Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Efficiency of Carnot
T2
engine is given by   1  T , where T1 is temperature of source and T2 is temperature of sink. If Q1 is the
1

amount of heat absorbed/cycle from the source; Q2 is the amount of heat rejected/cycle to the sink and W is
Q 2 T2
the amount of useful work done/cycle, then W  Q1  Q2 and Q  T
1 1

10. A Carnot engine absorbs 6 × 105 cal. at 227oC. Heat rejected to the sink at 127oC is
A) 6 × 105 cal B) 4.8 × 105 cal C) 4 × 105 cal D) 5 × 105 cal
11. Work done/cycle by the engine in the above question is
A) 5.04 × 105 J B) 5.04 × 105 cal C) 4.8 × 105 cal D) 4.8 × 105 J
12. Efficiency of the engine in the above question is
A) 30% B) 10% C) 20% D) 80%
13. At what temperature should the sink be maintained to increase the efficiency by 10%?
A) 77 K B) 300 K C) 300oC D) 77oC
14. What should be the temperature of the source to increase the efficiency to 30%?
A) 298.4oC B) 298.4 K C) 400 K D) 571 K
Matrix Match.
15. Three liquids A, B and C having same specific heat and mass m, 2m and 3m have temperatures 20oC, 40oC
and 60oC respectively. Temperature of the mixture when
Column I Column II
A) A and B are mixed p) 35 oC
B) A and C are mixed q) 52 oC
C) B and C are mixed r) 50 oC
D) A, B and C all three are mixed s) 45 oC
t) None

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16. Match the following two tables.

Column I Column II
A) Coefficient of linear expansion p) Cal/oC
B) Water equivalent q) gm
C) Heat capacity r) (oC)–1

D) Specific heat s) Cal/goC

Integer Type.
17. Two identical square rods of metal are welded end to end as shown in figure (a). 20 cals of heat flow through
this combination in 4 minutes. If the rods were welded as shown in figure (b), the same amount of heat will flow
through the rod in

(a)

(b)

18. Two vessels of different materials are similar in size in every respect. The same quantity of ice filled in them gets
melted in 20 min. and 40 min. resp. The ratio of thermal conductivity of the first one is .......... times to the
second one.
19. If a ball of 80 kg mass hits an ice cube and temperature of ball is 100 oC, ........×104 gm of ice become water?
Specific heat of ball is 0.2 cal/gram
Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
20. Statement I : Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1oC is 1 kilocalorie.
Statement II : By definition, 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water through 1oC.
21. Statement I : Latent heat of fusion of ice is 336000 J kg–1.
Statement II : Latent heat refers to change of state without any change in temperature.
22. Statement I : The SI unit of thermal conductivity is watt m–1 K–1.
Statement II : Thermal conductivity is a measure of ability of the material to allow the passage of heat through it.

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23. Statement I : Specific heat of a substance during change of state is infinite.

Statement II : During change of state Q  mL , specific heat does not come in.
24. Statement I : Efficiency of a Carnot engine decreases with decrease in temperature difference between the
source and the sink.
T2 T1  T2
Statement II :   1  T  T
1 2

25. Statement I : Efficiency of a Carnot engine increases on reducing the temperature of sink.
T2
Statement II :   1  T
1

26. Statement I : A reversible engine working between 127oC and 227oC cannot have efficiency more than
20%.
T2
Statement II : Under ideal conditions   1  T
1

27. Statement I : A body that is a good radiator is also a good absorber of radiation at a given wavelength.
Statement II : According to Kirchhoff’s law, the absorptivity of a body is equal to its emissivity at a given
wavelength.
NTSE PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Of the following, the specific heat is minimum for .
A) water B) sea-water C) kerosene oil D) mercury
2. A fan produces a feeling of comfort because
A) fan supplies a cool air B) evaporation of sweat
C) fan cools the air D) fan increases humidity in air
3. A spherical iron ball is placed on a large block of dry ice at 0oC. The ball sinks into the ice until it is half
submerged. Density of iron is 7.7 × 103 kg/m3. Density of ice is 920 kg/m3. Specific heat capacity of iron is
504 J/kg – K and latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 × 103 J/kg. The initial temperature of iron is
A) 37.64oC B) 39.82oC C) 42.62oC D) 38.64oC
(NTSE, AP, 2016)
4. One vessel with ice of 10 gm at 0oC and another similar vessel with water of 100 gm at 0oC are taken and
hung in a room. After 15 min, the temperature of water is raised to 2oC. The time required for the ice to be
converted completely into water is

1 1
A) 1 hr B) 1 hr C) hr D) 2 hr
2 2

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05 CHAPTER -
SOURCES OF ENERGY

Introduction
Energy is the capacity of a body for doing work. Energy stored in a body or a system is equivalent to total
work done by the body till whole of its energy has been completely exhausted. Most of our energy requirements are
fulfilled from the fuels and electricity. Solar energy is also available to us in the form of a variety of fuels that have
been stored in the earth’s crust. Energy can be converted from one form to another.
Units of Energy
On S.I., energy is measured in the units of joules or in calories, and on C.G.S. system in ergs. However, the
commercial unit of energy is kilowatt-hour. The energy is said to be one kilowatt-hour, when a body consumes at the
rate of one kilowatt of energy for one hour.
Sources of energy
A source of energy is that which is capable of providing enough useful energy at a steady rate over a long
period of time.
Characteristics of sources of Energy:
For a good source of energy, following conditions must be fulfilled by it:
i) It should provide large amount of useful energy
ii) It must be easily storable in small space
iii) It must be easily transportable
iv) It must provide the energy in regular manner
v) It should be convenient to use
a) Types of Sources of Energy
There are two types of sources of energy: (i) Non-renewable sources of energy (ii) Renewable sources of
energy.
i) Non-renewable sources of energy (or conventional sources of energy):
Non-renewable sources of energy are those which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they have
been used.
These sources have been accumulated in nature over a very long period of millions of years.
Examples of Non-Renewable sources of energy.
(i) Coal, (ii) oil and (iii) Natural gas.
All these fuels are called fossil fuels.
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Advantages of Non-renewable sources of energy

i) The non-renewable sources of energy is affordable. For instance diesel and oil.
ii) It is easily accessible and more compatible.
iii) The non-renewable source of energy is easy to store.
Disadvantages of Non-renewable sources of energy
(i) Due to their extensive use, these sources are fast depleting, so the energy cannot be replaced once their
energy source is used up.
(ii) It is difficult to discover and exploit new deposits of these sources.
(iii) The by-products of non-renewable sources of energy causes environmental damages. It also increases
green house gases.
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are the remains of prehistoric plants and animals which got buried deep inside the earth early
millions of years ago due to some natural processes.
The energy of fossil fuels is in fact, that solar energy which was trapped by natural processes a very long time
ago. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.
Formation of Fossil fuels
During its formation, an entire organism or its parts often get buried in sand or mud. These, then decay and
disintegrate leaving no signs of their existance. Infact, the harder parts of organisms after their death, settle down and
are covered by sediments and subjected to extreme pressure and temperature of the earth converts them into fossil
fuels, the process being referred to as fossilization.
Disadvantages of Fossil fuels
1) The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy and once used cannot be renewed.
2) Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution.
Burning fossil fuels has other disadvantages too. The carbon dioxide (CO2) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur
dioxide (SO2) that are released on burning fossil fuels are acidic. These lead to acid rain which affects our water and
soil resources. The pollution caused by burning fossil fuels can be somewhat reduced by increasing the efficiency of
the combustion process and using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases and ashes into the
surroundings.
3) The fossil fuels reserves in the earth are limited and may get exhausted soon.

Coal
Petroleum and Natural Gas
Hydro
Nuclear
Wind

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Example 1 : Explain how burning of fossil fuels cause acid rain.

Solution : Gases produced due to burning of fossil fuels give rise to acids after reaching with water vapour in air.
For example:
CO 2  water  Carbonic acid
SO 2  water  Sulphuric acid
NO 2  water  Nitric acid
These acids come down to the earth with rain. The rain containing these acids is called acid rain.
Thermal Power Plant
Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt every day in power stations to heat up water to produce steam which
further runs the turbine to generate electricity. The transmission of electricity is more efficient than transporting coal
or petroleum over the same distance. Therefore, many thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. The
term thermal power plant is used since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is converted into electrical energy.
ii) Renewable sources of energy (or non-conventional sources of energy):
Renewable sources of energy are those which are inexhaustible, i.e., which can be replaced as we use them
and can be used to produce energy again and again.
These are available in an unlimited amount in nature and develop within a relatively short period of time.
Examples of Renewable sources of energy.
(i) Wind energy(ii) Water energy (hydro-energy), (iii) Ocean energy, (iv) Geothermal energy, (v) Biomass
energy (firewood, animal dung and biodegradable waste from cities and crop residues constitute biomass), (vi) Solar
energy.
Advantages of Renewable sources of energy
(i) These sources will last as long as the Earth receives light from the sun.
(ii) These sources are freely available in nature.
(iii) These sources do not cause any pollution.
Wind Energy
Moving air is called wind. As the moving objects possess kinetic energy and as such they are capable of doing
mechanical work by virtue of its motion. Wind also possess the ability of performing mechanical work because it is
air in motion. So wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with large mass of air by virtue of its motion.
Solar energy is indirectly responsible for the blowing of air. The sunrays fall on the whole earth but the intensity
of sun-rays is much more stronger near equator of the earth than in the polar regions. Due to more intense sun-light,
the air near the surface of earth in equatorial regions becomes quite hot. This hot air, being lighter, rises upwards. The
cooler air from the polar regions of the earth start flowing towards the equatorial regions of the earth to fill the space
vacant by the hot rising air. In this way air flows from the higher pressure regions to the lower pressure regions of the
earth. This flow of air from one place to another constitutes wind.
Uses of wind Energy
The important uses of wind energy are:
1. It is used to drive windmills, water lifting pumps and flour mills etc.
2. It is used to propel sail boats.
3. It is used to fly engineless aeroplanes or gliders in the air.
4. It is used to generate electricity.
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a) Advantages of Wind Energy

i) Use of wind energy is not a source of pollution
ii) Wind energy is available free of cost
iii) The source of wind energy i.e. air is an inexhaustible and renewable source.
b) Disadvantages of Wind Energy
i) One of the most important limitations of wind energy is that it may not be available at all times.
ii) The windmills and sail-boats remain unoperational and no useful work can be done unless there is plenty
of fast blowing wind.
iii) The speed of the wind at a place varies with time and season.
iv) The kinetic energy of the wind can be utilized only at the site.
v) There is no guarantee that we will get wind energy when required, since there is no place in the world
where wind blows all the time.
Advantages of generating wind energy
The main advantages of using wind energy are;
1. It is readily and abundantly available at every place of the earth free of cost.
2. It is eco-friendly and does not produce any kind of environmental pollution.
3. It is a renewable source as air itself is a renewable and inexhaustible resource.
4. It is a cheap source of energy, as it does not involve any costly investment.

A) Windmill to operate flourmill:

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 Integrated Programme(Class X) - Physics

It is similar to one used to grind grains by suitable arrangements of toothed wheel and shafts. The other end of
the shaft is connected to a toothed wheel. Grinding arrangement of flour mill has a fixed mill stone A and another
heavy mill stone B, B is capable of rotating by a shaft rod having a toothed wheel (W2). The wheel (W1) is coupled
with the wheel (W2) such that the rotation of wheel (W1) about a horizontal axis rotates the wheel (W2) about a
vertical axis. The wheel (W1) rotates as the shaft (W1) connected to blades rotates due to rotation of blades of
windmill. Thus the kinetic energy of wind by virtue of this motion rotates the windmill which in turn operates a
flourmill and is able to grind grains.
B) Wind generator:
A modern generator, which is used to generate electricity by using wind energy is wind generator.
When the fast moving wind strikes the blades of wind turbine, then the wind turbine starts rotating continuously.
The coil of a small electric generator is attached to the shaft of the wind turbine. So when the wind starts rotating the
blade, the system generates electricity. The electricity generated by a single wind turbine is quite small. So, in order
to generate a large amount of electricity, a large amount of wind turbines are erected over a big area of land. Such a
set-up of having a large number of wind turbines working at a place to generate electrical energy on a large scale is
called a wind energy farm.

Principle of utilisation of wind energy

Wind energy is efficiently converted into electrical energy with the aid of a windmill. A windmill is a large fan
having big blades, which rotate by the force exerted by moving air on them. These blades remain continuously
rotating as long as wind is blowing and can be used to drive a large number of machines like water pumps, flour mills
etc. But these days a windmill is used to generate electric current which is used for various purposes and therefore
wind power stations are established all over the world which convert wind energy directly into electrical energy.
HYDRO ENERGY
Flowing water having a lot of kinetic energy can be utilized as hydro energy. Hydro energy can be stored by
storing water in high altitude dams. Hence it is a renewable source of energy. Solar energy is the source of hydro
energy. Energy trapped in flowing water is used to generate electricity on a large scale at hydroelectric power
stations. Dams are needed to be constructed to utilize the kinetic energy of flowing water. The water stored in a dam
is made to fall from a height through pipes and made to run over the blades of huge turbines at the bottom. This
moves the turbine which in turn rotate the coils of an electrical generator to produce power or electricity.

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a) Advantage of Hydel Power:

i) The process of production of hydel power does not cause any environmental pollution.
ii) The moving water needed for this purpose is available free of cost.
iii) Water energy is a renewable source of electrical energy which will never get exhausted.
iv) The construction of dams on rivers helps in irrigation and controlling floods.
b) Limitations of Hydel Power:
i) Moving or flowing water is not available at all places. It is available only near the sites of flowing rivers.
ii) To generate a reasonable amount of electricity from water, fast moving water should be available in large
quantities.
iii) The construction of dam on a river disturbs the ecological balance in the downstream area of the river.
iv) The soil in the downstream area may become poor in quality because there were no annual floods to
deposit nutrient rich soil on the banks of the river. Therefore there may be ecological problems.
Example 2 : Water that falls from a waterfall is used to generate electricity. If the height of water fall is 100 m and
102 m3 of water falls every minute, then find the hydel energy in MWh generated in one day. Assume that 60% of the
energy of the flowing water is converted into electricity.
Solution : Mass of water flowing is one minute = 102 × 103 = 105 kg
Mass flowing is one day = 24 × 60 × 105 = 1.44 × 108 kg
60 60
Total energy produced  mgh   1.44  108  9.8  100 
100  8.46 10 J
10
100

8.46  1010
 MWh  23.5 MWh
3.6  109
TIDAL ENERGY
Tidal waves as a source of energy:
Due to attraction of moon on sea water, water surface rises and falls and the waves are formed. These waves are
called tidal waves and energy possessed by rising and falling water tides is known as tidal energy.
Energy in tidal Waves: Rise of ocean water is called “high tide” and the fall of ocean water is called “low tide”.
These waves (jwar bhata) in the oceans build up and recede (rise and fall) twice a day. Between the high tides and
low tides, there is an enormous movement of water which can be used to generate large amount of energy. This type
of energy generation can take place in coastal areas.
Harnessing tidal energy: Tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage (or tidal dam) across a
narrow opening to the sea and fixing a turbine at the opening of the barrage.
i) During high tide, when the level of water in the sea rises, sea-water flows into the reservoir of tidal
barrage and turns the turbines to generate electricity.
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ii) During low tide, when the level of water in the sea falls, the stored sea-water in the tidal barrage reservoir
flows out into the sea and turns the turbines again to generate electricity.

Limitations of tidal energy:

The rise and fall of water during tides is not high enough to generate electrical energy on a large scale. There
are very few places suitable for building tidal dams. It is for these reasons that the tidal energy is not likely to be a
major source of energy.
Locations chosen:
i) Gujarat, Gulf of Kutch Lamba
ii) West Bengal, Sunderbans
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
The energy due to difference in the temperatures of the water at the surface of the ocean and at deeper levels is
called ocean thermal energy.
The devices used to harness the ocean thermal energy are known as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) power plants.
To operate an OTEC plant efficiently, the temperature of ocean water at the surface should be higher by 20oC
or more than the water at certain depth (about 1000 m).

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Warm surface water is used to boil liquid such as ammonia or a chloroflurorcarbon (CFC). The vapour of such
liquid is used to run the turbine and generate electricity. The cold water from the depth is used to convert the vapour
into liquid. The cycle is then continued.
Advantages of ocean thermal energy:
i) It can be used continuously 24 hours a day throughout the year.
ii) It is a renewable source of energy and its use does not cause any pollution.
OCEAN WAVE ENERGY
Due to the blowing of wind on the surface of ocean, very fast sea-waves move on its surface. Due to their high
speed, sea waves have a lot of kinetic energy in them. The energy of moving sea-waves can be used to generate
electricity. This can be done as follows:
In another innovation, the electricity generated is used to electrolyse water to produce hydrogen and oxygen
gases. Hydrogen so produced is piped to the shore.
Harnessing ocean wave energy: Wind blowing across the surface of the ocean causes ocean waves. The kinetic
energy of the huge amount of water that moves along the waves is called ocean wave energy.
The most common devices that can be used for harnessing ocean wave energy are:
i) Surface-followers using floats or pitching devices
ii) Oscillating water columns (OWC)
iii) Focussing devices
The surface-followers consist of a series of floating objects that are pivoted about a rigid shaft along a coastline.
The mechanical energy produced in the shaft is then converted into electricity.

Oscillating water columns (OWC) use the force of the mechanical work or generate electricity.
For example, in anchored navigational buoys, the waves compress the air. The compressed air is then used to
rotate turbine and generate electricity.
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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy is the heat energy of hot rocks present inside the earth. This heat can be used as a source
of energy to produce electricity. Geothermal energy is one of the few sources of energy that do not come directly or
indirectly from solar energy. The places where very hot rocks occur at some depth below the surface of earth are
called hot spots and are sources of geothermal energy.
The geothermal energy is harnessed as follows:
i) The extremely hot rocks present below the surface of earth, heat the underground water and turn it into
steam. As more and more steam is formed between the rocks, it gets compressed to high pressures. A
hole is drilled into the earth and the steam comes up through the pipe at high pressure. This high pressure
steam run the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
ii) Large rocks are present in the underground, which allow steam and hot water to go up. The steam and
hot water gushing out of the ground are a kind of natural geyser. This steam is then used to turn turbines
and generate electricity and the hot water is used to cook food.
Merits of geothermal energy
1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable source of energy.
2. It can be harnessed for 24 hours throughout the year.
3. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.
4. As compared to solar energy and wind energy, the power generation level of geothermal energy is
higher.
5. Geothermal energy can be used for power generation as well as direct heating. In USA, water is pumped
from underground hot water deposits and is used to heat buildings.
Limitations of geothermal energy
1. Geothermal hot spots are scattered and usually some distance away from the areas that need energy.
2. The overall power production has a lower efficiency (about 15%) as compared to that of fossil fuels
(35% to 40%).
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3. Though as a whole, geothermal energy is considered to be inexhaustible, a single one has a limited life
span of about 10 years.
4. Noise pollution is caused by drilling operations at geothermal sites.
BIOMASS ENERGY
The energy obtained from the biomass of plants and animals is called biomass energy. Biomass is a renewable
source of energy because it is obtained from plants (or animals) which are produced again and again.
The waste material of living things and dead parts of living things is called biomass. Biomass includes cattle
dung, wood, sewage, agricultural wastes or crop residues like bagasse (Bagsses is the remaining part of the sugar
cane of ganna, from which juice has been extracted). Biomass are carbon compounds and it is the oldest source of
heat energy for domestic purposes. There are two dry biomass like cattle-dung or wood directly to produce heat.
Another method is biogas to convert the biomass into more useful fuels and then use these fuels for heating purposes.
a) Biogas: The decomposition which takes place in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic degradation. Anaerobic
degradation is carried out by anaerobic bacteria. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
hydrogen sulphide. The major constituents of biogas is methane. Biogas is produced by the anaerobic degradation
of animal wastes like animal dung in the presence of water.
Fixed dome type biogas plant :

Fixed dome type biogas plant

Description:
It has the following sections.
i) Digester: It is a well like structure made from bricks. Its roof is dome shaped which acts as a fixed storage
tank (gas holder) for biogas.

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A tapped-outlet for biogas is provided at the top of the dome as shown in figure.
ii) Mixing tank: It is made above the ground level on one side of the digester.
iii) Inlet tank: It is below the ground level under the mixing tank.
iv) Over flow tank: It is made on the other side of the digester at a level lower than mixing tank.
Mixing tank is connected with inlet tank and the overflow tank is connected with outlet tank.
b) Biogas plant: Biogas is prepared by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes like cow dung in biogas plant. The
two types of biogas plant are:
i) Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
ii) Fixed-dome type bio-gas plant.
The raw material used for producing biogas in both the plants is the same, it is a mixture of cattle dung and
water.
Working: Cattle dung (and also human wastes and domestic sewage) and water are mixed in equal proportion in
mixing tank to form a slurry.
The cattle dung undergoes fermentation by anaerobic bacteria to form biogas which gets collected in the
dome. As the amount of gas collected in the dome increases, it exerts pressure over the slurry and forces the spent
slurry in the digester to go out into the outlet tank and from there in overflow tank. The spent slurry is rich in nitrogen
and phosphorus compounds and forms a good manure.
The biogas collected in the dome is taken out through the tapped-outlet at the top, through a pipe provided
with a gas control valve. It is then distributed as desired.
Once the gas plant is functioning, more cattle dung slurry is added to the digester. A continuous supply of
biogas can be obtained in this manner.
Uses of Biogas:
i) It is used as domestic fuel for cooking food (in smokeless chulhas) and for other heating purposes.
ii) It is sometimes used to run engines and water pumping sets.
iii) It is used for street lighting for rural roads.
Advantages of biogas plant:
i) Combustion of biogas produces no smoke but a large amount of heat as its calorific value is high.
ii) The use of biogas in villages improves the sanitary conditions and checks environmental pollution.
iii) It is convenient for domestic use. The slurry obtained as a biproduct left in the plant after the gas is used
forms a good and enriched manure, containing compounds of nitrogen and phosphorous.
iv) The use of biogas reduces the dependence on the fossils fuels and wood.
Merits of biogas as a fuel:
i) It is a clean fuel, does not produce smoke and pollution.
ii) It has high calorific value i.e. it produces a large amount of heat per unit mass.
iii) It is cheaper.
iv) Its use is convenient.
v) It does not require storage space in the house. It is directly supplied to the house through pipes from the
plant.

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ALTERNATIVE OR NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

With technological progress, our demand for energy increases day by day. Our life-styles are also changing,
we use machines to do more and more of our tasks. Our basic requirements are also increasing as industrialisation
improves our living standards.
As our demand for energy increases, we need to look for more and more sources of energy. We could
develop the technology to use the available or known sources of energy more efficiently and also look to new
sources of energy. Any new source of energy we seek to exploit would need specific devices developed with that
source in mind. We shall now look at some of the latest sources of energy that we seek to tap, and the technology
designed to capture and store energy from that source.
SOLAR ENERGY
The sun is the primary source of energy for all living beings on the earth. It provides all of us heat and light. The
energy generated by the sun is the result of reaction called nuclear fusion, occuring continuously in the interior part of
the sun. Hand Bethe, a physicist proposed that the enormous release of energy from the sun is due to the fusion
(combination) of four hydrogen atoms to yield a single helium atom (2He4). For this discovery he was awarded the
1967 Noble prize in Physics. The sun emits energy in all directions in space.
Solar energy is trapped by plains, plateaus, mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans and ponds. Plants use solar
energy to synthesise food by photosynthesis and solar energy is also the source of wind storms, rain, snow fall and
ocean waves. It is the perennial (forever) source of energy.
This perennial source of energy has some features:
i) It comes to earth’s surface in a very diffused form.
ii) Upper atmosphere gets 1.3 KJ of energy per second per square metre. Of this only 47% i.e. approximately
0.64 KJ energy reaches per second per square metre on earth’s surface.
iii) Moreover this amount of energy is not available uniformly and keeps changing everyday at a place and
place to place during a day.
a) Composition of Solar Energy (Sunlight)

Composition of sunlight

Ultra-violet Visible light Infra red

rays rays

i) Ultra violet rays:

The invisible rays whose wavelength is shorter than that of the visible violet light are called ultra violet rays. We
can detect these rays by using a photographic film or a fluorescent paper because they darken the photographic
film just like ordinary light rays. They are used to kill bacteria in food stuff and drinking water. Too much ultra-
violet radiation is dangerous for our health due to its ionising effect and it can cause skin cancer.
ii) Visible light:
The visible rays whose wavelength range from 400 nm (in violet) to 700 nm (in red) are called visible light. The
visible part of the sunlight consists of seven different wavelengths, each wavelength corresponding to a different
colour. Thus the visible part of the sunlight consists of seven different colours.

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iii) Infra-red rays:

The invisible rays whose wavelength is longer than that of the visible red light are called infra-red rays. They
can heat the object on which they fall.
About one-third of the solar energy consists of infra-red rays. They can be detected by its heating effect, by
using a thermometer. Every hot object emit infra-red rays.
b) Uses of Solar Energy:
i) Solar cooker cooks food by absorbing solar energy.
ii) Solar water heaters are used for heating water.
iii) Solar cells convert solar energy into electricity to run watches, calculators and in spaceships for various
equipments.
iv) Solar energy is absorbed by green plants to make their food by photosynthesis.
v) Solar energy is used for drying clothes and food grains.
vi) Solar energy is used for making salt from sea water.
c) Advantages of Solar Energy:
i) It is inexhaustible and renewable as it is producing continuously in the core of sun by nuclear fusion of H-
atoms.
ii) Its quantity is unlimited and is available in all parts of the world in abundance.
iii) It does not cause any pollution.
d) Limitations of Solar Energy:
i) It is not available at night.
ii) Solar energy available by the earth is quite diffused and in scattered form and hence only a part of it, is
utilized.
iv) It is not available at constant rate due to clouds, fog, mist, haze, winds etc.
e) Direct and Indirect Harnessing (Collection) of Solar Energy:
i) Direct utilization of solar energy can be done (in solar cooker) by collecting the heat radiation on reflecting
plane mirrors on to black box containing uncooked food and for heating water in solar heaters.
These rays can be converted into electrical energy in solar cells.
ii) Indirect utilization of solar energy can be done by first converting solar energy into chemical energy as in
biomass of plants. Heat energy of sun can be utilized in sea waves, ocean thermal energy and into energy
of winds etc.
SOLAR CONSTANT
Solar constant is defined as the energy received from the sun in one second by the unit square metre area of the
outer edge of earth’s atmosphere exposed perpendicular to the radiation of the sun at an average distance between
the earth and the sun.
Measurements have shown that the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere receives solar energy equal to 1.4
kilojoules per second per square metre (1.4 kJ/s m2). This amount is known as solar constant.
Since J/s = Watt (W)
 Solar constant = 1.4 kWm–2

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Example 3 : If solar constant is 1.4 kW/m2, calculate the solar energy recieved by 1m2 area in one hour.
Solution : Here solar constant = 1.4 kW/m2
Since Watt (W) = joule/sec (J/s)
 Solar constant = 1.4 kJ/s m2
It means energy recieved by 1m2 area is 3600 s = 1.4 kJ × 3600 = 5040 kJ
Example 4 : The solar constant at a place is 1.4 kW/m2. How much solar energy will be recieved at this place per
second over an area of 5m2.
Solution : Here solar constant = 1.4 kW/m2
= 1.4 kJ/s m2
This means energy received per second by 1m2 area = 1.4 kJ/s
 Energy received per second over an area of 5m2 = 1.4 × 5 = 7.0 kJ/s
= 7.0kW
Green house effect
The property of glass of trapping heat by allowing shorter wavelength heat rays to pass through it but not
allowing longer wavelength heat rays to pass it is called green house effect.
A) Box type solar cooker:

A solar cooker is a device which utilises solar energy for cooking food material. It consists of an insulated
wooden box (B) painted with black from inside. The lid of the box is provided with a plane mirror reflector (R) and
a glass sheet (G). The food to be cooked is placed in a metal container (C) painted with black from outer side and
kept in the box. The container is covered with the glass sheet. The box is then kept in direct sunlight and its reflector
is adjusted in such a way that a strong beam of sun light falls over it.
Working:- When the solar cooker is kept in direct sunlight, the reflector (R) reflects both visible and infrared rays
of the sunlight on to the top of the box in the form of a strong beam of light. The black surface of the box and the
vessel absorbs it. When the inner black surface becomes quite hot, it also starts radiating heat energy in the form of
infrared rays, but the upper glass sheet (G) does not allow these rays to pass through it and go outside the box. As
a result, these infrared rays get absorbed in the box, which increases its internal temperature up to about 100-
130oC. This high temperature cooks the food material kept in the metallic container inside the box.

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Limitations of solar cooker

1. It cannot be used during night.
2. On a cloudy day, it cannot be used.
3. The direction of the reflector has to be adjusted according to the position of the sun.
4. It cannot be used for making ‘chappatis’.
5. It cannot be used for frying.
B) Spherical reflector type solar cooker:
In this type of solar cooker, there is an insulated metal box, painted black from inside. A spherical reflector is
used here (in place of plane mirror) because a very high temperature is required, the spherical reflector is either a
concave reflector or a parabolic reflector. The sunlight falling on the surface of the spherical reflector gets concentrated
to one point. This will produce a lot of heat at that point and temperature in that region will become very high,
therefore in this type, a utensil is placed at this point. A high temperature about 200oC can be produced.

Solar cell
A solar cell is a device which converts solar energy (light energy) directly into electricity. It is made of semi-
conducting materials like silicon, germanium, selenium or gallium. A modern solar cell is made from wafers of semi
conducting materials containing suitable impurities in such a way that a potential difference gets generated when light
falls on them. A 4 cm2 solar cell produces a potential difference of about 0.4-0.5 volts and generate about 60 milli-
amperes of current. To generate a large amount of current, a number of solar cells are arranged together in a definite
pattern in a solar panel. The energy (electric current) generated in a solar panel is stored in a battery connected to it
and can be used for various purposes.
Uses of a Solar cell
Solar cells are used for production of electricity for lighting houses, streets etc. Solar cells are used for production
of electricity to run electronic appliances like televisions, radios, watches, calculators, toys, toy games etc. Solar
cells are used to develop electricity for offshore oil drilling platforms etc. Solar cells are used to generate electricity
in artificial satellites, rockets, and space vehicles etc.

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Solar cell panel:

When solar cells are arranged side by side, connecting each other in such a way that total potential difference
and the total capacity to provide electric current is much increased, then this arrangement is called solar cell panel.
The electric power required for the working of artificial satellites in outer space, street lighting in remote areas
and running of irrigation water pumps in far-off areas obtained with the help of solar cell panels.
In a solar cell panel hundreds of solar cells are joined together, the electricity produced by this solar panel is
stored in the battery. Thus battery runs an electric motor and finally the motor drives the water pump, which pumps
out the underground water.
The various solar cells in a solar cell panel are joined together by using connecting wires made of silver. This is
because silver metal is the best conductor of electricity having very low resistance. The use of silver for connecting
solar cells makes the solar cell panel more expensive but it increases the efficiency. This is because if connecting
wires of other metals were used in solar cell panel, then a substantial part of the electricity generated by it could be
lost in overcoming the resistance of such connecting wires.

Advantages (merits):
i) They directly utilize solar energy.
ii) They can work satisfactorily even in diffused radiations.
iii) They need no maintenance.
iv) They do not cause pollution.
Disadvantages (demerits):
i) The energy stored in batteries, provides only direct current (d.c.). For devices which require alternating
current (a.c.), d.c. is converted into a.c. This conversion reduces efficiency and increases its cost.
ii) They are very expensive because the semiconductor materials needed for the solar cell must be very
pure.
FUEL
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat or to be
used for work. The heat energy released by reaction of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat
engine.
Eg: Wood, gas, petrol, kerosene, diesel, coal and animal waste.
Note: Fuels are combustible substances.

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Characteristics of an ideal or a good fuel

1. It should have a high calorific or a heat value, so that it can produce maximum energy by low fuel
consumption.
2. It should have a proper ignition temperature, so that it can burn easily.
3. It should not produce harmful gases during combustion.
4. It should be cheap in cost and easily available in plenty for everyone.
5. It should be easy and convenient to handle, store and transport from one place to another.
6. It should not be valuable to any other purpose than as a fuel.
7. It should burn smoothly and should not leave much residue after its combustion.
Types of Fuels:
There are three types of fuels solid fuels, liquid fuels and gaseous fuels.
i) Solid fuels:
The various kinds of solid fuels are wood, charcoal, coke, coal, paraffin and tallow. Wood was the first solid
fuel to be used by humans. Paraffin and tallow are used to make candles.
ii) Liquid fuels:
Petrol, kerosene, diesel and methanol are some common liquid fuels. Most of the liquid fuels are obtained from
petroleum. They leave no solid residue when burnt and can be stored easily.
iii) Gaseous fuels:
Natural gas, coal gas, producer gas, water gas and liquefied petroleum gas are some examples of gaseous
fuels.
Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels are the remains of the prehistoric animals or plants, buried under the earth, millions of years ago.
Eg: Coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Fossil fuels are formed in the absence of oxygen. The chemical effects of heat, pressure and bacteria convert
the buried remains of plants and animals into fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
It was the sunlight of long ago that made plants grow, which were then converted into fossil fuels. Fossil fuels
are energy rich compounds of carbon, which were originally made by the plants with the help of sun’s energy.
Primary and Secondary Fuels:
Primary fuels are the fuels that are found in nature and can be extracted, cleaned or graded without any sort of
energy conversion or transformation process.
Example : Coal, crude oil, natural gas etc.
Secondary fuels are the fuels that are derived from some primary fuels through chemical or physical process.
Example : Kerosine, methane, charcoal, petrol, diesel etc.
Calorific value of fuels:
All the fuels produce heat energy on burning. Different fuels produce different amount of heat on burning. The
usefulness of a fuel is measured in terms of its calorific value. The amount of heat produced by burning a unit mass of
the fuel completely is known as its calorific value.
The unit of mass usually taken for expressing the calorific value of a fuel is gram. So it can be said that the
amount of heat produced by burning 1 gram of a fuel completely is called its calorific value. For example, when one
gram of a carbon fuel (like charcoal) is burned completely, it produces 33000 J. Since joule is a very small unit of
heat energy so the calorific value is usually expressed as kilojoules per gram (KJ/g).
The SI unit of measuring calorific value is kilojoules per gram.

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Ignition Temperature
Substances begin to burn only after it has attained certain minimum temperature. The minimum temeprature at
which the substance begins to burn is called ignition temperature. Ignition temperature is the characteristic of a
substance.
Example 5 : A concentrator-type solar water heater has a surface area of 5m2 and it can absorb 80% of the
incident solar radiation falling on it, while it reflects the rest. Calculate the energy concentrated by the heater at its
focus in a time period of 2hrs, if solar energy incident on it is at the rate of 0.4 KJ/m2s.
Solution : Surface area of the reflector, A = 5m2
Energy incident on the solar heater, E = 0.4 KJ/m2s
80 80
So energy concentrated  E  A  t   0.4  5  7200   11520 kJ
100 100
Example 6 : The efficiency of a kerosene stove is 40%. The heat produced on combustion of 1 gram of kerosene
in the stove could raise the temperature of 100 gram of a liquid from 25oC to 25.3oC. If the specific heat capacity of
the liquid be 0.6 × 103 kJ/kg oC. Calculate the calorific value of kerosene?
Solution : Here, Mass of fuel consumed, m = 1 g
Mass of liquid, M = 100 g = 0.1 kg
Specific heat capacity of liquid, C = 0.6 × 103 KJ/Kg oC
Rise of temperature of liquid, T   25.3  25.0   0.3 o C
Efficiency of stove,   40%  0.4
Calorific value of kerosene, c = ? (to be calculated)
From the relation of calorimetry heat gained by liquid, Q  MC T
Putting values, we get Q = 0.1 × 0.6 × 103 × 0.3 = 18 kJ
It is only 40% of the actual energy liberated by the kerosene.
18  100
Actual heat liberated by the kerosene   45 kJ
40
From relation, Q = mc
Q
We have c  , putting values,
m
45
We get c   45
1
Calorific value = 45 KJ/g
Example 7 : The heat produced by burning of a cow dung cake of mass 210 g raises the temperature of 50 g of
water by 2oC. Assuming that all the heat was utilized for heating water whose specific heat capacity is 4.2 J/goC.
Calculate the calorific value of the dung cake.
Solution : Here, Mass of fuel burnt, m = 210 g
Mass of water heated, M = 50 g
Rise of temperature of water, T  2 o C

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Specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.2 J/g oC

Calorific value of fuel, c = ? (to be calculated)
From relation, of calorimetry, Q = 50 × 4.2 × 2 = 420 J
From relation, Q = mc
Q 420
We have, c  ; Putting value, we get, c  2
m 210
i.e., Calorific value of cow dung cake, c = 2 J/g
Example 8 : Heat produced on burning 5.0 g of a fuel raises the temperature of 1.0 kg water from 20oC to 60oC,
If the specific heat of water be 4.2 J/goC, calculate the calorific value of the fuel?
Solution : Here, mass of the fue burnt, m = 5 g
Mass of water heated, M = 1.0 kg = 1000 g
Rise of temperature of water, T   60  20   40o C
Specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.2 J/g oC
Calorific value of fuel, c = ? (to be calculated)
From relation of calorimetry, Heat gained by water, Q  MC T
Putting values, we get Q = 1000 × 4.2 × 40 = 168000 J
From relation, Q = mc;
Q 168000
We have, c  ; Putting values, we get c   33600 J/g
m 5
Calorific value of fuel, c = 33.6 kJ/g
Example 9 : Suppose a green tree absorbs, on an average, 108 J of solar energy per day, incident on it and the tree
could convert 1% of the solar energy incident on it to produce wood, how many days would it take to produce 50
kg of wood? (The calorific value of wood is 15 kJ g–1)
Solution : The solar energy converted to wood in one day = 1% of 108 J = 106 J
The amount of energy liberated on burning 50 kg of wood = 50 × 1000 × 15 × 103 = 7.5 × 108 J

7.5 108
The number of days required to produce 50 kg of wood   750 days
106
NUCLEAR ENERGY
A reaction in which the nucleus of an atom undergoes a change to form a new atom and releases an enormous
amount of energy is called as nuclear energy. There are two distinct ways of obtaining nuclear energy. (a) Nuclear
fission (b) Nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission reaction:
This type of nuclear reaction was first of all reported by Otto Hahn in 1938. He stated that when an unstable
heavy nucleus is bombarded with slow speed thermal neutrons, it splits into two small stable nuclei and liberates an
enormous amount of heat and light energy.

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When uranium 235 atoms are bombarded with slow moving thermal neutrons, it breaks up into two small
stable nuclei of Barium and Krypton. The process also produces three neutrons and an enormous amount of heat
energy and light energy. The reaction involved is shown as under:

U  n  Ba  Kr  3n  Large amount of energy

In all nuclear fission reactions, a small quantity of matter is lost i.e, the total mass of all the fission products is
less than the total mass of the reactants. This lost matter gets converted into energy, which is released in any nuclear
fission reaction. The energy (E) obtained due to loss of matter of mass m is given by the famous Einstein’s equation.
E = mc2
Fission reaction of U235

92 U 235  0 n1  92 U 236  56 Ba141  36 Kr 92  30 n1  Q

(unstable nucleus)

The energy released in U235 fission is about 200MeV or 0.8 MeV per nucleon.
Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of energy
about 0.025 eV).
The neutrons released during the fission process are called prompt neutrons.
Most of energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy of fission fragments.
Energy released per gram of Uranium

Avogadro number
Energy released per gram of Uranium  Mass number
 Energy released per fission

6.023  1023
  200  5.12  1023 MeV
235

 8.2  1010 J  2.28  104 kWh  2  1010 calorie

This energy is equivalent to Energy obtained by burning 2560 kg of coal.
Example 10 : The energy released per fission of Uranium is 200 MeV. Determine the number of fission per second
required to generate 2 MW power.
Solution : Energy obtained per fission = 200 MeV = 200 × 1.6 × 10–13 J = 3.2 × 10–11 J

Power 2 106
Number of fission per second required   11
 6.25  1016
Energy per fission 3.2  10

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Nuclear fusion reaction:

This type of nuclear reaction was first of all reported by Hans Bethe in 1939. The word ‘fusion’ means ‘to
combine together’. So, nuclear fusion means combining together of two or more nuclei to form a single nucleus.
Thus, a process in which two lighter nuclei fuse (combine) together to form a stable heavier nucleus with a simultaneous
release of a very large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion. The energy produced in a fusion reaction is much
higher than that produced in a nuclear fission reaction.
Nuclear fusion takes place only at very high temperature, about 4 - 15 million degrees (4 × 106 oC –15 × 106 oC).
That is why nuclear fusion is also called thermonuclear reaction.
Advantages of Nuclear energy
The advantages of nuclear energy are :
i) It produces a large amount of useful energy from a very small amount of a nuclear fuel (like uranium-235).
ii) Once the nuclear fuel (like uranium-235) is loaded into the reactor, the nuclear power plant can go on
producing electricity for two to three years at a stretch. There is no need for putting in nuclear fuel again
and again.
iii) It does not produce gases like carbon dioxide which contributes to greenhouse effect or sulphur dioxide
which causes acid rain.
Disadvantages of Nuclear energy
i) The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and disposal of spent or used fuels - the
uranium still decaying into harmful subatomic particles or radiations.
ii) Improper nuclear-waste storage and disposal results in environmental contamination.
iii) There is a risk of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation.
iv) The high cost of installation of a nuclear power plant, high risk of environmental contamination and limited
availability of uranium makes large-scale use of nuclear energy prohibitive.
The mass of the product nucleus is smaller than the sum of the masses of the nuclei which were fused. The lost
mass is converted into energy which is released in the process.
2
1H  12 H  13 H  H11  4.0 MeV
Deuteron + Deuteron  Triton + Proton + Energy
The triton so formed can further fuse with a third deuteron to form an  -particle (Helium-nucleus).
H  12 H  24 He  10 n  17.6 MeV energy
3
1
Triton + Deutron   particle + Neutron + Energy
gy
Difference between Nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

1) It involves breaking of a heavy nucleus 1) It involves binding of two nuclei.
into two lighter nuclei.
2) It is carried out by the bombardment of 2) It is carried out by heating to an
thermal neutrons over a heavy nucleus extreme temperature.
to form two lighter nuclei.
3) It is a chain reaction. 3) It is not a chain reaction.
4) It is a controlled process. 4) It is an uncontrolled process.
5) It produces an enormous amount of 5) It produces more energy than nuclear
energy. fission.
6) Fission products are hazardous. 6) It does not cause pollution.

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Example 11 : Find the disintegration energy Q for the fission event represented by equation
92 U 235  0 n1  92 U 236  138
52 Te  97
40 Zr  0 n1
Some required data are:
Mass of 92U235 = 235.0439 u
0n = 1.00867
1

138
52 Te  139.9054 u
97
40 Zr  93.9063 u
Find energy released in the process.
Solution : The mass lost in the process
m  235.0439  139.9054  93.9063  1.00867   0.22353 u

The corresponding energy released =  0.22353  931 MeV  208 MeV

Example 12 : What is the power output of a 92U235 reactor if it takes 30 days to use up 2 kg of fuel, and if each
fission gives 185 MeV of usable energy.
Solution : The number of 92U235 in 2 kg of fuel,
2  1000
N  6.02  10 23  5.12 10 24
235
The fission of each 92U235 produces energy = 185 MeV = 185 × 1.6 × 10–13 J
Total energy produced = 5.12  10 24  185 1.6  1013  1.515  1014

E 1.515  1014
The output power    5.85  107 Watts
t 30  24  3600
Example 13: A nucleus of U235 on fission releases about 200 MeV energy per fission (MeV = 1.602 × 10–13J).
Estimate how much coal (calorific value = 33 kJ g–1) has to be burnt to obtain energy equivalent to that released in
the fission of 1 g of U235 assuming that energy conversion efficiency of 30% for charcoal and 25% for fission of U235
nucleus.
1 6.02  1023
Solution : The number of atoms in 1 gm of Uranium  2.56  1021
235
Total energy produced = 2.56 × 1021 × 200 = 5.123 × 1023 MeV
5.123 1023  25  1.602 1013
The energy released   2.05 1010 J
100
Since Energy conversion efficiency of charcoal is 30%.
2.05  1010  100
Total energy produced in burning charcoal =   6.84 1010 J
30
Calorific value of coal = 3.3 × 104 J g–1
6.84  1010
 Total amount of coal required   2.073  106 g  2.073  103 kg
3.3  10 4

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SOURCES OF ENERGY
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. The device which directly converts solar energy to electric energy is
A) solar cooker B) solar furnace C) solar cell D) solar water heater
2. The ultimate source of hydroelectric energy is
A) potential energy of water B) kinetic energy of water
C) solar energy D) magnetic energy
3. A solar panel is made by combining a large number of
A) solar cookers B) solar cells C) solar water heaters D) solar concentrators
4. Which method is used to produce electricity in hydroelectric power plant?
A) By boiling the water to produce steam B) By ionizing water
C) By running dynamo by kinetic energy D) Any of the above
5. Which of the following is the odd one out?
A) Petroleum B) Hydro electricity C) Coal D) CNG
6. The energy which directly changes to electric energy in solar cell is
A) heat energy only B) light energy only C) heat and light energy D) wind energy only
7. The non-renewable source of energy amongst the following is
A) wind energy B) hydel energy C) solar energy D) fossil fuels
8. The purpose of the glass cover on top of a box-type solar cooker is to
A) allow one to see the food being cooked
B) allow more sunlight into the box
C) prevent dust from entering the box
D) reduce heat loss by radiation
9. Which of the following is a component of bio-gas?
A) Methane B) LPG C) CNG D) All of these
10. The condition for producing biogas is
A) air but not water B) water but not air C) air and water D) neither air nor water
11. Geothermal energy is feasible in regions that
A) are near the sea B) have thermal plants
C) have coal mines D) are over hot spots in the crust
12. The component of solar radiation which could be a health hazard is
A) Visible radiation B) Infra-red radiation C) Ultra violet radiation D) Both A and B

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13. CNG stands for

A) Common Natural Gas B) Controlled Natural Gas
C) Compressed Natural Gas D) Compound Natural Gas
14. Acid rain happens because
A) sun leads to heating of upper layer of atmosphere
B) burning of fossil fuels release oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur in the atmosphere
C) electrical charges are produced due to friction amongst clouds
D) the earth atmosphere contains acids
15. LPG is the abbreviation for
A) Low-pressure gas B) Liquid-pressure gas
C) Lignite-processed gas D) Liquefied petroleum gas
16. Which power plant works on the basis of gravity of earth?
A) Geothermal B) Wind farms C) Hydropower D) Nuclear power
17. Which one of the following forms of energy leads to least environmental pollution in the process of its harnessing
and utilization?
A) nuclear energy B) thermal energy C) solar energy D) geothermal energy
18. The main constituent of CNG is
A) propane B) methane C) butane D) ethane
19. In a hydro power plant
A) potential energy possessed by stored water is converted into electricity
B) kinetic energy possessed by stored water is converted into potential energy
C) electricity is extracted from water
D) water is converted into steam to produce electricity
20. Ocean thermal energy is due to
A) energy stored by waves in the ocean
B) temperature difference at different levels in the ocean
C) pressure difference at different levels in the ocean
D) tides arising out in the ocean
21. Choose the correct statement.
A) Sun can be taken as an inexhaustible source of energy
B) There is infinite storage of fossil fuel inside the earth
C) Hydro and wind energy plants are polluting sources of energy
D) Waste from a nuclear power plant can be easily disposed off

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22. Which of the following act as a moderator in the nuclear reactors?

A) Carbon B) Cadmium C) CO2 D) Graphite
23. The source of the sun’s energy is
A) chemical reaction B) nuclear fission C) nuclear fusion D) none of these
24. If in a nuclear fusion process, the masses of the fusing nuclei be m1 and m2, and the mass of the resultant nucleus
be m3, then

A) m3   m1  m2  B) m3   m1  m2  C) m 3  m1  m 2 D) m3  m1  m 2

LEVEL II
1. Solar energy can be used to produce:
A) electrical energy B) heat energy
C) mechanical energy D) all of the above
2. A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest, emits an alpha particle. If the Q value of the reactions is 5.5
Mev, calculate the K.E. of the  particle.
A) 4.4 MeV B) 5.4 MeV C) 5.6 MeV D) 6.5 MeV
3. Biogas is a mixture of :
A) CO + H2 + CH4 B) CO + H2 C) CO2 + CH4 + H2 + H2S D) CO2 + N2
4. The sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible are called:
A) conventional sources B) non-conventional sources
C) non-renewable sources D) none of these
5. One MeV of energy is equivalent to
A) 1.6  1013 J B) 1.6 1019 J

C) 1.6 1013 J D) 1.6 1019 J

6. Energy available from the oceans is:
A) OTE B) sea-waves energy C) tidal energy D) all of the above
7. Two deutrons each of mass m fuse to form helium resulting in release of energy E. The mass of helium formed
is

E E E E
A) m  B) 2m  C) D) 2m 
c2 c2 mc 2 c2
8. The earth absorbs 1022 joule of energy from the sun every day. The percentage increase in the mass of earth
every day will be (mass of earth = 6 × 1024 kg)
a) 1.82 × 10–10 % B) 1.85 × 10–15 % C) 1.85 × 10–17 % D) 1.85 × 10–18 %
9. Gobar gas is a
A) Solid fuel B) Liquid fuel C) Primary fuel D) Secondary fuel

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10. Methane gas has highest ..................... among all hydrocarbons.

A) Ignition temperature B) Ratio of hydrogen to carbon
C) Calorific value D) Both B and C are correct
11. On bombardment of U235 by slow neutrons, 200 MeV energy is released. If the power output of atomic
raector is 1.6 MW, then the rate of fission will be
A) 5 × 1016 per second B) 10 × 1016 per second C) 15 × 1016 per second D) 20 × 10–16 per second
12. Moderator is used in nuclear reactor for :
A) slowing neutrons B) accelerating neutrons
C) stopping neutrons D) heating the neutrons
13. The fusion reactions occur at :
A) low pressures B) low temperature
C) extremely high temperature D) high temperature and low pressures
14. The source of energy of the sun is:
A) Nuclear fission B) Chemical reaction C) Nuclear fusion D) None of these
15. The number of neutrons in an atom X of atomic number Z and mass number A is:
A) Zero B) Z C) A-Z D) A
16. When a beta particle is given out, the atomic number of the parent atom:
A) Increases by unity B) Decreases by unity C) Remains the same D) Is halved
17. In the nuclear reaction

92 U 235  0 n1  56 Ba141  36 Kr 92  3X  200 MeV

X represents:
A) Proton B) Neutron C) Electron D) Alpha particle
18. If the mass defect in the formation of helium from hydrogen is 0.5%, then the energy obtained in kWh, in
forming helium from 1 kg of hydrogen, will be
A) 1.25 B) 125 × 104 C) 1.25 × 108 D) 1.25 × 106
19. A gamma ray photon creates an electron-positron pair. If the rest mass energy of an electron is 0.5 MeV and
the total kinetic energy of the electron-positron pair is 0.78 MeV, then the energy of the gamma ray photon
must be
A) 0.78 MeV B) 1.78 MeV C) 1.28 MeV D) 0.28 MeV
20. A nucleus has 16 neutrons & its mass number is 31. The atomic number of this is:
A) 47 B) 31 C) 15 D) 16

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1
21. If the speed of light were of the present value, the energy released in a given atomic explosion will be
3
decreased by a fraction

2 1 1 8
A) B) C) D)
3 9 3 9
22. The particles not emitted from radioactive substances are:
A) Electron B) Proton C)  -Rays D) Helium
23. Liquified gases in the fuel used in geo-stationary satellite launch vehicle are
A) liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen B) liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen
C) liquid hydroen and liquid helium D) liquid nitrogen and liquid helium
24. The type of radiation absorbed by CO2 molecule in atmosphere are
A) X-rays B) Gamma rays C) Infra-red rays D) UV-rays
25. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
A) Charges on an electron and proton are equal and opposite
B) Neutron have no charge
C) Electron and proton have same mass
D) Masses of proton and neutron are nearly the same
LEVEL III
More than one correct answer type
1. Constituents of petroleum gas is/are
A) Methane B) Ethane C) Propane D) Butane
2. Which of the following are true statements?
A) To overcome the energy crisis the use of solar cooker must be increased.
B) To overcome the energy crisis more amount of non-renewable sources of energy must be used.
C) The re-usage of waste material as a source of energy can be done to overcome the energy crisis.
D) To overcome the energy crisis water has to be saved.
3. Choose the incorrect statements.
A) Sun can be taken as an inexhaustible source of energy.
B) There is infinite storage of fossil fuel inside the earth.
C) Hydro and wind energy plants are non polluting sources of energy.
D) Waste from a nuclear power plant can be easily disposed off.

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4. Choose the correct statement.

A) Sun can be taken as an inexhaustible source of energy
B) There is infinite storage of fossil fuel inside the earth
C) Hydro and wind energy plants are non-polluting sources of energy
D) Waste from a nuclear power plant can be easily disposed off
Passage Comprehension.
Passage I
Nuclear power is an alternative energy source that can be obtained from either the splitting of the nuclei of
atoms (nuclear fission) or the combination of the nuclei of atoms (nuclear fusion). In either of these two reactions,
great amounts of energy are released. Nuclear power plants use a device called a nuclear reactor in which
uranium or plutonium atoms are split in controlled fission reactions. The heat energy released is captured and
used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy from Uranium is not renewable. Once we’ve dug up all the Earth’s
uranium and used it, there isn’t any more.
5. The control rod in a nuclear reactor is made of
A) Uranium B) Cadmium C) Graphite D) Plutonium
6. The process by which a heavy nuleus splits into light nuclei is known as
A) Fission B)  -decay C) Fusion D) Chain reaction
7. The explosion of the atomic bomb takes place due to
A) Nuclear fission B) Nuclear fusion C) Scattering D) Thermionic emission

8. In nuclear reaction 2 He 4  z X A  z2 Y A 3  A , A denotes

A) Electron B) Positron C) Proton D) neutron
9. Which of the following is the fusion reaction

A) 1 H 2  1H 2  2 He 4 B) 0 n1  7 N14  6 C14  1H1

C) 0 n1  92 U 238  93 Np 239   1   D) 1 H 3  2 He3   1  

10. What is used as a moderator in a nuclear reactor?
A) Water B) Graphite C) Cadmium D) Steel
11. The functions of moderators in nuclear reactor is to
A) Decrease the speed of neutrons B) Increase the speed of neutrons
C) Decrease the speed of electrons D) Increase the speed of electrons
12. In a working nuclear reactor, cadmium rods (control rods) are used to
A) Speed up neutrons B) Slow down neutrons
C) Absorb some neutrons D) Absorb all neutrons

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13. Fusion reaction takes place at high temperature because

A) Atoms are ionised at high temperature
B) Molecules break-up at high temperature
C) Nuclei break-up at high temperature
D) Kinetic energy is high enough to overcome repulsion between nuclei
Matrix match type
14. Match the entries of column I with entries of column II.

Column I Column II
A) Nuclear energy p) Energy from moving wind
B) Solar energy q) Energy from tides in sea water
C) Wind energy r) Energy due to nuclear fission & fusion

D) Tidal energy s) Energy from hot spots

E) Geothermal energy t) Energy from sun

A) A - r; B - t; C - p; D - q; E - s B) A - p; B - q; C - r; D - s; E - t
C) A - t; B - s; C - r; D - q; E - p D) A - r; B - s; C - t; D - q; E - p
15. Match the following.
Column I Column II
A) Decay of biomass p) Liquid fuel
B) Alcohol q) Difference in temeprature between warm
surface waters and colder waters
C) Rise and fall of water levels in oceans r) Biogas
D) OTEC s) Tidal energy
E) Ultimate source of energy t) Sun
F) Stored in food grain u) Wind
G) Moving air v) bioenergy

A) A - r; B - p; C - s; D - q; E - t; F - v; G - u B) A - r; B - p; C - v; D - t; E - q; F - s; G - u
C) A - t; B - r; C - s; D - u; E - p; F - v; G - a D) A - r; B s; C - q ; D - v; E - t; F - u; G - p

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16. Match the following.

Column I Column II
A) Ramagundam thermal plant is in p) Andhra Pradesh
B) Raichur thermal plant is in q) Karnataka
C) Korba thermal plant is in r) Madhya Pradesh

D) Farraka thermal plant is in s) West Bengal

A) A - r; B - s; C - p; D - q B) A - p; B - r; C - s; D - q
C) A - q; B - p; C - r; D - s D) A - p; B - q; C - r; D - s
17. Match the following.

Column I Column II
A) Hydrogen bomb p) Fission
B) Atom bomb q) Fusion
C) Stellar energy r) Critical mass

D) Nuclear reactor s) Controlled chain reaction

A) A - r; B - p; C - s; D - q B) A - s; B - q; C - r; D - p
C) A - q; B - p; C - r; D - s D) A - p; B - q; C - s; D - r
Integer Answer Type.
18. How many MJ of energy will 200 gm of wood yield on complete combustion, if its calorific value were 15 kJ/
gm?
19. Sikar read that when 92U235 undergoes fission, approximately 0.1% of its original mass charges into energy.
With this information, the amount of energy released when 1 kg of 92U235 undergoes fission is n × 1013 J. Find
the value of n.
20. On combustion, 250 g of cow dung cake can raise the temperature of 60 g of water through 2oC. Assuming
that all the heat generated was used to heat the water. Calculate the calorific value of cowdung cake (Take
specific heat of water as 4.2 Jg–1 k–1)
21. The solar energy incident on the surface of a solar concentration with an efficiency of 50% is 600 Js–1. A bowl
containing 1 kg of water is placed at the focal point of the concentration. The time in minutes it take to raise the
temperature of water from 5o C to 35o C is.

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Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
22. Statement I : Nuclear forces are independent of charges.
Statement II : Nuclear force is not a central force.
23. Statement I : U235 nucleus, by absorbing a slow neutron undergoes nuclear fission with the evolution of a
significant quantity of heat.
Statement II : During nuclear fission a part of the original mass of U235 is lost and gets concerted into heat.
24. Statement I : In street light circuits, photo-ecells are used to switch on and off the lights automatically at dusk
and dawn.
Statement II : A photocell can convert a change in intensity of illumination into a change in photocurrent that
can be used to control lighting system.
NTSE PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. The power generated in a windmill.
A) is more in rainy season since, damp air would mean more air mass hitting the blades
B) depends on the height of the tower
C) depends on wind velocity
D) can be increased by planting tall trees close to the tower
2. In a hydroelectric power plant more electrical power can be generated if water falls from a greater height
because
A) its temperature increases
B) larger amount of potential energy is converted into kinetic energy
C) the electricity content of water increases with height
D) more water molecules dissociate into ions
3. Which country is called the country of wind mills? (2013)
A) Holland B) Britain C) India D) America
4. Who was the first President of Atomic energy commission in India: (2013)
A) Homi Jahangir Bhabha B) Vikram Sarabhai
C) Prof. M.S. Swaminathan D) Prof. Meghnad Saha
5. In the sun for hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus and the amount of energy released is:
(2015)
A) 13 MeV B) 27 MeV C) 39 MeV D) None of these

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6. What is the full form of PNG? (2017)

A) Petrol Natural Gas B) Piped Natural Gas C) Pressurise Natural Gas D) Pure Natural Gas
7. Which metal is used to connect solar cell to solar panels? (2018)
A) Gold B) Silver C) Copper D)Aluminium
8. The amount of material that releases 4.5 × 1014 J of energy when it is completely converted into energy during
a nuclear reaction. [Given speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s] (2019)
A) 0.5 g B) 5 g C) 50 g D) 500 g
9. For a nuclear reactor 48 KJ of energy is produced per minute. If the energy released per fission is
3.2 × 10–11 J then the number of fissions which would be taking place in a reactor per second is (2019)
A) 5 × 1014 B) 2 × 1014 C) 5.2 × 1013 D) 2.5 × 1013
10. The minimum order of temperature required for nuclear fusion is
A) 1015 K B) 106 K C) 103 K D) 102 K
11. A star produces its energy through the process of
A) Nuclear fusion B) Chemical reaction C) Nuclear fission
D) Gravitational attraction between different parts of the star

194