Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018

Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

The Cell: All mammals, including humans are made up of basic building blocks called cells. The size of cells
varies ranging from 200 nm to several centimeters.

Example of big cell: An ostrich egg is a single cell having length

20 cm.

The material inside the cell is used in chemical reactions and keeps
its functioning. Cell is surrounded by a semi permeable membrane
.The membrane not only contains the cell substance but also allows
selective passage of materials in and out of the cell.

Most cells include a nucleus inside of the cell and separated from
the surrounding cytoplasm. The nucleus contains the genetic
Figure 1: various Mammals cells
coding of reproducible cells. Human body contains about 75
trillion cells of which 25% are red blood cells. Various cells are shown in fig-1.

Characteristics of Cells:

(1) Organization
(2) Irritability (response to external stimuli)
(3) Nutrition
(4) Metabolism
(5) Reproduction
(6) Division of nucleus material

Body fluids:
The weight of fluid in a body is about one third of total body weight (about 56%)
Intercellular fluids contain large concentration of potassium, magnesium and phosphate ions.
Extracellular fluid contains significant concentration of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions, oxygen, amino acids,
fatty acids, glucose and carbon dioxide.

Musculoskeletal system:
The muscles and bones of the body provide loco motion (ability to move around). The skeletal system consists
mostly of bones and some cartilage. The bones are joined together to form articulations and joints and so are able
to move with respect to each other. Muscles are connected between bones across joint. So the bones move with
respect to each other when the muscle contracts.

The respiratory system:

Page | 1
 Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi
The respiratory system in a human body is a pneumatic system in
which an air pump (diaphragm) alternatively creates negative and
positive pressure in a sealed chamber and causes air to be sucked
into and forced out of a pair of lungs. The lung is connected to the
outside through nasal opening and mouth as shown in fig-2. It takes
𝑂2 into the body and gives off 𝐶𝑂2 from the body cells.
Deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart passes through
the lungs. Only 1 µm membrane separates the air carrying alveoli
from the pulmonary capillaries. Gaseous 𝑂2 diffuse through the
membrane into the blood system, while 𝐶𝑂2 comes out of the blood
through the membrane to the alveoli and finally to the environment.
Under normal condition, 250 ml 𝑂2 are taken up and 250 ml of 𝐶𝑂2
are given out by the body in each minute.

The Cardiovascular System:

It is a closed hydraulic system, which performs the essential service

of transportation of 𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂2 , numerous chemical compounds and Figure 2 : Respiratory system of mammals (top)
blood cells. Heart is divided into left and right parts. The heart and O2 and Co2 exchange between alveolus and
blood capillary (bottom)
has four valves as shown in fig-3:

(1) Tricuspid valve: It is situated between right atrium and right ventricle. It controls the flow of
deoxygenated blood from atrium to ventricle.
(2) Bicuspid valve: It is situated between left atrium and left ventricle. Its function is to control the flow of
oxygenated blood from left atrium into left ventricle.
(3) Pulmonary valve: It is situated between pulmonary
artery and right ventricle. It allows deoxygenated
blood to flow from right ventricle to the pulmonary
artery and finally to the lungs.
(4) Aortic valve: It is situated between left ventricle and
aorta. It controls the flow of oxygenated blood from
left ventricle into the aorta and finally to whole body.

The heart wall consists of three layers:

(1) Pericardium: It is outer layer of heart which keeps

the surface moist and prevents friction during heart
beats.
(2) Myocardium: It is the middle layer of the heart and
Figure 3 : Construction of heart
main muscle. The muscle is automatic in action

Page | 2
 Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi
(contracting and relaxing).
(3) Endocardium: It is the inner layer of heart. It provides smooth flow of blood.

Blood vessels:

Blood is carried to the various parts of the body by blood vessels. There are three types of blood vessels:

1. Arteries: thick walled and carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the other parts of body.
2. Veins: thin walled and carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart.
3. Capillaries: are the smallest and least level of blood vessels.

The circulatory system:

The heart drives (pumps) the blood through blood

vessels of the circulatory system (fig-4). It pumps 72
times per minute (on average) and sends blood
through every part of body. Heart is a two stage
pump. The first stage is atrium which collects blood
from hydraulic system and pumps it into the second
stage called ventricle. In this process, the heart
pumps blood to the lungs and through the systematic
circulation to the other part of the body.

In the pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood

Figure 4 : The circulatory system of mammals
flows from right vertical to the lungs, where it is
oxygenated and give off 𝐶𝑂2 .The arterial (oxygenated) blood then flows through the pulmonary veins to the left
atrium.

The blood flowing into the vessels of the GI (gastrointestinal) track picks up nutrients and water. The portion of
the blood that flows into the kidneys is cleaned of impurities and waste products, which are exerted through the
bladder and urethra. Kidney acts as a blood filter. The blood gives up much 𝑂2 to tissues and deoxygenated blood
returns to the heart through veins.

Systole and Diastole:

The heart serves as a pump because of its ability to contract under an electrical stimulus. When an electrical
triggering signal is received, the heart contract, starting in the atria and after some time the ventricle starts to
contract. The ventricular contraction is known as systole and its relaxation is called diastole.

Nervous system:

Nervous system regulates our automatic control system. It control heart beats, gland secretion, Gl system etc. it
receives data from the outside world and certain internal organs through cells that function as sensitive to pain,
heat and pressure.

Page | 3
 Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi
The central nervous system (CNS) gathers, assimilates, and integrate data from outside world and it process, store
and gather information from data. It makes decision and control locomotors system of our body. It also include
spinal cord. Human brain is the central processor system of CNS.
[

Resting and action potentials:

Cells are surrounded by body fluids. These fluids are conductive solutions contains charged atoms called ions.
The principal ions are 𝑁𝑎+ , 𝐾 + , and chloride ions.

The membrane of excitable cells readily permits entry of 𝐾 + and cloride

ions but effectively block the entry of 𝑁𝑎+ into the cell.

The inability of 𝑁𝑎+ to penetrate the membrane results two conditions.

1) Concentration of 𝑁𝑎+ , inside the cell is much lower than the outside.
Since 𝑁𝑎+ is positive, this tend to make outside of the cell more
positive than inside.
2) In an attempt to balance electric charge, more 𝐾 + enter into the cell,
Figure 5 : Formation process of resting potential
causing higher concentration of 𝐾 + in the inside than outside.

But the charge balance cannot be achieved, but equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the
membrane and it is known as resting potential of the cell and is maintained
until some kind of disturbance upsets the equilibrium. Its value is ranging  60
to 100 mV. A cell in the resting state is called polarized as is shown in fig-5.

When a section of cell membrane is excited by some energy, the membrane

change its characteristics. It begins to allow some 𝑁𝑎+ to enter into the cell,
and constitute ionic current. The flow of current dramatically reduce the
barrier membrane (fig-6). Some 𝐾 + ions leave the cell. Therefore, the inside
of the cell is more positive than outside of the cell, as shown in fig-6. This
potential is known as action potential, and its value is +20 mV. Figure 6: Formation of action potential
(Depolarization)
A cell that has been excited and displays an action
potential is called a depolarized cell. The process is
known as depolarization.

Once the rush of Na+ has stopped, the ionic current

that lowered the barrier to Na + ions are no longer
present and the membrane reverts back to its
original state. This process is longer, but by an
active process, the sodium ions are quickly
transported to the outside of the cell and resting
potentials is developed. This is called Figure 7 : Polarization and depolarization of cell potential
repolarization (all are shown in fig-7).

Page | 4
 Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi
Following the generation of an active potential, there is a brief period of time during which the cell cannot
respond to any new stimulus. This period is called refractory period.
Actin Myosin head
Theory of muscle contraction (molecular basis):

When a cell is excited and generate an action potential

ionic current begin to flow. This process can, in turn,
excite neighboring cells. Thus the wave of excitation
while propagating in the muscle causes its contraction.

The sliding filament hypothesis of muscle contraction is

the most accepted model as shown in fig-8. During a
muscle contraction, each myosin head extends outward
and binds tightly to a thin filament called actin and
forming cross bridge. The myosin heads undergoes a
conformational change that move the filament
approximately 10 nm toward the center of sarcomere.
The movement of hundreds of filaments produce the
desired length contraction. It is estimated that a single
filament in a muscle cell can be moved several hundred
nanometers during a period of as short as 50 Figure 8 : Molecular hypothesis of muscle contraction
milliseconds.

How to measure bioelectric signals:

Bioelectric currents are due to the movement of positive and negative ions within conductive fluid. The
bioelectric signals of clinical interest, often recorded, are produced by coordinated activity of large group of cells.

When cells are excited, the charge tend to migrate through the body fluid towards the unexcited cells area. It
constitutes an electric current and hence set up a potential difference between various portions of the body,
including its outer surface (skin). Such potential difference can be picked up by placing two conductive plates
(electrode) at any two points on the surface of the body with the help of a sensitive instrument. These potentials
are highly significant for diagnosis and therapy.

Blood pressure:
The blood pressure becomes maximum during cardiac ejection is called systolic pressure, and the pressure
becomes minimum at the end of ventricular relaxation is termed as diastolic pressure.
The mean arterial pressure over one cardiac cycle is approximated by one-third of pulse pressure (difference
between systolic and diastolic pressure) to the diastolic pressure.

The nominal value of circulatory system:

 Arterial system ------- 30 – 300 mmHg

 Venous system ------- 5 – 15 mmHg
 Pulmonary system ------- 6 – 25 mmHg
Page | 5
 Physics of Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi
Blood pressure measurement:
1. Direct method.
2. Indirect method.
Indirect method:

Direct method consist of simple equipment and cause very little discomfort but they are intermittent and less
informative. Indirect method based on the adjustment of a known external pressure equal to the vascular pressure
so that the vessel just collapses.
Direct method:
Direct method provides continuous and much more reliable information about the absolute vascular pressure from
probe or transducers inserted directly into the blood stream. But additional information is obtained at the cost of
increased disturbance to the patient and complexity of equipment.
Indirect method of pressure measurement (Korotkoff method):

It uses a cuff over the limb containing the artery. It is used to measure systolic and diastolic pressures. Initially,
the cuff pressure is raised to a level
well above the systolic pressure so
that the flow of blood completely
terminated. The pressure in the cuff is
then released at a particular rate.

When the cuff pressure reaches a

level which is just below the systolic
pressure, a brief flow of blood occurs.
If the cuff pressure is allowed to fall
further just below the diastolic
pressure level, the flow in the artery
becomes normal.

Now it is important to determine the Figure 9: Korotkoff method of blood pressure measurement
exact instant at which the artery just
opens and when it is fully opened. The sounds first appear (fig-9) when the cuff pressure falls to just below the
systolic pressure.

Sounds are produced by the brief turbulent flow terminated by a sharp collapse of vessel and persist as the cuff
pressure continues to fall. The sounds disappear at just below the diastolic pressure, when flow is no longer
interrupted. The sound picked up by a microphone and pressure at systolic values and diastolic values are
measured from the pressure gauge attached with the cuff system.

Page | 6