POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN

WATER, HYGIENE

AND SANITATION

MODULE 3

WATER SUPPLY
 Table of Contents

Introduction to Water Supply ………………………………………………….Pg. 3

Water and Public Health…………………………………………………………Pg. 18

Water Sources and their Characteristics………………………………..………Pg. 35

Water Pollution……………………………………………………………..…….Pg. 55

Water Treatment Technologies for Large-scale Water Supply………………Pg. 72

Operation and Maintenance of Water Treatment and Supply Systems……Pg. 89

Distribution, Leakage and Illegal Connections……………………………..…Pg. 107

Assignment ..…………………………………………………………………..…Pg. 117

 Executive Summary

Access to water and sanitation is one of the major challenges for the 21st century. According to
WHO (2004), 1.1 billion people across the world do not have access to safe water and 2.4 billion
people do not have access to basic sanitation facilities. As a consequence every year around 4
million people, the majority of who are children, die from water and sanitation related diseases.
Water is not only important for public health, but also for general livelihoods: crop production
(70 to 80% of all water used is for crop production), livestock production, industry, commerce
and daily life depend on access to water. Water-supply conditions therefore affect health, hunger,
and poverty and community development.

This disastrous access to water and sanitation is due partly to a lack of infrastructure but also to
poor management that creates waste, contamination and degradation of the environment. Water
shortages may lead to tensions between individuals, communities or countries, which can evolve
into conflicts. At the same time, the demand for water is increasing due to population growth,
urbanization (rural exodus) and industrialization. Urbanization has also created extremely poor
sanitary conditions.

Most of these problems can be solved through comprehensive management of water resources
and demand. Water is a finite resource that must be managed with a global vision that works at
three levels: international to define rules to protect water resources and to avoid international
conflicts; national to apply defined rules and to define national water-access policies; and local

to develop local initiatives to ensure communities’ water access.

The Post graduate Diploma in WASH which is a eight module course which starts with
introduction of the basic concepts in WASH, Then taking the students to other topics like Water
Supply, Communicable Diseases, Sanitation and Waste Management and finally embarking the
final two modules on urban Wash since currently more than half of world population live in
urban area, and it’s in urban areas where the problem of poor sanitation and waste management
is severely felt.
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY

Introduction

Water is one of the essential requirements for life. All living things need water for their
survival. Water is used for a variety of purposes, including drinking, food preparation,
irrigation and manufacturing. Although water covers more than 70% of the Earth’s
surface, less than 1% of that resource is available as fresh water – and this is not evenly
distributed throughout the world. More than one billion people (one thousand million)
worldwide, mostly in developing countries, lack safe drinking water. Apart from the
scarcity of water, there are many other challenges in providing a safe, adequate and
reliable water supply in many parts of the world.

The basic need for water

According to national and international guidelines, the quantity of water available to all
people should be 50–100 litres per person per day, or an absolute minimum of 20 litres
per person per day (UNDP, 2006). The water must be safe for drinking and other
household uses. Drinking water must be free from pathogenic (disease-causing) micro-
organisms (tiny living organisms that you can see only with a microscope), and free
from chemical and physical contaminants that constitute a danger to a person’s health.
It must also be free from colour and odour. Water must be within safe physical reach, in
or near the house, school or health facility. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO) the water source has to be within 1000 m of the home and collection time
should not exceed 30 minutes (UNDESA, 2014).

As well as being physically accessible, water should also be reasonably priced and
affordable for everyone. Buying water should not reduce a person’s capacity to buy
other essential goods. This means that the cost of water must be kept low and essential
amounts of water must sometimes be provided free. In some rural communities of
Ethiopia water is provided free, typically from a hand pump managed by a local Water
Committee. Occasionally, a charge may be levied by the Water Committee. In urban
areas, where water is provided by water utilities, people will pay for the water they use.

The different uses of water

Water is used in many ways: for domestic purposes, in industry, in commercial

establishments (such as hotels and restaurants), in farming (for agriculture and animal-
rearing), and for emergency uses such as fire-fighting. Note that the quality and quantity
of water for each use is different. Water for domestic purposes needs to be of high
quality but is used in relatively small amounts, whereas usage in industry or agriculture
could cope with water of a lower quality but the demand is much higher in terms of
quantity.

Domestic use

We use water in our homes, both indoors and outdoors. Uses include for drinking, food
preparation, washing hands, bathing/showering, brushing teeth, toilet flushing (if there
is a flush toilet), cleaning, washing clothes and dishes, and watering plants.

Water is essential for the proper functioning of the body. Human beings can live for
several days without food, but only three or four days without water. Each person
needs to consume about 2–4.5 litres of water per day (depending on the climate and
level of activity) for their body to function properly. (In the next study session you will
look at how the body uses water.) In all, each of us needs 30–40 litres of water for
domestic purposes, including drinking, food preparation, cooking and washing (WHO,
1997).

The quality of water required for domestic use has to be high, to safeguard health.
Piped water supplies in towns and cities that come from well-operated drinking water
treatment plants should be safe to drink. For non-domestic purposes, water does not
have to be of such high quality and other sources may be appropriate. This is the case at
Haramaya University’s Harar Campus, in Misraq Hararghe, Oromia, where students
use water from two shallow wells for bathing and washing their clothes, and water
supplied by the town’s drinking water treatment plant for drinking and cooking
purposes.

Irrigation

About 70% of water used globally is in irrigation. In Ethiopia, the total area under
irrigation is increasing and irrigation channels like the one shown in Figure 1.1 can be
seen in some parts of the country. Spray irrigation, where pressurised water is sprayed
over plants to feed them, is often used on large farms (Figure 1.2), but greater efficiency
of water use can be achieved by drip-feed irrigation systems (Figure 1.3). In drip-feed
irrigation, water is fed to the roots of plants through narrow pipes dripping water onto
the soil surface near the base of the plant. This takes the water directly to the growing
crops and reduces losses by evaporation.

Figure 1.1 An irrigation channel Figure 1.2 Spray irrigation in a sugar

cane plantation in the Finchaa Valley,
Oromia Region.
Figure 1.3 A drip-feed irrigation system. Black plastic pipes run alongside the small plants,
providing each of them with water.

Industrial use

In many industries water is essential. Some industries use piped water supplied from
water treatment plants while others draw the water themselves from underground
sources and treat it on site for use. The water may be used either as part of the
production process or as an ingredient, where water is one of the components of the
product, for example in a soft-drink plant (Figure 1.4). In the production process, it can
be used for cooling, washing, diluting, boiling or cooking, transportation of raw
materials (for example, moving potatoes in a food factory), and as a cleaning agent.

Figure 1.4 A soft-drink production plant in Ethiopia.

Mining use

Mining activities use huge amounts of water in processing ore to extract minerals. In
Ethiopia, mining for gold and other valuable metals is an increasingly important part of
the national economy (Figure 1.5) and would not be possible without the use of water.

Figure 1.5 Mining for gold in Okote, Oromia Region.

Use in power generation

The rivers of Ethiopia have enormous potential for generating hydroelectric power
(HEP). HEP uses the energy from moving water and converts this to electrical energy.
The development of HEP has transformed energy supply in recent years and more
schemes are under construction or planned. However, it is important to realise that in
HEP the water is not ‘used’ in the sense of being consumed, because after passing
through the HEP plant the water continues on its path in a river channel.

Another process under development in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia is the use of
geothermal energy, in which energy is derived from the heat of the Earth. This process
involves drilling down into hot layers of underground rock and using this heat to
convert water into steam, which is then used to drive generators to produce electricity.
Figure 1.6 shows a geothermal electricity generation plant.

Figure 1.6 A geothermal power plant.

Aquacultural use

Water can also be used in aquaculture, which is the farming of aquatic organisms such
as fish, crustaceans and molluscs for food. Fish farming (Figure 1.7) obviously needs
water for the fish to live in! In this case, water is used to hatch fish eggs under
controlled conditions, and the fish are grown to maturity in tanks or ponds, before
being sold for food. Although not currently practised in Ethiopia, the business potential
for aquaculture has been recognised and it may be introduced in the future (Rothuis
et al., 2012).

7 Recreational uses

Water plays an important role in recreational activities and here again it is not
consumed in the process of its use. Boat trips are popular on many of Ethiopia’s lakes
and several resorts have been built on their shores. An example is shown in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8 A resort at Babogaya Lake near Bishoftu.

How water gets to people living in towns

We obtain the water we use from three basic sources: groundwater, surface water and
rainwater. Groundwater includes all water that is found underground within the rocks.
Surface water means water in rivers, lakes, pools and ponds. Rainwater replenishes
both groundwater and surface water, and can also be collected directly. These sources
are discussed further in Study Session 3. For the purpose of this introductory study
session, here is a brief summary.

Urban water sources

In urban areas, the water supply originates from one of the following basic sources:

A spring :( a point where groundwater emerges at the surface of the ground), from
where the water can be piped to consumers. A spring may flow throughout the year or
only at times.

A well or borehole: These may supply individual residences or a large number of

houses where the water is delivered through a network of pipes. In addition to this,
institutions such as schools, health facilities, religious establishments, small commercial
enterprises and industries may have their own water supply system from hand-dug or
deep wells.

Surface water from rivers and lakes, which may be abstracted directly or stored in a
reservoir created by building a dam across a river. Abstraction means taking water
from the source so that it can be used.

Springs and wells are considered improved sources of water if they are constructed and
used in such a way that they adequately protect the water from contamination,
especially by faecal matter. Spring or well water is generally used with minimal or no
treatment. Surface water is an unimproved source and will require some form of
treatment before it is safe to use for drinking. In larger towns and cities, surface water is
treated in a water treatment plant before being distributed to consumers. The term raw
water is used to describe the water before it is treated. Figure 1.9 shows the plant at
Legedadi that supplies water to residents of Addis Ababa. (You will learn about water
treatment in Study Session 5.)

Figure 1.9 The drinking water treatment plant in Legedadi.

Delivering the water to consumers

In towns and cities with a water treatment plant, the treated water is taken to
consumers through a network of pipes and reservoirs. Figure 1.10 is a diagram of a
water distribution network of this type. (Water distribution networks are discussed in
more details later.)
Figure 1.10 A simple water distribution network.

From Figure 1.10 you can see that transmission mains convey the treated water from a
treatment works to service reservoirs (Figure 1.11). These reservoirs balance the
fluctuating demands of users against the steady output of the treatment works and also
serve as a back-up supply should there be a breakdown at the plant.

Figure 1.11 A concrete service reservoir in Janemeda, Addis Ababa.

Why do you think demand for water will fluctuate?

People generally use more water in the mornings and evenings when they are washing
and cooking. Usage during the night while people are asleep will be much lower.
The capacity of the service reservoirs should be at least 36 hours of the water demand in
the area they serve. The service reservoirs are usually made of concrete and often, for
reasons of economy and appearance, are sunk wholly or partly below ground level. The
reservoir needs to be positioned on high ground to provide an adequate flow by gravity
to the distribution area, and to create sufficient pressure to raise the water to the top of
buildings. In flat areas, water towers (Figure 1.12) may be used in place of service
reservoirs. (A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank. Water is
pumped up into the tank, which is constructed at a height sufficient to pressurise the
water supply system so that water can be distributed by gravity).

Figure 1.12 A water tower in Addis Ababa.

From the service reservoir, the water is taken by distribution mains to different areas.
Distribution mains consist of a network of pipes of various sizes laid beneath the road,
footpaths or verges. The water is taken to houses and other premises where water is
needed. Here, the water goes to a tank in the roof-space or on the roof so that it is able
to flow by gravity to all the taps in the establishment. The taps can be within a house or
outside (Figures 1.13(a) and 1.13(b)). Sometimes water can be delivered by a tanker that
pumps the water to the household’s water tank, or people collect water from the tanker
using jerry cans. In urban areas, public water points are a very common water source
for many people (Figure 1.13(c)).
Figure 1.13(a) A tap inside a house. Figure 1.13(b) A tap located in a yard and
shared by several households.

Figure 1.13(c) A public water point at Adi Sibhat, Tigray.

Continuity of supply is important so that people can be confident that water will be
available when they need it. Where the supply of water is not continuous, many
households have storage tanks to accumulate water for use when the supply is off. It is
important to check the cleanliness of the storage tank regularly, and to clean and
disinfect it as necessary.

In the case of seasonal discontinuity, users may be forced to obtain water from
alternative sources, which are often of inferior quality and far away. As a consequence,
the health of people will be put at risk by poor water quality and low quantity. In
addition, considerable time and effort are spent on collecting water.

In many towns and cities in Ethiopia, if you turn on a water tap at any random time it is
quite likely that you will not get any water. Why do you think this happens?
It may be because demand for water exceeds the supply available at that time. It can
also happen due to a power failure or poor maintenance.

The challenges for urban water supply

Ethiopia just like other developing nations has plenty of water resources but the
available water is not distributed evenly across the country and the amount varies with
seasons and years. The challenge in any situation is to maintain a year-round supply
that is adequate to meet people’s needs. To ensure that supply meets demand the
source of the water must be carefully chosen, taking into account present and future
demand for water, and the costs. The cost of water supplies is heavily influenced by the
distance of reliable water sources from towns. The challenge for many towns is finding
nearby water sources.

Planning for present and future demand has to consider population growth. The
demand for water is increasing in cities and towns due to an ever-growing population
and the migration of people from rural areas to towns in search of jobs and a better life.
There are also increasing demands from industrial and commercial development. The
quantity of water required for domestic use depends not only on the number of people
but also on their habits and culture, and on how accessible the water is. On average,
Ethiopians in urban areas use only about 15 litres of water a day for their needs (MoH,
2001; Ali and Terfa, 2012).

Why is there such a difference between the WHO estimate and the daily water
consumption per person in Ethiopian towns? The shortfall is perhaps due to the
shortage of private water taps, which means that people have to collect water from
public taps. If people have a piped water supply in their home they are likely to wash
and bathe more frequently, and some may have water-using appliances like washing
machines. As water supply systems improve and access increases, the consumption of
water will increase also. It is therefore important for water supply planners to consider
the expected changes in society and in living standards. Planning of water supply
projects should also consider the water requirements of schools, hospitals and other
health facilities, churches and mosques, hotels, public washrooms, and other
community facilities.

The government of Ethiopia has set targets of 100% coverage of safe water supply in
urban areas and 98% coverage in rural areas. These targets originated from the
Universal Access Plan of 2005 and the Growth and Transformation Plan of 2010, and
have been adopted by the One WASH National Programme (OWNP), which is being
implemented with major funding from government and international donors (FDRE,
2013). The planning criteria for water supply coverage in the OWNP are:

 rural water supply: 15 litres/person/day, within 1.5 km radius

 urban water supply: 20 litres/person/day, within 0.5 km radius (FDRE, 2013).
As you can see, these figures are still below the WHO recommendation and are more
than current usage, indicating the scale of the challenge ahead. The targets for Ethiopia
are that 4.4 million urban inhabitants and 26.6 million rural inhabitants, nearly 30,000
schools, and more than 7500 health posts/centres will gain access to safe drinking water
(FDRE, 2013). Progress towards meeting these targets is described in Study Session 3.

At the beginning of this study session you read that water supply must be accessible
and affordable. It is important that affordability extends to all sectors of society,
including vulnerable people. Vulnerable groups include low-income households and
households with many young children, older people, disabled people and people with
long-term illness such as HIV/AIDS. Equitable access to water supply for all these
groups should also be taken into consideration, especially when considering the cost of
water as these vulnerable people usually have low income.

There are still many challenges ahead but the following changes will all contribute to
future success:

 an increase in funds for the expansion of water supply services to satisfy the
demand of growing populations, particularly in small towns
  a reduction in bureaucracy to facilitate the spending of funds that are committed
(currently only around 60% of budgeted finances are actually spent)
 a reduction in the turnover of personnel, and an increase in human resource
capacity and expertise at different levels
 better coordination between the different stakeholders (for instance, there is lack
of coordination between the water sector, telecommunication department and
the road authority; because of this, water pipes are frequently damaged during
activities such as laying down telephone and internet lines, and during road
construction)
 the presence of more experts to monitor sector performance at all levels
 Better information management systems, giving early warning of requirements.

Summary of the chapter

In Study Session 1, you have learned that:

 Water is essential for life. Drinking water must be safe, of adequate quantity,
accessible and affordable.
 Water has several uses of which the most important are for personal
consumption and cleanliness, for irrigation, and for industry. The quality of
water acceptable for the various uses can be different.
 Urban water supply may originate from springs, wells or surface water. Water
from springs and wells is generally used without any treatment, while surface
water needs treatment before it is safe to drink.
 In an urban water distribution network, transmission mains take water from
water treatment plants to service reservoirs. Service reservoirs are located on
high ground so that water flows by gravity through distribution mains to the
water consumers. Where there is no high ground, water towers are constructed
and used.
  Water supply planning must take account of present and future water demand
by people, and by industrial and commercial development. Domestic use is
likely to increase as living standards improve. Planning also needs to consider
the needs of schools, health facilities and other institutions.
 There are many challenges facing urban water supply in Ethiopia and several
factors that can contribute to overcoming them, including increased funding,
reduced bureaucracy, capacity building, better coordination between the
stakeholders involved, and better information management.

Chapter 2

WATER AND PUBLIC HEALTH

Introduction

In Study chapter you read about the need for an adequate, safe and accessible water
supply. If there is an insufficient quantity of water, or if the water is contaminated, this
can have serious effects on people’s health and can be the cause of many different
illnesses – even death. This, of course, impacts on the economic well-being of the
community. In this study session you will look more closely at what is meant by safe
and unsafe water, and you will learn why water is important for human health. You
will consider the various classifications of diseases associated with water and examine
the situation in Ethiopia in relation to these diseases.

Water for human consumption

Water for human consumption must be palatable and safe. Palatable water is pleasant
to drink, meaning it is completely clear and free from tastes, odours and colours. Safe
drinking water, also known as potable water, is defined as water that does not contain
harmful or potentially harmful substances and does not present any risk to human
health. Harmful substances can be in the form of micro-organisms or chemicals. Unsafe
water is a cause of bad health for people of all age groups. There are, however, some
groups of people who are at greater risk. These include infants and young children,
older people and people who are debilitated by diseases (such as HIV/AIDS).

Importance of water for human health

Water makes up about 70% of an adult human being’s weight. In the human body,
blood contains about 82% water and our brain is made up of about 95% water. Losing
just 2% of our water content can result in signs of dehydration, fuzzy short-term
memory and difficulty in focusing on smaller print or words displayed on a computer
screen.

Water has several roles in relation to human health:

  Water plays an important part in keeping us and our environment clean. It is
essential for good personal hygiene. We use water to wash our hands and bodies,
and also to wash places in our homes that could possibly harbour harmful micro-
organisms (such as toilets).
 Many of our foods are prepared with water and others naturally contain large
amounts of water (e.g. milk is made up of approximately 88% water; eggs 66%;
fish 80%; potatoes 75%; and beef 77%).
 Inside the body, water serves as a lubricant during digestion of our food. Water
in saliva facilitates chewing and swallowing, and the food goes down into the
stomach with the help of water. The functions of all the body’s cells and organs
depend on water.
 Water is involved in transporting valuable nutrients around the body in the
bloodstream. Nutrients are broken down in the digestive system and transported
to where they are needed in the body.
 Water is used by the body to remove harmful toxins and wastes through
urination and perspiration. Water also helps to reduce constipation. Drinking
enough water helps body organs such as the kidneys and the liver to get rid of
waste products.

 Water helps to regulate body temperature. The body controls over-heating

through perspiration. When sweat evaporates from the surface of the skin, it
takes heat from the body and produces a cooling effect.

Diseases associated with water

The majority of water-related health problems are caused by infectious agents that can
invade the body and cause disease. They include pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and parasites. Infectious agents can cause disease when they are
ingested (eaten or swallowed) or otherwise come into contact with the human body.
The different ways in which water is involved in this contact can be used to classify the
diseases into four main groups: waterborne, water-washed, water-based and water-
related diseases.

Waterborne diseases
Waterborne diseases are caused by people ingesting water contaminated by human or
animal faeces containing pathogens. Such diseases can also be caused by food that has
been prepared using water contaminated with pathogens. The diseases are caused only
when the infectious agent enters the body. Waterborne diseases include most of the
enteric (related to the intestine) and diarrhoeal diseases caused by bacteria and viruses.
Bacteria are unicellular organisms (made of one cell) and are very small, ranging from
0.5 to 5.0 micrometres (µm) in size. When seen under a microscope, they have different
shapes, such as spheres, rods, or spirals. Viruses are microscopic infectious particles,
much smaller than bacteria that can only reproduce when inside the living cells of
organisms. Waterborne diseases also include some caused by protozoa (single-celled
micro-organisms that are much larger than bacteria, usually between 10 and 50 µm) and
helminths. Helminths are a general term for worms, usually applied to those that are
parasites on humans and other animals. Table 2.1 shows examples of waterborne
diseases and their causes.

Table 2.1 Examples of waterborne diseases.

Category of infectious Disease Infectious agent

agent

Bacterial Cholera Vibrio cholerae

Bacterial dysentery Campylobacter jejuni

(Acute) gastroenteritis Various

Shigellosis Shigella species

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi

Viral Viral gastroenteritis Rotavirus and others

Viral hepatitis Hepatitis A and E

viruses

Poliomyelitis Polio virus

Protozoal Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histolytica

Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia

Helminths Ascariasis (roundworm) Ascaris lumbricoides

Dracunculiasis (Guinea Dracunculus medinensis

worm)

Trichuriasis (whipworm) Trichuris trichiura

Although drinking contaminated water is a very significant route of transmission for

many of the diseases listed above, they may also be transmitted by other means such as
by eating contaminated food. Food can become contaminated by poor hygiene during
preparation. Flies are also important transmitters of contamination from faeces to food.
There are other possible routes of transmission, including through droplets and
aerosols, if these are ingested. We use our fingers for eating and frequently put our
hands to our mouths; touching contaminated surfaces can also be a route for disease
transmission.

How could poor personal hygiene by people preparing food cause disease?
If cooks do not thoroughly wash their hands before touching food, they could easily
transfer contamination by infectious agents. When the contaminated food is eaten, this
could transmit disease to the consumers.

In all these cases, the origin of the contamination is faeces of people who are already
infected by the disease. Some diseases may be transmitted via the faeces of infected
animals. In places without adequate sanitation and where people defecate in the open,
waterborne disease is far more likely to occur. By sanitation, we mean the prevention of
human contact with wastes. If faeces are effectively separated from people then the
transmission routes of waterborne diseases are cut off.

Water-washed diseases

Water-washed diseases are those that occur as a result of inadequate quantities of water
being available for good personal hygiene. Good personal hygiene habits include:

 washing hands with soap, or using an alternative such as ash, after using the
latrine
 washing hands before preparing and/or eating food
 washing the body frequently
 cleaning the teeth at least once a day
 Washing the hair with soap or shampoo at least once a week.
Figure 2.1 shows the steps in a thorough technique for handwashing.
Figure 2.1 Handwashing techniques.

Water-washed diseases are sometimes called ‘water-scarce’ diseases because they are a
problem if water supply is limited. They include fungal skin diseases such as ringworm,
ophthalmic diseases (diseases of the eye) such as trachoma and conjunctivitis, and
infections caused or carried by lice, mites, fleas or ticks. Two examples of these diseases
are scabies (caused by mites) and louse-borne epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia
prowazekii bacteria and transmitted largely by body lice).

Adequate quantities of clean water can prevent such diseases affecting a population.
Why do you think this is so?

Because if plenty of water is available, people are able to wash frequently and the
disease-causing organisms will be washed away.

Water-based diseases

Water-based diseases are caused by parasites that spend part of their life cycle in water.
Water-based diseases such as bilharzia (also known as schistosomiasis – this will be
described in Section 2.3.3), and dracunculiasis are caused by helminths. Dracunculiasis,
or Guinea worm disease, is transmitted by drinking water that is contaminated with
copepods that contain the larvae of the Guinea worm (Figure 2.2). Copepods are very
small crustaceans, sometimes known as water fleas, that are found in the sea and in
fresh water. The Guinea worm larvae get into the water by emerging through the skin
of an infected person while they are washing or bathing. To prevent dracunculiasis
infection, effective water treatment is needed. A global campaign to eradicate Guinea
worm has made great progress in reducing the incidence of the disease and it is now
found in only a few countries in the world. Ethiopia is one of them, but the disease is
now rare; only three cases were reported during 2014 (WHO, 2015). (Note that
transmission of dracunculiasis requires drinking of contaminated water and it can,
therefore, be classified as both a waterborne and a water-based disease.)

Figure 2.2 Guinea worm: the parasite that causes the disease dracunculiasis. The worm is 1–2
mm wide and can grow up to 100 cm long.

Water-related diseases

Water-related diseases are transmitted by insects that breed or feed in or near water
bodies. The best-known example is malaria, which is spread by the Anopheles mosquito
(this disease will be described in Section 2.3.2). Water-related diseases are not associated
with lack of access to clean drinking water or to hygiene and sanitation services. The
significant factor is the presence of standing water, which provides a habitat for the
insects to breed. Other water-related diseases include onchocerciasis (spread by
blackfly), dengue fever and yellow fever (both spread by mosquitoes).

Common diseases associated with water in Ethiopia

The government of Ethiopia is taking steps to improve the quality of water supply in
urban areas of the country, but many people suffer from communicable diseases
associated with water. Data from Harari Region are used here as an example. Table 2.2
shows the diseases that were most prevalent in Harari Region in 2013/2014.

Table 2.2 The prevalence of diseases associated with water in Harari Region in 2013/2014.
(Harari Regional Health Bureau, 2014)

Disease Number of people

affected

Diarrhoeal diseases (e.g. rotavirus infection, cholera) 6345

Malaria 3861

Infection by intestinal parasites 462

Trachoma 432

Amoebic dysentery 365

The sections that follow describe these diseases in more detail.

2.3.1 Diarrhoeal diseases

Diarrhoea is a symptom of many waterborne diseases and is the cause of 11% of deaths
among children aged under 5 across the world, with a reported total of 2195 deaths
each day (Liu et al., 2012). The global major causes of death in children under 5 are
shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Diarrhoea kills more children under 5 years of age across the world than malaria,
measles and AIDS combined. (Liu et al., 2012)

Worldwide, 88% of diarrhoeal disease is attributable to unsafe water, poor hygiene and
inadequate sanitation. In Ethiopia, 15% of all deaths are from diarrhoea, with the
highest death rate among young children (World Life Expectancy, n.d.). Children,
especially those under 5 years of age, are vulnerable to infection because they
frequently put their unwashed fingers in their mouths.

One important example of a diarrhoeal disease is cholera. Cholera is an acute bacterial

infection of the intestinal tract that produces watery diarrhoea. It is caused by the
bacterium Vibrio cholerae (Figure 2.4) and causes severe loss of body fluids through
diarrhoea, with the stool looking like rice-water. Without treatment, the disease can
quickly lead to acute dehydration and death. Cholera is a worldwide problem, common
in areas that lack basic sanitation. It can also be a problem in emergency situations (as
you will learn in Study Session 14). It can be prevented by the provision of safe drinking
water, effective sanitation and good hygiene behaviour, including food hygiene.
Figure 2.4 Vibrio cholerae (0.5–0.8 µm wide, and 1.4–2.6 µm long).

Malaria

Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito and caused
by the pathogenic protozoa Plasmodium. When a mosquito bites an infected individual it
sucks up blood containing the parasite. If it then bites a healthy person, the protozoa is
transferred into their blood and they can become ill. The mosquitoes breed in standing
water such as swamps, lakes, pools and open channels dug for crop irrigation; even a
puddle can provide enough water for mosquitoes to breed. Only the female mosquitoes
take human blood, which is needed to develop their eggs. The most likely time for
mosquitoes to bite is in the early evening or at night.

Can you think of ways to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes?

Wearing long-sleeved clothing and using insect repellants helps to keep people from
being bitten. At night, mosquito nets (preferably impregnated with permethrin, which
is toxic to mosquitoes) or various sprays or vapours can be used to keep them away.

Parasitic worm infections

People become infected with intestinal parasitic worms (helminths) through water or
food that has been contaminated with faecal matter from an infected person. Infection
occurs when these parasites get into the intestinal tract of a new host. Even though there
are numerous parasites that infect humans, those most common in Ethiopia are the
roundworms that cause ascariasis (Figure 2.5) and trichuriasis (Figure 2.6). Both of these
diseases are spread through ingestion of contaminated food and water, and also poor
hygiene behaviour. Children are more likely to be affected because their immune
systems are not fully developed; they constitute important reservoirs of the infections.

Figure 2.5 Ascaris lumbricoides Figure 2.6 Trichuris trichiura

roundworm: these intestinal parasites can roundworm: these parasites can reach 4
be very large – up to 35 cm long. cm in length.
Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, was mentioned earlier in this study session. It
is also a disease caused by parasitic worms but in this case they do not get into the body
from ingesting contaminated water or food. This is a water-based, not a waterborne
disease. The Schistosoma parasitic worm enters the body by penetrating through the
skin. It has a complicated life cycle and spends part of its life in a human body and part
in a particular species of water snail, as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Life cycle of the Schistosoma parasite.

The eggs of the worm are released into water bodies through the urine or faeces of an
infected person and they then infect the snails, the intermediate host. Snails are more
often found in slow-flowing or standing water where water plants are growing, rather
than in rapidly flowing water. If the environmental conditions are not suitable for the
snails, they will not survive and the disease cycle can be broken. In preventing water-
based diseases like schistosomiasis, it is important to focus interventions on still waters
of lakes and ponds and water channels used for irrigation, where vegetation is growing.

Trachoma

Trachoma is a bacterial eye infection that is made worse by poor hygiene due to lack of
adequate water for washing. Repeated infections can lead to blindness if left untreated.
Trachoma affects women and children more than adult men (WHO, 2002). It spreads
easily from child to child or from child to mother, either directly by hand contact or
indirectly on clothing, or by flies that land on the face of an infected child. A 2007 study
found that 40% of Ethiopian children in the age group 1–9 years were suffering from
active trachoma infection (Berhane et al., 2007). Good personal hygiene and
encouraging children to wash their faces can significantly reduce incidence of the
disease.

Amoebic dysentery

Amoebic dysentery, also called amoebiasis, is a disease caused by the protozoa

Entamoeba histolytica (Figure 2.8). It is acquired by ingesting infectious cysts (a dormant
form of the organism that helps it survive in unfavourable environments) through
water or food items that are contaminated.

Figure 2.8 Entamoeba histolytica, up to 60 µm in size.

Water quality assessment

Many analytical methods are used to test for the presence and concentration of possible
contaminants in water. Concentration is the measure of the quantity of a substance
dissolved in a known volume of water. For water quality assessment, the units used are
usually milligrams per litre, which is written as mg/l, or mg l–1.

Microbiological tests

As you have been reading, there are many different types of pathogenic micro-
organisms that may be present in water but it would be very difficult and time-
consuming to test for all of them. The source of the pathogens is usually human faeces;
therefore, tests have been devised that detect the presence of faecal contamination. If
faecal contamination is found, this indicates that pathogenic organisms may be present.
The most widely used tests for faecal contamination are for total coliforms, faecal
coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Coliforms are a group of bacteria found in human
and animal faeces and also in soil. ‘Total coliforms’ includes all bacteria in this group.
The presence of ‘total coliforms’ indicates contamination of some sort but, because of
their relatively wide distribution, they cannot be used to confirm if the contamination is
from faeces. Faecal coliforms are a sub-set of total coliforms and, as the name suggests,
are typically found in faeces. E. coli is a type of faecal coliform bacterium that is
commonly found in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals. If E. coli is
present in a water sample this indicates faecal pollution and the possible presence of
pathogenic organisms; the absence of E. coli from a sample shows that the chances of
faecal contamination of the water, and therefore of pathogens being present, are
negligible. Thus the presence of E. coli in a water sample provides an important
indicator of pollution. An indicator in this context is a biological species that tells us
something about the environment.

It is important to realise that E. coli is only an indicator and its absence cannot give
complete assurance that the water is safe. Some pathogens – such as Giardia, Entamoeba
histolytica and some viruses – can survive in waters long after E. coli has died; therefore,
the absence of E. coli will not necessarily mean that water is totally free from other
organisms.

Chemical tests

Although the great majority of health-related water quality problems are the result of
biological contamination, chemical contamination of water sources can also cause
serious health problems.
Fluoride in low concentrations (less than 1.5 mg l–1) in drinking water has beneficial
effects on teeth, but exposure to excessive fluoride can give rise to a number of adverse
effects (WHO, 2004). Fluorosis (an abnormal condition caused by excessive intake of
fluorides) is a common problem in children living in the Rift Valley region of Ethiopia
where the level of fluoride, especially in groundwater, can be high. Levels of fluoride
above 1.5 mg l–1 can lead to mottling of children’s teeth (the appearance of spots or
blotches of different shades of colour – Figure 2.9). Higher levels can lead to severe
skeletal fluorosis, where fluoride accumulates in the bones over many years causing
stiffness and pain in the joints and bones (WHO, 2004). Consuming water that has levels
in excess of 10 mg l–1 leads to crippling skeletal fluorosis where the extremities become
weak and moving the joints is difficult. The vertebrae partially fuse together, crippling
the patient (WHO, 2004).

Figure 2.9 Fluorosis causes mottling of children’s teeth.

Alternatively, some health effects occur as a result of specific chemical deficiencies in the
diet, of which water forms a part. Examples include goitre, caused by iodine deficiency,
and dental caries resulting from low fluoride intake.

Physical tests

Turbidity (cloudiness due to a large number of very tiny particles), colour, taste and
odour (smell), whether of natural or other origin, affect people’s perceptions of water.
As you know water should be free of tastes and odours that would be unpleasant to the
majority of people. In extreme cases, people may avoid water that does not look or taste
good – even if it is otherwise safe – in favour of more pleasant-looking and tasting
water that may actually be contaminated.

Colour in drinking water occurs due to the presence of dissolved organic matter and
metals such as iron and manganese. Colour can come from industrial pollution such as
from dyes used in textile manufacture. Odour in water is due mainly to the presence of
organic substances. Taste is the combined perception of substances detected by the
senses of taste and smell. Changes in the normal taste of a piped water supply can be
important as they may signal changes in the quality of the raw water source or
deficiencies in the treatment process.

Summary of Study the study chapter

In Study chapter 2, you have learned that:

 Water is essential to life. People can live for many days without food but for very
few days without water.

 Water for public consumption must be palatable and safe.

 Unsafe water can seriously harm human health. Infants, young children, older
people and people debilitated by disease are the most vulnerable.

 Water in the human body is essential for several bodily functions.

 The diseases associated with water can be classified as waterborne, water-

washed, water-based and water-related.

 The causative agents of disease in unsafe water include bacteria, viruses,

protozoa and helminths (worms).

 The main illnesses in Ethiopia include diarrhoeal diseases and malaria.

 Detection of faecal coliform bacteria including E. coli is used to test for the
presence of faecal contamination and to indicate the likelihood of the presence of
pathogenic organisms in drinking water.

 Chemical contamination of water can cause health problems.

 Turbidity, colour, taste and odour are important factors in water being
acceptable to people.
 Chapter 3

WATER SOURCES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Introduction

Water collection for domestic use can be traced back to 560 BC when rainwater
harvesting was practised in the Axumite Kingdom. In those days, rainwater was
collected and stored in ponds for agriculture and water supply purposes. Evidence for
this is in documented literature and may be observed in visible remains of ponds
(Seyoum, n.d.). The history of modern piped water supply in Ethiopia began in 1924
when a piped supply was established from the Kebena River to the patriarch’s
compound and Menelik Hospital in Addis Ababa, using an 80-mm pipe. Until the
inauguration of the Gefersa Dam in 1951 the town of Addis Ababa was supplied from
wells and springs (AAWSA, 2011).

Types of water source

In Study Session 1 you were introduced to the three main sources of water:
groundwater, surface water and rainwater. In arid regions where seawater is accessible
(such as in the Middle East), desalination (the removal of salts from water) is used to
generate drinking water. Another potential source of water is treated wastewater – you
will learn more about this in Study Session 11. In practice, the term ‘water source’ can
be used to mean both the origin of the water and also the place where people get their
water (spring, piped supply to household tap, water point, well, etc.).

Water sources can be classified as protected or unprotected. Protected sources are

covered by stonework, concrete or other materials that prevent the entry of physical,
chemical and biological contaminants. Typical characteristics of a protected water
source are given in Box 3.1.
 Box 3.1 Characteristics of a protected water source

The water source is fully enclosed or capped and no surface water can run directly
into it.

People do not step into the water while collecting it.

Latrines, solid waste pits, animal excreta and other sources of pollution are
located as far away as possible from the water source and on ground lower in
elevation than the water source.
There is no stagnant water within 5 metres of the water source.
The water collection buckets or hand pump at the source are kept clean.

Why do you think there should be no stagnant water within 5 metres of a water source?

It could encourage animals to come there for water, and they could contaminate the
water source. Stagnant water can also become a breeding site for mosquitoes.

Unprotected sources are those with no barrier or other structure to protect the water
from contamination. All surface water sources, such as lakes, rivers and streams or
poorly constructed wells, are examples of unprotected sources. Water from unprotected
sources cannot be considered safe to drink unless it has been treated.

The terms ‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ are also used to describe water sources and are
broadly equivalent to ‘protected’ and ‘unprotected’. WHO /UNICEF categories of
water sources are defined in this way, as you can see in Figure 3.1. This shows the
drinking water ladder, which describes the steps in improvement of quality of water
supply depending on the type of source. Surface water is at the bottom of the ladder
and piped water into the household is at the top. There are a number of improved and
unimproved sources between these two, several of which are described in later sections
of this study session.
Figure 3.1 Drinking water ladder.

The situation in Ethiopia

Figure 3.2 shows estimated trends in drinking water coverage in Ethiopia. Each of the
columns shows the percentage of drinking water that is supplied by surface water,
other unimproved sources, piped supply and other improved sources, for the years
1990 to 2012.
Figure 3.2 The change in drinking water sources in Ethiopia between 1990 and 2012 for urban
(left), rural (centre) and total populations (right). (Data from JMP, 2014).

Look at Figure 3.2 and calculate the percentages of water supplied from improved
water sources to urban populations and to rural populations in Ethiopia in 2012.

For urban populations, piped supplies to premises account for 51% and other improved
supplies 46%, so the total is 97%. For rural populations, piped supplies to premises are
only 1%, and other improved supplies are 41%, making a total of 42%.

One reason for the low coverage of rural premises is that the rural population is
dispersed, and therefore difficult to serve easily. In urban areas, people live closer
together and populations are more concentrated in given areas; therefore pipes can be
laid more easily (and with less expense) to cover a large population.

Groundwater

Groundwater was defined in Study Session 1 as water that is found underground

within rocks. Its presence depends primarily on the type of rock. Permeable rocks have
tiny spaces between the solid rock particles that allow water and other fluids to pass
through and to be held within the rock structure. The layers of rock that hold
groundwater are called aquifers. Figure 3.3 shows how groundwater in an aquifer is
replenished by rain and other forms of precipitation (any form of water, such as rain,
snow, sleet or hail that falls to the Earth’s surface, shown in the diagram as ‘recharge’)
that has percolated (passed through a porous substance, or through small holes)
downward into the aquifer. The level of water below ground is called the water table.
Groundwater can be extracted from wells or collected from springs.

Figure 3.3 Diagram of groundwater formation with spring and wells.

The depth that groundwater is taken from and the types of permeable rock it has
passed through are important factors that affect its quality. Groundwater, particularly
from deep sources, may provide water of good microbiological quality. This is because
bacteria, protozoa, viruses and helminths are filtered from the water as it passes
through the layers of soil and rock. Groundwater sources are therefore preferable to
surface water sources. However, groundwater can contain chemical contaminants, as
indicated in Table 3.1, which lists the advantages and disadvantages of using
groundwater as a water source.

Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using groundwater as a water source. (Adapted
from Kebede and Gobena, 2004)

Advantages Disadvantages

Likely to be free of Often has a high mineral content (i.e. has

pathogenic bacteria naturally occurring substances that are not from
living organisms) such as calcium, magnesium,
Usually free of turbidity and
iron and manganese
colour
Usually requires pumping for extraction
Can usually be used without
further treatment May have a high level of bicarbonate, carbonate
and chloride
Can often be found in close
vicinity to consumers Poor in oxygen content

Economical to obtain and Can contain chemical contaminants such as

distribute arsenic, fluorides and nitrates
The water-bearing soil or If it gets polluted, treatment can be difficult to
rock provides a natural achieve
storage point

Several factors influence the likelihood of groundwater becoming contaminated from a

polluting source such as a pit latrine. The geology is important because in areas with
permeable rocks, or where there are small cracks in the rock formation, fluids can pass
through more easily into the aquifer. Other factors include the depth of the pit and its
vertical distance from the water table. In Ethiopia, federal guidelines state that latrines
must be sited at least 30 metres from any water source to be used for human
consumption and if on sloping ground be lower than the source (MoH, 2004).

Why should a well be located uphill from any possible sources of pollution?

The natural flow of the groundwater follows the law of gravity, and will be downhill.
The well should be sited so that any pollutants going into the soil that enter the
groundwater do not get into the water in the well. So, the best place for a well would be
uphill of the pollutant source.

1 Wells and boreholes

Wells and boreholes can be described by their depth, or by the way they are
constructed. They may also use different types of pump at the surface to raise the water.

Shallow wells

Shallow wells and boreholes usually have a depth of less than 30 m, although they can
be as much as 60 m deep, especially in very dry areas of Ethiopia where the water table
is low. Figure 3.4 is a diagram of a protected hand-dug well. Wells can be excavated by
hand if the soil is not too hard or the water table is high. Hand-dug wells have a
relatively large diameter because they have to be wide enough for a person to be able to
stand inside and dig.
Figure 3.4 Diagram of a hand-dug well.

The inside wall of the top 3 m or so of the dug well should be made waterproof by
constructing a well casing (lining). In small-diameter wells the casing can be a pipe, but
in large wells the casing needs to be constructed in concrete from the top of the well
down to a minimum depth of 3 m. The casing of the well should also be extended for a
minimum of 60 cm above the surrounding ground level to prevent the entrance of
surface run-off – that is, water that runs off the surface of the land, carrying debris,
wastes and other pollutants with it as it flows. A concrete cover should be fitted over
the well casing, as in Figure 3.5, to prevent dust, insects, small animals and any other
contaminants from falling in.
Figure 3.5 Protected well with concrete surround and a lid. Note the black plastic bucket is
suspended off the ground to keep it clean.

Depending on the depth of the well, water may be drawn up by a bucket and rope or by
using a pump. Hand pumps, such as the one in Figure 3.6, are built over the well and
the concrete cover extends to cover the surrounding ground. The immediate area of the
well should preferably be fenced to keep animals away. The area surrounding the well
should be graded off (i.e. should slope away from the well) in order to prevent the flow
of storm water run-off into the well. Any pipework associated with the pump that
enters the well needs to have watertight connections so that it operates efficiently. The
well, pump, pipework and associated structure should be regularly disinfected using
chlorine solution to eliminate pathogens and ensure the water is safe to drink.
Figure 3.6 Hand pump over a protected dug well. Note the concrete surround and the fence to
keep out animals.

Water can also be drawn from a well using a rope pump (Figure 3.7). A long continuous
loop of rope, with washers at regularly spaced intervals, runs around a wheel at the top
of a well and around a smaller roller encased below the water line. The rope runs
through a PVC pipe and, as the wheel is turned, water is drawn up the pipe by suction.
A rope pump can be made from recycled parts, such as bicycle wheels, scrap metal and
plastic, and it can be mended quickly and cheaply.
Figure 3.7 Examples of rope pumps.
Deep wells or boreholes

These are wells that have been sunk with drilling machines designed for constructing
water extraction boreholes (Figure 3.8). These machines are able to penetrate through
harder material that cannot be tackled by hand digging and can therefore pass through
at least one impermeable layer of rock to a productive aquifer underneath. They
typically obtain water from depths ranging from 30 to 60 m, but large urban supply
boreholes can be much deeper than this. A casing of metal or plastic pipe is usually
necessary to line the borehole and prevent the soil and rock from collapsing into it
(Figure 3.9). The lower part of the casing must have suitable openings to allow water to
enter the borehole from the aquifer, although in hard rocks – such as some of the
volcanic aquifers of Ethiopia – the borehole can be left open and will not collapse.
Figure 3.8 Drilling rig for a borehole. Figure 3.9 A borehole.
At the surface, different types of pump may be used including hand pumps like the one
in Figure 3.6. For larger boreholes in urban areas electric or diesel-powered pumps
would be used.

Springs

Groundwater may emerge above ground as a spring. This happens in locations where
the water table reaches the surface, or where the boundary between a permeable layer
of underground rock and an impermeable layer reaches the ground surface, as shown
in Figure 3.3. Springs are normally found at the foot of mountains and hills, in lower
slopes of valleys, and near the banks of major rivers. The water emerging at a spring
may vary in volume and contamination levels, in response to the amount of rainfall.
Springs are likely to be polluted by direct contamination from run-off seeping through
the topsoil unless the surrounding land area is protected. A spring supply issuing from
a deep, water-bearing layer, rather than a permeable layer near the surface, can produce
both a consistent volume and a better-quality supply.

Spring source protection

Whether the spring originates from shallow or deep rock layers, animals should be
excluded from the surrounding area by a stock-proof fence. Springs should be protected
from flooding and surface water pollution by constructing a deep diversion ditch above
and around the spring. The ditch should be constructed so that it collects surface water
running towards the spring and carries or diverts it away. It needs to be deep enough to
carry all surface water away, even in a heavy rainstorm.

Small springs are typically protected by a ‘spring box’ (Figure 3.10), which is
constructed of brick, masonry or concrete, and is built around the spring so that water
flows directly out of the box into a pipe or cistern, without being exposed to outside
pollution such as run-off, bird droppings and animals. The spring box should have a
watertight cover with a lock. Larger springs serving towns are protected in a similar
way. Figure 3.11 shows the protected spring that supplies water to the city of Bahir Dar.
Figure 3.10 A spring box. Figure 3.11 Protected spring
providing water for Bahir
Dar. The concrete slab on the
left covers and protects the
source of the water.
Surface waters

The quality and quantity of surface water varies from one place to another and over
time, due to factors such as geology, climate and surrounding land use.

Why is surface water classed as an unimproved source?

Because rivers and lakes can be easily contaminated by run-off that washes pollutants
into the water. Lack of effective sanitation and open defecation make contamination by
microbiological pathogens much more likely.

The variable quality of surface water means it has to be treated to make it safe for
domestic consumption. There are several different methods of water treatment at large
and small scale that are described in later study sessions. The quantity of water in rivers
and lakes obviously varies with rainfall and there can be wide fluctuations at different
times of year. To ensure year-round supply, dams can be constructed to create
reservoirs from which water can be extracted prior to treatment. For example,
Figure 3.12 shows part of the city of Gondar with the Angareb Reservoir in the
background, which was created when the river was dammed to provide water for the
city.
Figure 3.12 Gondar’s water supply comes from the Angareb reservoir, which was created by
damming the river.

Rainwater

In regions where rainfall is abundant and frequent, rainwater can be a good source of
water supply for individual families and small communities. The storage of rainwater is
particularly important in areas with a long dry season, or where groundwater or surface
water is difficult to obtain or polluted. The term rainwater harvesting is sometimes
used. It simply means collecting, or harvesting, rainwater as it runs off from hard
surfaces and storing it in a tank or cistern. Rainwater has several advantages. It is free,
relatively clean and usually reliable, even if it rains only once or twice a year, and a
rainwater harvesting system can be easily constructed and maintained at low cost.
Although mainly found in rural areas, rainwater harvesting can also be useful in an
urban situation.

Rainwater can be collected in several ways:

Roof catchments

Rainwater can be collected from house roofs made of tiles, slate, (corrugated)
galvanised metal or equivalent. Pipes feed water from the roof and gutters into a
collection tank where it can be stored until needed (Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13 Rainwater is collected from the roof of this rural health post and stored in a covered,
watertight cistern.

If rainwater is used for water supply, it is important to ensure that it is not

contaminated by improper methods of storage, or by bird droppings and leaves from
the roof that it is collected from. Rainwater may be also be contaminated by pollutants
in the air, dust, dirt, paint and other material on the roof or in roofing materials. All of
these contaminants can be washed into the storage tank or cistern.

To protect the water, various precautions are needed. The tank must be completely
covered and well-maintained. The roof and gutters should be cleaned regularly,
especially before the start of the wet season. It may be necessary to divert the first
rainwater away from the tank so that dust and dirt are washed away. Leaves and other
larger debris can be prevented from entering the tank by placing a mesh screen between
the guttering and the pipe that leads to the tank; the mesh screen will need to be
cleaned regularly.

Ground catchments

These are systems that collect and store rain falling on an area of ground (Figure 3.14).
The amount of rainwater that can be collected depends on whether the area is flat or
sloping, and on the permeability of the top layer of the ground. These systems require
space so are only appropriate in rural areas, where they can serve small villages and
households for livestock and vegetable growing.

Figure 3.14 Rainwater storage ponds in Amhara Region.

Sand dams

In arid areas where there is a dry, sandy riverbed and the rain falls once or twice a year,
a collection system known as a sand dam can be used to store water. A sand dam
(Figure 3.15) is a concrete wall (1 to 5 m high) built across a seasonal sandy riverbed.
During the rainy season, a seasonal river forms and carries sand and silt downstream.
The heavy sand accumulates behind the dam, while the lighter silt washes downstream
over the dam wall. Within one to four rainy seasons the dam completely fills with sand.
However, up to 40% of the volume held behind the dam is actually water stored
between the sand particles. The water can be abstracted from the sand dam via a slotted
pipe buried in the sand that either passes through the dam wall or is connected to a
simple hand pump situated on the river bank.
Figure 3.15 A sand dam in Kenya.

Water source development

One of the main duties of a water supply provider is to ensure that a safe and plentiful
water supply is available to all segments of a community at a reasonable cost. This may
mean seeking new water sources to satisfy demand. Identifying potential new sources
and assessing their viability prior to development is a skilled technical task that requires
several different factors to be assessed. These factors include:

 Volume of water required: This will depend on demand, which relates to the
number and type of potential users. Will the new source be able to meet the
demand of all users? Have future increases in demand and population growth
been taken into consideration?
 Quality: Is the water from a safe and protected source? If not, what will be the
level of treatment needed and how will this be achieved? What is the risk of
pollution of the source?
 Seasonal variations: Is the new water source reliable, or is it vulnerable to seasonal
variations in the availability of water? How will this be accommodated?
  Distance between source and users: How far must the water be transported? What is
the sort of distribution system that will be needed? What are the engineering
requirements for the system?
 Cost: Following on from all the above, what is the cost of developing the new
source (both capital and continuing operating and maintenance costs) into the
future?
 Environmental impact: What are the predicted environmental consequences of
developing the water source? Will the benefits of the new supply outweigh any
disadvantages?
 Sustainability: Can the water source be developed and used in such a way that it
does not compromise the future ability to supply water? For example, the rate of
abstraction from a spring should not exceed the rate of natural replenishment.

Answers to all of these questions and more, together with detailed surveys, assessments
and analyses, will be required to identify possible new water sources. Mentioned in the
list above is the possibility of pollution of the water source. There are many possible
sources of pollution and these will be discussed in the next study session.

Summary of chapter 3

In Study chapter, you have learned that:

 Protected water sources (often called ‘improved’ water sources) are those that
have barriers against contaminants and provide water that is safe to drink.

 The drinking water ladder describes the steps in improvement of quality of

water supply.

 In Ethiopia in 2012, protected water sources supplied 97% of the water to urban
populations, and 42% of the water to rural populations.
 Urban areas can obtain water supplies from groundwater, surface water and
rainwater.

 Groundwater sources such as shallow wells, deep wells (boreholes) and springs
should be protected against contamination by animals and surface run-off.

 Disinfection of the equipment at wells should be undertaken regularly.

 Surface waters are more prone to contamination than groundwater, and usually
require treatment.

 Rainwater has several advantages as a water source.

 New water source development has to consider the capacity of the new source to
supply water for a considerable time, and take into account factors such as raw
water quality, seasonal variation, distance from consumers, cost, environmental
impact and sustainability.
 Chapter 4

WATER POLLUTION

Introduction

You have already learned about some of the ways how surface and groundwater can
become contaminated and about the importance of water treatment to make the water
safe to drink. There are different types of pollutants from a variety of sources that can
harm the quality of water. In this study session you look more closely at these
pollutants, where they originate from and their effects. You also consider how water
sources can be protected from pollution.

Pathways of water pollution

Pollution can be defined as the introduction into the natural environment (air, water or
land) of substances (pollutants) that are liable to cause harm to human health or to
animals, plants and the wider environment. Water pollution occurs when surface water
or groundwater is adversely affected by the addition of pollutants.

For surface water, the quality of the water will be determined by the geology, by
precipitation and by what happens in the catchment. The catchment of a river is the
total area of surrounding land that slopes towards the river (Figure 4.1). Rainwater that
lands in a catchment flows into the river. River water can be contaminated from
pollution sources in the catchment even though they may be some distance away.
Protecting surface water from pollution is difficult because the activities of upstream
users of river water will affect the quality of the water for downstream users. For
groundwater, the situation is similar but the boundaries are less distinct and pollutants
can seep into aquifers that extend below more than one catchment.
Figure 4.1 A model of a catchment area.

Water quality can be affected by pollution from point sources and non-point sources.
Point sources are identifiable locations (such as a factory, often with a pipe or channel
leading from them) that discharge directly into a body of surface water. Groundwater is
also affected by point sources where contaminants seep into the soil and rock from an
identifiable source, for example, underground fuel tanks, septic tanks or pit latrines.
Non-point sources are those where pollution arises over a wide area and it is often
difficult to locate the exact place of origin. For example, fertiliser or pesticide that has
been widely spread may be washed from a field by rain into a river or stream at many
places, or seep into groundwater. It is pollution from non-point sources, also known as
diffuse pollution, that contributes most of the contaminants in surface and
groundwater. The problems in identifying the exact point of origin make non-point
sources much more difficult to control.

Look at Figure 4.2. What pollutants are likely to be washed into the river from the lorry?
Is this a point source or non-point source of pollution?
Dust and dirt from the lorry will be washed into the river. Some oil and fuel may also
be washed from the underside. The lorry is the single source of pollution, so this is an
example of a point source.

Figure 4.2 Washing lorries and cars in rivers is a source of water pollution.

The normal flow of river water can reduce the impact of some pollutants. When
contaminated river water moves downstream it is possible that any pollutant will be
diluted as more water flows in and so increases the total volume of water in the river.
This dilution may be enough to reduce the concentration of the contaminants
sufficiently to minimise the possible impacts, but this depends on several factors,
including the quantity and type of pollutant, and the volume and flow rate of the river.

Types of water pollutant

There are many different types of water pollutant and the following sections describe
those that are most commonly found.

Sediments and suspended solids

Sediments and suspended solids consist of fine particles of mostly inorganic material.
Inorganic material is derived from non-living sources and includes mud, sand and silt
washed into a river as a result of land cultivation, construction, demolition and mining
operations, where these take place. One of the most common sources of suspended
solids and sediment is soil erosion, where the soil is washed away into rivers by
rainwater run-off. The presence of solid particulate material suspended in the flowing
water is the reason why many rivers look brown in colour, especially in the rainy
season. The particles are called suspended solids while they are carried (suspended) in
flowing water and sediments when they settle to the bottom. Large quantities of
suspended solids may reduce light penetration into the water, which can affect the
growth of plants. Sediments may even suffocate organisms on the river bed.

Organic matter

Organic matter, such as human and animal wastes, is derived from living organisms. As
organic matter decomposes, it removes oxygen from the water and this can have a
damaging effect on fish and other aquatic organisms that are sensitive to poor water
quality. Box 4.1 explains this process. If a large quantity of organic matter is present in
surface water, this can lead to anaerobic conditions. (Anaerobic means without oxygen,
as opposed to aerobic, which means oxygen is present.) In this situation many aquatic
organisms are unable to survive and the water will be stagnant and smell unpleasant.
 Box 4.1 Oxygen in water

Many aquatic (water-living) organisms depend on oxygen dissolved in the water to survive.
Aquatic animals include fish, amphibians and many invertebrate species such as insect
larvae, snails and worms. Their supply of oxygen in the water is maintained from
atmospheric oxygen in the air above the water and from oxygen produced by green aquatic
plants by the process of photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into
chemical energy, while taking in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and producing oxygen.
Fast-flowing, turbulent water will be aerated (gain oxygen) more than still water because the
turbulent flow will entrain more oxygen.

If organic pollutants such as human and animal wastes are released into a water body,
bacteria will use the waste as food and break it down into simpler, less harmful substances.
As they do this, aerobic bacteria will use up the dissolved oxygen from the water. This is
called deoxygenation. If the degree of organic pollution is high, then all the oxygen from the
water may be used up, leading to anaerobic conditions.

This is unlikely in a river where the water is moving but can happen in lakes or slow-flowing
channels. Inorganic solids, such as mud and silt, do not have this effect because they are inert
(stable and inactive) and cannot be used as food by bacteria.

Biological pollutants

You have already learned about biological pollutants in Study Session 2. These are the
infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths) that are harmful to
humans and other forms of life. Biological pollutants may get into water with dust from
the air as rain falls but the most likely source is from water that is contaminated with
human and animal wastes.

Plant nutrients

Nitrates and phosphates are common pollutants generated from residential areas and
agricultural run-off. They are usually associated with human and animal wastes or
fertiliser that has been washed into surface water bodies by rain. Nitrates and
phosphates are plant nutrients, so they stimulate plant growth. If present in large
quantities, they can encourage excessive plant growth in the water causing the
phenomenon known as an algal bloom, which means a sudden increase in the
population of microscopic algae (simple plants). There may also be an increase in larger
plants such as the invasive water hyacinth. When the increased population of aquatic
plants dies, the decay of the organic plant material by bacteria can cause deoxygenation
of the water, resulting in the death of other organisms such as fish. If a water body has
high nutrient levels it is said to be eutrophic and the process is known as
eutrophication. Figure 4.3 illustrates the process.

Figure 4.3 The eutrophication process.

Can you think of a reason why eutrophication is more likely to be a problem in lakes
than in rivers?

Because flowing water in a river will disperse the nutrients; in the still water of a lake,
the nutrients will accumulate.

In Ethiopia, many private and corporate farms use huge amounts of chemical fertilisers.
As a result, eutrophication is becoming a major problem (Zinabu et al., 2002), affecting
many water sources (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Lake Hawassa, in the Rift Valley, south of Addis Ababa, is suffering from
eutrophication.

Other chemical pollutants

Heavy metals such as arsenic, copper, lead, mercury and cadmium are chemical
pollutants that may be found in lakes, rivers and groundwater. These heavy metals can
harm aquatic organisms and humans. Farmers who use river water polluted by urban
wastes for irrigation in the cultivation of fruits and vegetables may find their crops
affected by the accumulation of these chemicals. (You will look at a case study on this
later on in this study session.)
Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. There are several thousand
different types in use and almost all of them are possible causes of water pollution.
Pesticides such as DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), malathion, parathion and
others have been sprayed in the environment for long periods of time for the control of
disease vectors such as mosquitoes and other pests.

Heavy metals and some pesticides are particular problems because they are persistent
in the environment, meaning they do not break down and their effects continue over
time, even long after their use may have stopped.

Another problem can be acidity. If water becomes acidic or alkaline, beyond normal
limits, this will have a damaging effect on aquatic organisms. Acidity and alkalinity of
water are determined by measuring its pH. A pH value below 7 is acidic and above 7 is
alkaline. Acidic water is not only harmful to life but is also corrosive and can damage
pipework in water distribution systems.

Possible sources of water pollution

Having looked at the various types of pollutant, let us now consider their sources.

Human excreta

Open defecation and poorly constructed pit latrines are obvious sources of human
waste and can easily pollute surface and groundwater. Where water-flushed sewerage
systems are present, inadequately treated sewage can also be a major source of human
waste. (Note the difference between the words ‘sewage’ and ‘sewerage’. Sewage is
mixed wastewater that contains human waste from flush toilets, commercial and
industrial wastewater, and frequently also surface water run-off. Sewerage is the
network of underground pipes – sewers – through which the sewage flows.)

Untreated or partially treated sewage can contribute to high levels of oxygen demand in
the water and also introduce toxic substances into the aquatic environment, in addition
to pathogenic micro-organisms. In Ethiopia, sewage may be treated in waste
stabilisation ponds (these will be described in chapter 11). If not operated properly,
these ponds can pollute rivers. In many parts of the world, sewage from large towns
and cities is usually treated in large mechanical–biological plants (Figure 4.5) that
normally produce good quality effluent but can still be a source of pollution if systems
fail.

Figure 4.5 Becton sewage treatment plant in London, the largest plant of its type in Europe,
treats the sewage of 3.7 million people.

In Ethiopian towns and cities many households use septic tanks to dispose of their
sewage. These are underground tanks into which sewage is piped. The waste remains
in the tank for long enough for the solids to settle out and the settled sewage is
discharged from the tank, usually into the surrounding soil via a soakaway. If the tank
is too small to retain the sewage for long enough, or if many septic tanks are close
together, or if they leak or are cracked, this can lead to pollution of groundwater. It is
the aim in Ethiopia to have septic tanks that keep the sewage inside for a minimum of
three days so that the organic solids will settle out as sludge. Figure 4.6 shows the main
features of a properly constructed septic tank.
Figure 4.6 Cross-sectional diagram of a septic tank.

Manufacturing and industrial plants

In chapter 1 you read about some of the ways in which water is used in industry and
manufacturing. The range of different uses and processes can produce waste in the
form of many different types of organic and inorganic material in suspension or in
solution. In many cases, much of the water used can be recycled but there is almost
always an effluent discharge that requires treatment.

Food processing generates large volumes of effluent containing natural organic

compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Factories producing chemicals
often generate low volumes of highly toxic waste streams. Toxic effluents can also be
produced in the paper, leather and electroplating industries. For example, cyanides and
heavy metals may be present in wastewaters from electroplating. These plants can also
be the source of highly acidic wastes.

Manufacturing and industrial effluents should be treated at their points of origin but
many production plants in Ethiopia (such as tanneries and breweries) do not have
proper effluent treatment systems. This results in the discharge of untreated or partially
treated effluent into the nearest water body (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Industrial discharge into the Akaki River in Addis Ababa.

Agriculture and animal rearing

The intensive rearing of animals results in large volumes of organically polluted wash
water from cleaning animal houses. This slurry is often stored in lagoons or tanks prior
to spreading on land. However, problems occur when these lagoons or tanks leak or
overflow, allowing the slurry to flow into watercourses or infiltrate groundwater. Other
agricultural pollutants include pesticides and fertilisers.

Cultivation and overgrazing can make soil erosion more likely, resulting in soil particles
being washed into rivers and lakes. For example, this is a problem at Gondar, where
run-off from the surrounding land has washed silt into the reservoir, thus reducing the
volume of water it can hold (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 The Angareb reservoir at Gondar.

Domestic and industrial solid waste sites

Domestic and commercial solid waste should be disposed of in a properly designed and
constructed landfill site. Many landfill sites, particularly those that are older and less
well designed and managed, such as the one shown in Figure 4.9, generate leachate,
which is highly polluting. (Leachate is any liquid that has passed through matter and
picked up dissolved substances and/or suspended solids as it passed through.)
Leachate can contain dissolved organic matter and many different types of inorganic
components depending on the type of waste. Where industrial waste has been dumped,
a toxic chemical stream may also be produced. These leachates should be collected and
treated so that pollution of groundwater and rivers does not arise.

Figure 4.9 The landfill site at Repi, Addis Ababa.

Urban surface water run-off

Rainwater that runs off road surfaces, roofs, parking areas, etc. carries with it a variety
of components (Table 4.1). The bulk of the contaminants can be traced to motor
vehicles. Surface water run-off can cause damage to streams, rivers and lakes by
degrading the water quality and harming aquatic life. The pollutants present can hinder
the growth and reproduction of fish and other creatures, and affect photosynthetic
activity. Plant nutrients may contribute to eutrophication.

Table 4.1 Pollutants that may be present in rainwater run-off.

Pollutant Likely sources

Sediment Construction, road surfaces, emissions from vehicles, industrial

sources, vehicle wear

Copper Vehicle brake pads, industrial activities, plumbing and guttering

Lead Industrial activities and residues from historical activities (plumbing,

paint, leaded petrol, sprays), tyre-balancing weights, vehicle brake
pads

Zinc Vehicle tyres, galvanised building materials, paint, industrial activities

Hydrocarbons Vehicle emissions, lubricating oils

Rubber Tyre wear

Detergents Wash-down areas, domestic discharges (e.g. from car washing),

industrial discharges

Litter Discarded material (e.g. plastic bags, cups, cigarette ends), windblown
materials, illegal dumping
Protection from pollution

The control of pollution should ideally take place at the point of its generation. In Study
chapter 3 you read about the methods of protecting water sources but it is better to
prevent the pollutant from entering the environment in the first place. With regard to
human excreta, this means an end to open defecation, the correct siting and
construction of latrines and septic tanks, and well-maintained and correctly operated
sewage treatment works. Industrial wastes should be treated at source before discharge.
Other human activities should also be controlled; for example, used engine oil should
not be thrown onto the ground, and solid wastes should be carefully disposed of. A
positive measure that can help to prevent soil erosion is to preserve vegetation and
plant trees, because plant roots hold the soil in place.

In rural areas, the control of excess nutrients is important to keep natural waters free
from eutrophication. Farmers may need guidance on good agricultural practices to
reduce water pollution from agriculture. For example, care over the amount of fertiliser
used and the timing of its application can make a significant difference.

Imagine you are a farmer thinking about the best time to apply fertiliser to your field.
Would it be better to spread the fertiliser before or after heavy rain?

It would be better to apply it after the rain because if the fertiliser was spread
beforehand, much of it would probably be washed away. This would not only pollute
the nearest river but would, of course, also reduce its effectiveness on the crop.

Pesticides should not be applied near wells or other water sources. If possible,
biological methods of pest control should be used. Examples of these are the use of fish
to feed on mosquito larvae in water bodies, and the use of the dung beetle to break
down and bury cow faeces so that they are no longer available as a breeding place for
flies.
Ideally, the whole catchment area should be managed to avoid pollution and erosion.
To tackle pollution problems, especially diffuse pollution, all activities within a
catchment should be considered. This involves many groups (residents, planners,
farmers, etc.) working together, on aspects such as granting permissions for
development, compliance with regulations, inspections of activities, and regular
surveys and investigations of water pollution.

Monitoring and regulation

Monitoring of the quality of rivers (Figure 4.10) can be done at regular intervals by
taking samples for laboratory analysis. In Ethiopia this activity is undertaken by the
Ministry of the Environment and Forests. In addition to this, regular surveys of a
catchment area are useful so that potential pollutants can be identified before they
contaminate a water source.

Figure 4.10 A technician monitoring water quality.

For effective protection of water sources, it is important to establish a regulatory

framework for treatment of wastewater from residential communities, institutions and
industries. Strict legislation should be in place to make it obligatory for wastewaters to
be treated before discharge into rivers or lakes. Ethiopia has the Ethiopian Water
Resources Management Regulations (Council of Ministers, 2005). Part 4 of these
regulations states that a permit to discharge wastewater must be obtained for the ‘direct
or indirect discharge of any treated trade effluent or sewage effluent, or any poisonous,
noxious or polluting matter into surface or ground water’. Anyone who obtains the
permit has an obligation to install and use the best treatment method and to discharge
only the type and volume of treated waste permitted.

Control of water pollution is the responsibility of more than one organisation, since
most activities involving water concern a number of different Ministries. For instance,
water use in agriculture would be of concern to the Ministry of Agriculture, the
Ministry of Water Resources, Irrigation and Energy, and the Ministry of the
Environment and Forests, and all of them have the responsibility of protecting the
environment.

Summary of chapter 4

In Study chapter, you have learned that:

 Water pollution is any contamination of water with substances that are

detrimental to human, plant or animal health.

 Water pollutants can be of point or non-point source, depending on whether

substances are discharged directly into a body of water or indirectly from diffuse
sources.

 Water pollutants include sediments and suspended solids, organic matter,

biological pollutants, plant nutrients and chemical pollutants.

 Biological pollutants include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths. They

mainly enter the water through faeces from infected people and animals, and are
the cause of many water-re Major sources of water pollution include human
excreta; manufacturing and industrial plants; animal rearing and agricultural
activities; landfill sites; and urban surface water run-off.
 Measures to protect water sources from faecal pollution include ending open
defecation, the proper siting of latrines and septic tanks, and careful operation of
sewage treatment works.

 The appropriate use of fertilisers and pesticides will minimise water pollution
caused by agriculture.

 Selective planting of trees and vegetation can help stabilise soil and prevent
erosion.

 Pollution control should ideally take place at the point of origin.

 Regulations control the type and volume of treated effluent that may be
discharged to the environment related diseases.
 Chapter 6

WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR LARGE-SCALE WATER

SUPPLY

Introduction

In previous study sessions you have learned about sources of water, how they can
become contaminated and about ways of protecting them. Even with source protection
it is often necessary to treat water to ensure it is safe. This is the case at household level,
which is discussed in chapter 10, and when supplying water for towns and cities. In this
study session, you consider the need for large-scale water treatment and the stages of
treatment for urban water supply. You will also learn about the management of wastes
produced in the process of water treatment, and consider the issues of sustainability
and resilience in relation to large-scale water treatment.

The need for large-scale water treatment

Water treatment is the process of removing all those substances, whether biological,
chemical or physical, that are potentially harmful in water supply for human and
domestic use. This treatment helps to produce water that is safe, palatable, clear,
colourless and odourless. Water also needs to be non-corrosive, meaning it will not
cause damage to pipework.

In urban areas, many people live close together and they all need water. This creates a
demand for large volumes of safe water to be supplied reliably and consistently, and
this demand is growing. As urban populations increase, there is a need to find new
sources to meet the growing demand. If groundwater is available this can often be used
with minimal treatment but any surface water source will need to be treated to make it
safe. For towns and cities, the water supply is then best provided by large mechanised
water treatment plants (Figure 5.1) that draw water from a large river or reservoir,
using pumps. (‘Mechanised’ means that machines, such as pumps and compressors, are
used). The treated water is then distributed by pipeline, as you learned in Study chapter
1.

Figure 5.1 The water treatment plant

1 The water treatment plant at Gondar, Ethiopia.

The size of the treatment plant required is determined by the volume of water needed,
which is calculated from the number and type of users and other factors. Section 5.6
explains how this calculation is made but first you will look at the main stages in the
water treatment process.

Stages in large-scale water treatment

There are often seven steps (Figure 5.2) in large-scale water treatment for urban
municipal water supply (Abayneh, 2004). Each of the steps will be described in turn in
this section. The water utility (the organisation that runs the treatment plants and water
distribution system) will ensure by regular analysis of the water that it adheres to
quality standards for safe water. (Water quality standards will be described in Study
Session 9.)
 Figure 5.2 The seven steps often used in the large-scale treatment of water.

Screening

To protect the main units of a treatment plant and to aid in their efficient operation, it is
necessary to use screens to remove any large floating and suspended solids that are
present in the inflow. These materials include leaves, twigs, paper, rags and other
debris that could obstruct flow through the plant or damage equipment. There are
coarse and fine screens.

Coarse screens (Figure 5.3) are steel bars spaced 5–15 cm apart, which are employed to
exclude large materials (such as logs and fish) from entering the treatment plant, as
these can damage the mechanical equipment. The screens are made of corrosion-
resistant bars and positioned at an angle of 60º to facilitate removal of the collected
material by mechanical raking.
Figure 5.3 A coarse screen.

Fine screens, which come after the coarse screens, keep out material that can block
pipework at the plant. They consist of steel bars which are spaced 5–20 mm apart. A
variation of the fine screen is the microstrainer (Figure 5.4) which consists of a rotating
drum of stainless steel mesh with a very small mesh size (ranging from 15 µm to 64 µm,
i.e. 15–64 millionths of a metre). Suspended matter as small as algae and plankton
(microscopic organisms that float with the current in water) can be trapped. The
trapped solids are dislodged from the fabric by high-pressure water jets using clean
water, and carried away for disposal.

Figure 5.4 Diagram of a microstrainer.

Aeration

After screening, the water is aerated (supplied with air) by passing it over a series of
steps so that it takes in oxygen from the air. This helps expel soluble gases such as
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide (both of which are acidic, so this process makes
the water less corrosive) and also expels any gaseous organic compounds that might
give an undesirable taste to the water. Aeration also removes iron or manganese by
oxidation of these substances to their insoluble form. Iron and manganese can cause
peculiar tastes and can stain clothing. Once in their insoluble forms, these substances
can be removed by filtration.

In certain instances excess algae in the raw water can result in algal growth blocking the
sand filter further down the treatment process. In such situations, chlorination is used
in place of, or in addition to, aeration to kill the algae, and this is termed pre-
chlorination. This comes before the main stages in the treatment of the water. (There is
a chlorination step at the end of the treatment process, which is normal in most water
treatment plants). The pre-chlorination also oxidises taste- and odour-causing
compounds.

Coagulation and flocculation

After aeration, coagulation takes place, to remove the fine particles (less than 1 µm in
size) that are suspended in the water. In this process, a chemical called a coagulant
(with a positive electrical charge) is added to the water, and this neutralises the negative
electrical charge of the fine particles. The addition of the coagulant takes place in a
rapid mix tank where the coagulant is rapidly dispersed by a high-speed impeller
(Figure 5.5).

Since their charges are now neutralised, the fine particles come together, forming soft,
fluffy particles called ‘flocs’. (Before the coagulation stage, the particles all have a
similar electrical charge and repel each other, rather like the north or south poles of two
magnets.) Two coagulants commonly used in the treatment of water are aluminium
sulphate and ferric chloride.

Figure 5.5 The coagulation–flocculation process.

The next step is flocculation. Here the water is gently stirred by paddles in a
flocculation basin (Figure 5.5) and the flocs come into contact with each other to form
larger flocs.

The flocculation basin often has a number of compartments with decreasing mixing
speeds as the water advances through the basin (Figure 5.6(a)). This compartmentalised
chamber allows increasingly large flocs to form without being broken apart by the
mixing blades. Chemicals called flocculants can be added to enhance the process.
Organic polymers called polyelectrolytes can be used as flocculants.

Sedimentation

Once large flocs are formed, they need to be settled out, and this takes place in a process
called sedimentation (when the particles fall to the floor of a settling tank). The water
(after coagulation and flocculation) is kept in the tank (Figure 5.6(b)) for several hours
for sedimentation to take place. The material accumulated at the bottom of the tank is
called sludge; this is removed for disposal.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6 Flocculation chambers (a) and a sedimentation tank (b) at Gondar water
treatment works.
Filtration

Filtration is the process where solids are separated from a liquid. In water treatment,
the solids that are not separated out in the sedimentation tank are removed by passing
the water through beds of sand and gravel. Rapid gravity filters (Figure 5.7), with a
flow rate of 4–8 cubic metres per square metre of filter surface per hour (this is written
as 4–8 m–3 m–2 h–1) are often used.

When the filters are full of trapped solids, they are backwashed. In this process, clean
water and air are pumped backwards up the filter to dislodge the trapped impurities,
and the water carrying the dirt (referred to as backwash) is pumped into the sewerage
system, if there is one. Alternatively, it may be discharged back into the source river
after a settlement stage in a sedimentation tank to remove solids.
Figure 5.7 Cross-sectional diagram of a rapid gravity sand filter.

Chlorination

After sedimentation, the water is disinfected to eliminate any remaining pathogenic

micro-organisms. The most commonly used disinfectant (the chemical used for
disinfection) is chlorine, in the form of a liquid (such as sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) or
a gas. It is relatively cheap, and simple to use. When chlorine is added to water it reacts
with any pollutants present, including micro-organisms, over a given period of time,
referred to as the contact time. The amount of chlorine left after this is called residual
chlorine. This stays in the water all the way through the distribution system, protecting
it from any micro-organisms that might enter it, until the water reaches the consumers.

World Health Organization Guidelines (WHO, 2003) suggest a maximum residual

chlorine of 5 mg l–1 of water. The minimum residual chlorine level should be 0.5 mg l–1
of water after 30 minutes’ contact time (WHO, n.d.). There are other ways of
disinfecting water (e.g. by using the gas ozone, or ultraviolet radiation) but these do not
protect it from microbial contamination after it has left the water treatment plant.
Following disinfection the treated water is pumped into the distribution system.

Supplementary treatment
Supplementary treatment may sometimes be needed for the benefit of the population.
One such instance is the fluoridation of water, where fluoride is added to water. It has
been stated by the World Health Organization that ‘fluoridation of water supplies,
where possible, is the most effective public health measure for the prevention of dental
decay’ (WHO, 2001). The optimum level of fluoride is said to be around 1 mg per litre of
water (1 mg l–1).

On the other hand, as you learned in Study Session 2, in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia, the
water resources contain a higher concentration of fluoride than is desirable. Tekle-
Haimanot et al. (1995) found that the level of fluoride in drinking water from deep wells
there ranged from 1.5 to 36 mg l–1. The safe level for fluoride is 1.5 mg l–1.

What does excess fluoride in the water lead to?

As mentioned in Study chapter 2, in children it can cause mottling of teeth and

prolonged exposure can cause skeletal fluorosis and crippling.

In such high-fluoride areas, removal or reduction of fluoride (termed defluoridation) is

essential. The simplest way of doing this is to blend the high-fluoride water with water
that has no (or very little) fluoride so that the final mixture is safe. If this is not possible,
technical solutions may be applied. Two of these, the Nakuru Method and the
Nalgonda Technique, used in Ethiopia, are described below.

The Nakuru Method (Figure 5.8) involves a filter with bone char (charcoal produced
from animal bone) and calcium phosphate to adsorb the fluoride (Kung, 2011). There
have been reservations on the use of bone char, and alternatives for defluoridation, such
as activated alumina, are being tested in Addis Ababa (Alemseged, 2015).
Figure 5.8 The Nakuru method for defluoridation using plastic buckets and piping.

The Nalgonda technique for defluoridation (Suneetha et al., 2008) uses aluminium
sulphate and calcium oxide to remove fluoride. The two chemicals are added to and
rapidly mixed with the fluoride-contaminated water and then the water is stirred
gently. Flocs of aluminium hydroxide form and these remove the fluoride by
adsorption and ion exchange. The flocs are then removed by sedimentation.

Management of wastes from water treatment plants

From the water treatment process that you have just studied, make a list of the different
wastes that arise.

You probably thought of the screenings from the coarse and fine screens, the sludge
from the sedimentation tank, and backwash from the rapid gravity sand filter. There
will be other wastes, such as packaging from chemicals used (typically plastic drums)
and replacement equipment (which may come in wooden or cardboard boxes).

Coarse screenings are usually sent to a landfill or other waste disposal site. Fine
screenings (in the form of a slurry) may be discharged to a sewer, if there is one, or sent
to a landfill. The sludge from the sedimentation tank can be sent to landfill, or to a
sewage treatment plant. In the latter it is added to the incoming sewage, where it can
help settlement of solids.

The backwash from the sand filter is discharged into the sewer or returned to the river
after settlement of solids. Packaging waste such as chemical drums can be returned to
the supplier for reuse. Wood and cardboard waste can be recycled.

Sustainability and resilience in water treatment

In Study chapter 4 you read about some factors that can influence the sustainability of a
water source. For example, reducing soil erosion by planting trees and retaining
vegetation can reduce the amount of silt that accumulates in a reservoir and prolong its
life.

For the water treatment process itself to be sustainable (meaning that it can be
maintained at its best for a long time) it has to be simple to operate and maintain.
Complex systems should be avoided and wherever possible locally available materials
should be used. For example, if a coagulant is required, the one that can be purchased
in-country will be preferable to one that has to be imported. Water treatment plants
consume energy, and if this energy could be supplied through renewable sources (such
as solar or wind) it will keep operating costs down and improve sustainability.

The plant and distribution system should be made of robust materials that will have a
long operating life. It can be difficult to obtain spare parts, so there should be plans in
place for procurement of replacements. (These and other management issues are the
subject of the next study session.) Another important factor in sustainability is an
effective maintenance system, which needs planning and, importantly, requires well-
trained and motivated staff.

Resilience, in the context of a water treatment system, is its ability to withstand stress
or a natural hazard without interruption of performance or, if an interruption does
occur, to restore operation rapidly. With water treatment plants located very close to
water sources, having too much water can be just as much a problem for operations as
having too little. Storms and floods, exacerbated by climate change, may overwhelm
systems and interrupt operations, so appropriate flood defence measures must be in
place. The need to be resilient to these impacts is another reason why the equipment
and construction of the plant should be of a high standard.

Basic calculations in water supply

A critical factor in the sustainability of a water supply system is ensuring that the
volume of water provided is sufficient to meet current and future demand. Table 5.1
shows the water supply requirements for towns of different sizes in Ethiopia according
to the Growth and Transformation Plan II.

Table 5.1 Water supply requirements for urban areas in Ethiopia (note that for categories 1–4,
the water should be available at the premises). (MoWIE, 2015)

Urban category Population Minimum water Maximum fetching

quantity (litres per distance (m)
person per day)

1 Metropolitan >1,000,000 100 –

2 Big city 100,000–1,000,000 80 –

3 Large town 50,000–100,000 60 –

4 Medium 20,000–50,000 50 –
town

5 Small town <20,000 40 250

The water needs of a town can be estimated from the size of the population and the
water requirements of users such as schools, health facilities and other institutions
within it. The guidelines for the water supply requirement of different categories of
towns, shown in Table 5.1, may be used to estimate the minimum quantity of water that
should be supplied for a given population.

Consider a town with a population of 60,000. What would be the minimum amount of
water required?

From Table 5.1, the minimum amount of water needed per person would be 60 litres a
day. So, with a population of 60,000, the daily total supply would need to be:

60 litres  60,000 = 3,600,000 litres, or 3600 m3.

There will be institutions in the town with particular water requirements. Table 5.2
shows the requirements of some of these in Ethiopia.

Table 5.2 Water requirements for various types of institutions in Ethiopia. (Adapted from
Kebeda and Gobena, 2004)

Institution Water requirement (litres per person per day)

Health centre 135

Hospital 340

Day school 18.5

Boarding school 135

Office 45

Restaurant 70

Once the consumers’ total water requirement has been calculated, an allowance should
be added for leakage losses, and for water use by the water utility itself (for washing of
tanks, etc.). This allowance could, for example, be 15%.

The water will have to be stored in service reservoirs. As you learned in Study Session
1, service reservoirs have to hold a minimum of 36 hours’ or 1.5 days’ water supply.

Box 5.1 shows a calculation of water requirement and service reservoir size for a
hypothetical town.
Box 5.1 Water provision for a small town

Imagine a town with a population of 5000 people, and a health centre that treats 100
people a day.

The minimum water requirement per day for the population (using the guidelines in
Table 5.1) will be 40 litres  5000 = 200,000 litres, or 200 m3.

The water requirement for the health centre would be 135 litres  100 = 13,500 litres, or
13.5 m3. The total water requirement each day would be 200 + 13.5 = 213.5 m3.

Allowing for 15% leakage and water usage by the water utility, each day the required
volume of treated water supplied would be:

213.5 m3  1.15 = 245.5 m3. This could be rounded up to 246 m3.

The service reservoir would need to hold a minimum of 36 hours’ of supply (1.5 days).
This means that the service reservoir size would be:

246 m3  1.5 = 369 m3. This could be rounded up to 370 m3.

The water requirement would therefore be 246 m3 per day, and the minimum service
reservoir capacity required would be 370 m3. This volume could be held in one service
reservoir or shared between two, located in different parts of the town.

These simple calculations are included here to give you an idea of the approach that
would be taken to planning a new water supply system. In practice, the process would
require many different engineering, economic and environmental considerations
involving a team of experts.

Summary of Study chapter 5

In Study chapter, you have learned that:

 Large-scale water treatment is required when the population needing water is large
and surface water sources have to be used. Large-scale water treatment often
involves seven stages.

 Screening involves trapping large floating and suspended solids using bar screens or
devices such as microstrainers.

 Aeration helps expel any acidic gases and gaseous organic compounds from the
water. Aeration also removes iron and manganese. Pre-chlorination is carried out
instead of, or in addition to, aeration if there are excess algae in the raw water. The
chlorine also oxidises taste- and odour-causing compounds.

 Coagulation is used to remove fine particles smaller than 1 µm in diameter.

Aluminium sulphate and ferric chloride are two coagulants commonly used in
water treatment.

 The next process is flocculation, where the water is stirred gently to enable large
flocs to form.

 Once the large flocs have formed, the water goes to a sedimentation tank where the
flocs settle out. Filtration follows sedimentation.

 After filtration the water is disinfected by chlorine. The chlorine stays in the water
and protects it till it reaches the consumers.

 Supplementary treatment includes fluoridation of the water, to protect teeth.

Defluoridation may be necessary in some areas to reduce excessive fluoride to safe
levels.

 The wastes from a water treatment plant include screenings, sludge, backwash
waters and packaging from the supply of chemicals and equipment.
 Sustainability in water treatment is enhanced by using simple processes, locally
available materials, regular training of staff, designing for future water demand,
using robust equipment and the use of renewable energy.

 Resilience of water treatment plant can be helped by taking protective measures

against natural hazards and ensuring that all equipment and construction is of a
high standard.

 Basic calculations for water supply can be carried out if the size of the population to
be served and other water demands are known.
 Chapter 6

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER TREATMENT AND SUPPLY

SYSTEMS

Introduction

Urban water supply involves a number of components: the water source, treatment
plant, service reservoirs and the distribution system. Water utilities are responsible for
the operation and maintenance of water treatment plants and distribution networks,
crucial for ensuring reliability and quality of supply. This study session begins by
considering the organisational structure of a typical water utility in Ethiopia, and then
concentrates on how adequate operation and maintenance of the water treatment and
supply system can be undertaken through proper planning and implementation. You
will also consider measures that may be put in place to cope with natural disasters such
as floods.

How water utilities are structured

Water utilities are part of the organisational structure for water supply in towns and
cities. In Ethiopia each woreda has a Council, and each town in the woreda has its own
Town Council. Under each Town Council there is a Town Water Board, and under it is
the water utility, which may also be termed the Town Water Supply Enterprise. In some
towns the water utility is also responsible for the collection and disposal of sewage, in
which case it is referred to as the Town Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise
(Figure 6.1) and reports to the Town Water Supply and Sewerage Board. The water
utilities have a duty to provide the water supply (and sewerage services) promptly, at
appropriate cost, and with a high quality.
Figure 6.1 The offices of the Harar Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise.

The Town Water Board is a committee made up of individuals who are specialists in
water treatment and supply, representatives of other sector offices such as Health and
Education, and other stakeholders (in this context, representatives of people who
would be affected by the water utility’s

actions). Importantly, two members of the Board are democratically elected community
representatives. At least one of these has to be a woman. The term of office of the Board
members is five years. The function of the Board is to ensure the effective performance
of the water utility. In particular it is responsible for ensuring that the water delivered
to the public conforms to quality standards. The Board is also responsible for
determining the utility’s vision, mission, aims, objectives and values, together with
approval and monitoring of the utility’s budget and work programme, recruitment of
the utility’s General Manager, and approval of appointment of Heads of Department.

A water utility may have several departments (Figure 6.2):

 The Planning Department plans for the growth in services provided.

 The Commercial and Customer Care Department handles queries and
complaints from commercial and domestic customers.
 The Engineering Department is responsible for major engineering works, such as
refurbishment or expansion of facilities.
 The Corporate Affairs Department takes care of public relations and
communications such as publicity campaigns to encourage efficient use of water.
 The Rural Water Supply Department ensures that water supply is extended to
cover the rural population.
 The Operation and Maintenance Department ensures the smooth running of the
water treatment and supply system.
 The Water Quality Assurance Department monitors the quality of delivered
water to ensure that it is up to standard.
 The Human Resource Management Department looks after the recruitment and
training of staff.
 The Finance Department manages the water utility’s budget and makes sure that
all financial transactions are recorded, and that revenue is collected for water
supplied.
 Finally, if relevant, the Sewerage Department looks after the sewer network and
sewage treatment. (Note that sewage is the water-carried faecal waste from
toilets, sewers are the pipes carrying this waste and sewerage refers to the
infrastructure that conveys sewage. It encompasses components such as
receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations and screens.)
Figure 6.2 The organisational structure for urban water supply in Ethiopia.

While all the above departments are important, an effective and efficient Operation and
Maintenance Department is vital to ensure that people receive good-quality water
continuously each day. This function will be the focus of the next section.

The basics of operation and maintenance

Operation and maintenance of a water supply system refers to all the activities needed
to run the system continuously to provide the necessary service. The two words are
very frequently used together and the abbreviation ‘O&M’ is widely used. The overall
aim of operation and maintenance is to ensure an efficient, effective and sustainable
system (Castro et al., 2009). ‘Efficient’ means being able to accomplish something with
the least waste of time, effort and resources; ‘effective’ means being successful in
producing the intended result; and ‘sustainable’ means able to be maintained at the best
level over time – in this case, the supply of water.
Operation

Operation refers to the routine activities and procedures that are implemented to
ensure that the water supply system is working efficiently. The activities that contribute
to the operation of a water utility are undertaken by technicians and engineers who
have responsibility for controlling the functions of the system (Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3 Control panel in a water treatment plant.

The components of the system that they look after, such as the treatment plants, process
units and all the equipment and facilities (for example, offices and laboratories) are
called the assets. For each asset there will be operating guidelines to follow. For
instance, a water pump should only be operated for a limited number of hours per day
and this must not be exceeded, otherwise it will be exposed to overheating and
eventually to failure. The pump should also be run long enough to fill the service
reservoir (which you learned about in Study Session 1). If not, there will not be enough
water for distribution to customers.

What are service reservoirs?

They are reservoirs of water that serve to balance the fluctuating demands of users.
They also serve as a back-up supply in case there is a breakdown at the water treatment
plant that cuts the production of clean water.
Maintenance

Maintenance (Figure 6.4) refers to planned technical activities or activities carried out in
response to a breakdown, to ensure that assets are functioning effectively, and requires
skills, tools and spare parts (Carter, 2009). There are two types of maintenance:

Corrective or breakdown maintenance: this is carried out when components fail and stop
working. Breakdown is common in many utilities in Ethiopia and occurs as a result of
poor preventive maintenance (explained next).

Preventive maintenance: this is a regular, planned activity that takes place so that
breakdowns are avoided. Examples of preventive maintenance would include servicing
of equipment, inspecting equipment for wear and tear and replacing as necessary,
cleaning and greasing moving parts of equipment, and replacing items that have a
limited lifespan. Preventive maintenance is important because it ensures that the asset
fulfils its service life. It also prevents crises occurring and costly repairs (in terms of
time and money) being needed.

If you consider the example of the pump mentioned in Section 6.2.1, regularly checking
the electrical parts, the components of the switch/operating board and inspection of
power lines are tasks that can be regarded as preventive maintenance. If the pump fails
due to operational problems or lack of preventive maintenance, it will have to be
repaired or replaced – an example of breakdown maintenance.
Figure 6.4 Technicians undertaking maintenance activities on a water treatment unit.

Preventive maintenance ensures that the different components of the water supply
system perform correctly over their service life (their expected lifetime). This in turn
avoids the occurrence of a major fault or breakdown in the water supply system that
calls for corrective maintenance that is many times more expensive. In some cases, the
problem may require full replacement of a costly item of equipment, which also takes a
significant amount of time to achieve. As a result, the service level of the water supply
system will reduce or even be interrupted over the period of maintenance, causing
significant inconvenience to users and reducing the income of the water utility.

Utilities should always ensure that an adequate level of preventive maintenance is in

place for all of their assets in the water supply system. This requires that adequately
skilled persons are employed as operators or maintenance crew, and that they are
provided with the proper tools. A strict and regular schedule of work is also required to
ensure that preventive maintenance is carried out at the appropriate time. The next
section considers strategies and plans for maintenance.

Maintenance strategy

Utilities with a strong focus on the preventive maintenance of assets can save
substantial time and costs, avoid service interruptions, and increase their revenue.
A good maintenance strategy will detail:

 how the maintenance activities will be organised (on a regional and area basis)
 how maintenance will be carried out (using own technicians, or outsourcing to
skilled technicians outside the utility, or both)
 clear descriptions of how the assets are expected to function with proper
maintenance
 information and documentation requirements, for example a log of parts
replaced, inspections made, recording of any incidents (unexpected events)
 prioritisation of assets for routine inspection and maintenance (the more
important items, such as main pumps, needing more frequent inspection and
maintenance).
At times key decisions have to be made to replace old or damaged equipment. Adept
utility managers plan and decide in advance which assets require replacement and
when. These decisions may be made based on past experience or on the opinions of
individuals, although this may be unwise because experience and opinions vary from
one individual to another. One technique that can assist in making objective decisions
uses the concept of life-cycle cost. (An objective decision is one based on facts, unlike a
subjective decision, which is one based on personal feelings or opinions.) The life-cycle
cost of an asset is the sum of its one-time, non-recurring costs (for example, its purchase
and installation costs) and its recurring costs (such as its operating cost, maintenance
cost and disposal cost) over the life of the asset.

Look at Figure 6.5, which shows two life-cycle cost trends. The solid line shows the
trend for an asset with a low purchase cost but high operating cost over time, whereas
the broken line shows the trend for an asset which has a high purchase cost but low
operating cost over time. Note that both graphs show cumulative costs (the total costs
accumulated over the time period shown). The graph demonstrates that a high initial
cost does not mean an asset has the highest life-cycle cost. Similarly, a low initial cost
does not mean lowest life-cycle cost. Utility managers and technicians can use graphs
such as these to help take decisions when replacing assets or acquiring new ones.

Figure 6.5 Comparative life-cycle cumulative costs. (Asian Development Bank, 2013)

Maintenance plans

Maintenance plans are prepared based on the maintenance strategy that has been
formulated. The plan will outline the maintenance activities, their timing or frequency
and the information needed for the record for each asset. It will also take into account
the current condition of the asset, and its criticality (degree of importance) for the water
supply system. Based on the plan, activities such as inspections, parts replacement and
preventive maintenance will take place.

Retta is drawing up a maintenance schedule for various items at his water utility. In
terms of criticality, how should he rank the following items?

 The computer used for billing customers.

 The pump at the water intake.

 The vehicles used by the leak detection team.

 The control system for the rapid gravity filter.

A recommended ranking would be (starting with the most important):

1. The pump at the water intake.

2. The control system for the rapid gravity filter.

3. The vehicles used by the leak detection team.

4. The computer used for billing customers.

Spare parts

Many water treatment and supply systems fail because of a lack of spare parts.
Managers should be proactive and order adequate quantities of the parts that fail
frequently. Doing this has the benefit of allowing repairs to be undertaken immediately,
instead of time being spent going to the market to search for the appropriate part.

Standardisation (meaning keeping everything the same) of equipment and parts

benefits operation and maintenance because fewer types of each part need to be stocked
(thus making stock management easier), and purchasing bulk quantities of the same
type of part brings savings. Standardisation also reduces the number of skills required
to install and maintain equipment, so that more members of staff would be able to carry
out the work (Barreto Dillon, n.d.).

Asset register

An asset register is a listing of all the fixed assets of an organisation and information
pertaining to the assets. For a water utility the assets would be a list of all the
equipment and buildings. For a piece of equipment the following information would be
recorded: a description of the item, with technical drawings, its acquisition date, its
service life, location and cost; the manufacturer’s details; the serial number of the item;
details of the warranty and insurance; operating instructions; and maintenance
requirements. Details of failures that occur when the asset is in use, and how they were
caused, are also useful as they help in drawing up supplementary guidance on
operation and maintenance, based on experience with the equipment.

The Operation and Maintenance Manual

A key element of ensuring timely and adequate maintenance of water treatment and
supply systems is the Operation and Maintenance Manual (Figure 6.6). This manual is
prepared immediately after construction begins and before operation starts, and is the
basis for the day-to-day running of the system.

Figure 6.6 A typical Operation and Maintenance Manual.

 A well-prepared Operation and Maintenance Manual contains the following:

 A detailed description of the system, with drawings.
 Health and Safety advice for all aspects of the water treatment and supply
operation, ranging from how to lift heavy objects to what to do if someone is
exposed to chlorine gas.
Instructions for starting up and operating each of the water treatment processes and the
system (e.g. of pumps) for delivery of the water, with details of the various parameters
that need to be controlled (such as the flow rate through a rapid gravity sand filter,
maximum flow rate permissible through the delivery system, etc.). These instructions
are often referred to as standard operating procedures or SOPs. Essentially, a standard
operating procedure is an established procedure to be followed in carrying out a given
operation.

The procedure to adopt in emergencies that can occur during the water treatment and
supply process (for example, what to do if the inlet pump at the water intake point
stops working). Plant operators should be trained in emergency procedures (such as
how to overcome the emergency, who to contact, etc.) and mock emergencies should be
enacted to allow staff to practise emergency procedures and be thoroughly familiar
with what to do when a real emergency happens.

Lists of tasks to be undertaken and at what frequency. There should be separate lists for
daily tasks and weekly, monthly and annual tasks. Box 6.1 shows a typical list of daily
tasks and, for comparison, example annual tasks are shown in Box 6.2.

Box 6.1 Example daily tasks in running a water treatment plant

1. Check water meter readings and record water production.

2. Check and record water levels in storage tanks.
3. Check chemical solution tanks and record amounts used.
4. Inspect chemical feed pumps.
5. Check and record residual chlorine at the chlorine contact tank and in the
distribution system.
6. Inspect inlet pumps, motors and controls.
7. Record inlet pump running times and pump cycle starts.
8. Complete a daily security check.
Box 6.2 Example annual tasks in running a water treatment plant

The schedule for these tasks is spread throughout the year with some allocated for
January, some for February, etc. so that workload is managed sensibly. Some of
these tasks may need to be completed three or four times a year.

1. Overhaul chemical feed pumps.

2. Inspect and clean chemical feed lines and solution tanks.
3. Calibrate chemical feed pumps.
4. Operate all valves inside the treatment plant and pump-house. Maintain
log continuously throughout the year.
5. Review emergency response plans.
6. Inspect chemical safety equipment and repair or replace as needed.
7. Inspect, clean and repair control panels in pump house and treatment
plant.
8. Inspect storage tanks for defects and deficiencies, and clean if necessary.
9. Flush the distribution system and exercise/check all fire hydrant valves.
10. Perform preventive maintenance on treatment plant and pump house
buildings

Training and capacity building

It is essential that members of staff are adequately trained to operate and maintain the
water treatment and supply system. The training can begin with a classroom-based
introduction (Figure 6.7) to the whole system, which is then followed by a structured
training programme, where the trainee is exposed to different parts of the water
treatment and supply system, and is given on-the-job training. Here, the trainee works
alongside an experienced staff member until he or she is familiar with components and
comfortable to conduct the desired operation and maintenance independently. Where
the management of the water utility observes a lack of capacity, immediate measures
must be taken to build the required technical skills of the operators and maintenance
crew.

Figure 6.7 Technicians in a classroom during a training session.

Coping with natural disasters

Some towns in Ethiopia are located in areas prone to natural disasters. What are the
natural disasters that have been experienced in Ethiopia?

Flooding is a problem in many parts of the country and earthquakes have also been
experienced.

Water utilities in areas with a history of flooding or earthquakes should prepare

adequately so that water supply is not affected. In 2014 there were serious floods in
Gambela, Afar, SNNPR and Somali regions (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 Flooding due to rainstorms at the Lietchuor Refugee Camp, Gambela Region, in 2014

At times of natural disasters, the need to provide adequate and clean water to
communities is crucial. There are good reasons for this. Other services such as electricity
supply and transportation will be affected, limiting people’s access to safe food and
health services. If clean water is also not available, the health of people will be at serious
risk. Utilities must therefore plan and be prepared for such eventualities. Mock
emergency exercises should be carried out on given water supply systems to develop
detailed lists of actions to ensure that resilient systems that can withstand difficult
conditions are in place to serve the community.

The following are some key points to consider to ensure resilience during floods.

If wells are the source of water, the topmost reach of the well-casing should be raised
above any known level of past flooding. Back-up generators should be installed on a
stable foundation at a height that minimises damage by flood water.

The well should have protective structures around it to prevent damage and avoid
infiltration of contaminated surface water into the well.

In treatment plants, sand bags should be available as flood barriers around buildings
that house equipment, and windows should be boarded up.
Switchboards and other electrical components should be installed at a height where
floodwater cannot reach them.

It is not possible to protect water systems completely from all forms of natural disaster,
for example earthquakes, but by forward planning and preparedness, it is possible to
mitigate the worst impacts.

Summary of Study chapter 6

In Study chapter 6, you have learned that:

 Water utilities have many different departments, each with specific

responsibilities. The Operation and Maintenance Department is vital for ensuring
the continuous supply of good-quality water.

 Operation refers to the activities and procedures needed to keep a system

running.

 Maintenance is the planned technical activity, or an activity taken in response to

a breakdown, to keep a system operating. The former is referred to as ‘preventive
maintenance’ and the latter as ‘breakdown maintenance’.

 Preventive maintenance contributes to continuity of water supply, thus reducing

disruption to service, which can be costly to put right. It also ensures that the full
service life of equipment is achieved and consequently saves money for the
water utility. Continuity of service further means that the income from the sale of
water is not interrupted.

 Life-cycle costing is a means of arriving at an objective decision when

considering the purchase of assets.

 Maintenance schedules for assets should be based on their criticality to the water
supply system.
 Having a stock of spare parts enables repairs to be carried out quickly.

 Standardisation of equipment and spares simplifies stock management, reduces

purchase costs, and reduces the range of staff skills required for repairs, thus
increasing the chances of more people being able to undertake repairs and
maintenance.

 The Operation and Maintenance Manual is the guide by which the water supply
system is run, and contains a description of the system, Health and Safety advice,
instructions for starting up and operating equipment, emergency procedures,
and listings of the required tasks, with timings.

 Staff should be adequately trained in operation and maintenance, and technical

capacity should be built up in the water utility.

 Measures must be in place to ensure that natural disasters do not affect water
supply.
 Chapter 6

DISTRIBUTION, LEAKAGE AND ILLEGAL CONNECTIONS

Introduction

Some of the principles of distribution and delivery of water in urban areas were
explained in Study Chapter 1. Water from a treatment plant is conveyed in transmission
mains to service reservoirs, and then in distribution mains that deliver it to consumers.

In this study session you look at this system again and consider the causes and effects of
leakage and the ways it can be detected. You will also consider illegal connections to the
water supply system, and the impacts that they have.

Water delivery in urban settings

Water in urban areas is usually conveyed through a network of pipes to reach the users.
Figure 7.1 is a diagram of a typical distribution and delivery system.

Figure 7.1 Schematic of a water distribution and delivery system.

Compare Figure 7.1 with Figure 1.10 in Study chapter 1. Which parts of the system can
you see in both diagrams?
The transmission main and service reservoir are in both diagrams. The treatment works
in Figure 1.10 is equivalent to the ‘Source’ here. The distribution mains are shown in
Figure 7.1 as the main and branch pipelines.

Figure 7.1 also shows the further distribution options labelled as ‘house connection’
(indoor taps), ‘yard tap’ (outside the house) and ‘standpost’. Standposts or standpipes
are equivalent to public taps

and water points. Water can also be obtained from kiosks, which are booths selling, in
addition to water, food, household items, etc. The junctions in the system, where one
pipe connects to another, should be controlled by valves so that water flow can be
managed in the separate sections and different parts can be isolated. This allows repairs
to be made to one section without cutting off the supply elsewhere.

In some cases, in order to reach the extremities of the distribution system the water may
have to be pressurised and pumped. Pressurising the water also prevents entry of
contaminants should there be a crack in the pipe.

In flat areas of the country, certain structures are used to ensure the water can flow by
gravity to users. What are these structures?

Water towers.

The pipework of a distribution system can be made of different materials. In the old
days pipes were often made of metal, but nowadays it is very common to see
polyethylene or other types of plastic pipes. Plastic pipes can last in excess of 100 years
(Plastics Industry Pipe Association, n.d.) and do not suffer from corrosion as metal
pipes do. Corrosion is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical
reaction with their environment. Corrosion in pipes leads to a reduction in their water-
carrying capacity, so that the water requires greater pumping (thus consuming more
energy). In addition, when metal pipes corrode they release metals into the water,
causing undesirable aesthetic and health effects. When unlined iron pipes are used, iron
can be released and this causes the water to appear brown or red. Washing light-
coloured clothes with this water leaves a stain. Plastic pipes are lighter and therefore
easier to transport, and they are also easier to lay (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 Plastic water mains being laid.

Non-revenue water and leakage

Water that is supplied by water utilities has to be paid for, since the production and
distribution of treated water costs money. (You will learn more about this in Study
Session 13.) There is, however, a category of water supplied from which no income is
derived for the water utility. This non-revenue water includes:

 water that is used by the water utility for maintenance purposes, for example for
cleaning out pipes, reservoirs or tanks
 water that is not recorded as having been used, due to inaccurate or faulty water
meters
 water that is taken illegally from the mains
 water that is lost due to leakage (water escaping from the pipe into the
environment).
Leakage is by far the biggest component in non-revenue water. In Addis Ababa, for
example, non-revenue water is estimated to be 41% of the total volume supplied
(GWOPA, n.d.). A figure of 10% for non-revenue water is acceptable – anything higher
needs investigating. Figure 7.3 shows an example of water being lost via a burst pipe.
Many water leaks, unlike the one shown here, are slow and relatively small. They can
be unobtrusive and not visible at the surface but, over time, large volumes of water can
seep out of a leaking water pipe and into the surrounding ground.

Figure 7.3 A burst pipe!

Why do you think water leakage from an urban distribution system is a problem?

Leakage means that good-quality water produced in a treatment plant is lost. The cost
of the water is an issue but, more importantly, it results in less water being available for
supply. It can mean that customers are left without water for some of the time. This
could make it difficult for them to wash and thus potentially affects their health.

In the long term, the loss of water due to leakage puts added pressure on the water
supply system. Increasing demand from rising urban populations requires the
expansion of existing water supply systems or the development of new ones, which is
costly and challenging. Preventing leakage in the existing system rather than investing
in expansion or new schemes would be economically preferable.

Leakage causes many other problems. It leads to a loss in pressure in the water supply
system. To overcome this the operators may then increase the pressure (using more
energy) but this increased pressure leads to a greater rate of leakage. Leaking water can
damage infrastructure such as the foundations of buildings. In addition, damaged pipes
can allow contamination of the mains supply. The reduction in water pressure (in the
underground pipe) will allow impure water from the soil to get into the water main and
contaminate the supply.

There are several different reasons why water pipes leak and they frequently occur in
combination. Leakage occurs due to the pipelines:

 being old and corroded, like the section shown in Figure 7.4
 being poorly constructed, where sections of pipe are not joined properly to each
other
 being poorly maintained
 having poor corrosion protection
 being damaged through digging by other utilities
 being damaged by aggressive (corrosive) water inside the pipe, when water
quality standards are breached
 being damaged through illegal connections made to the pipe

Figure 7.4 A section of corroded water pipe.

Any pipework is vulnerable to pollutants in the soil and ground on the outside of the
pipe, which can be corrosive, depending on several factors including the use of the
surrounding land, the presence of industrial wastes that can leach through the soil, etc.
The water inside the pipe that is being delivered to customers should, of course, be
potable and free of any undesirable pollutants. However, if there is a failure in the
system, it is possible that the water may become corrosive, attacking pipe and storage
tank material. Water that is acidic, has a high dissolved solids content or is very hot can
be corrosive.

Responsibility for leakage control in main water pipelines lies with the water utilities.
Each water utility must have a code of practice that sets out how they address any
leakage in water supply pipes. The following procedure is generally adopted once a
leak has been detected:

 Assess the damage to the pipework.

 Identify the resources (human, time and materials) needed to rectify the problem.

 Mobilise resources.

 Let customers know about the extent of the damage and the time needed to
resolve the problem.

 Provide an alternative water supply until the restoration work has been
completed.

 Undertake the repairs and reconstruction work as rapidly as possible.

Leakage prevention, detection and control

Although leaks can occur through valves that are malfunctioning, the largest losses of
water are through leaks in the water main itself, either where two sections are joined or
where there is a defect in the pipe. Proactive leakage control (where teams take action
to prevent leaks occurring) can bring several benefits. It will mean that more water is
available for supply, and it will delay the need for costly expansion programmes. It will
also lead to less disruption of traffic and daily life, which happens when a leakage is
discovered and has to be fixed. Less infrastructure damage is caused and there is less
risk of the mains water becoming contaminated.
One way to minimise leaks is to ensure that the water pressure in the distribution
system is not excessive. Lowering the system pressure during periods of low water
demand can lead to a decrease in leakage loss, and extend the life of pipes (Thompson
and Wang, 2009). Another form of proactive leakage management is to replace ageing
pipes as they reach the end of their life.

Detecting leaks in water mains

Preventing leaks by using corrosion-resistant materials, following the correct
procedures for pipe laying, and conducting regular checks and preventive maintenance
is the best approach, but inevitably some leaks will still occur. The challenge is to find
the leaks, which will probably be underground, and repair them as quickly as possible.
This is active leakage control.

Leaks are usually detected from the sound generated by the escaping water. A device
called a noise correlator (Figure 7.5) is used to listen to the leak from two different
points and can pinpoint the exact location of the leak. The correlator can be used on
both metal and non-metal pipes.

Typically, microphones or acoustic sensors (1 and 2 in Figure 7.5) are placed in contact
with the pipe, at two points, to record the hissing sound emitted by a leak somewhere
between the points. The sound data are sent to a noise correlator (3), which processes
the information through a mathematical program to determine the difference in the
times taken for the noise to travel from the site of the leak to each of the sensors. If the
distance between the sensors is known, this timing information can be used to
determine the location of the leak.
Figure 7.5 A noise correlator system to pinpoint the location of a leak.

Leakage detection is best carried out at night when it is quiet and the use of water is
minimal. Sections of pipe which have a high flow can then be closed off and
investigated for leaks. In areas where there is only an intermittent supply of water, a
water tanker can be used to put water into a section of pipe and pressurise it. Any
leakage can then be easily detected.

Alternatively, devices called acoustic loggers (Figure 7.6) can be attached to pipes using
magnets. They record and analyse the intensity and consistency of noise in the pipe. A
significant change in the noise will signal a leak. This device has been used in Harar to
detect leaks (Mohammed, 2015). A combined correlator-acoustic logger is also available.
This reduces the time for detecting and pin-pointing a leak.
Figure 7.6 An acoustic logger to detect leaks through a change in noise level in the water pipe.

Another device is ground-penetrating radar, which reveals leaks by identifying

disturbed ground or cavities around a pipe. It can be used to locate leaks where a
correlator would be impractical due to noise created by pumps, etc.

Contrary to common belief, large leaks that spray water into the street, like the one in
Figure 7.4, are not the major cause of water loss, since they are obvious and thus quickly
found and repaired. The small leaks, which discharge water under the ground, are not
obvious and can remain undiscovered for years, with the concomitant loss of a large
amount of water. However, in a pressurised system, small leaks are noisy and can be
detected easily, once suspicion is aroused about a possible leakage.

When carrying out a leak detection programme, it is best to concentrate on parts of the
distribution system that are most likely to have a leak. These would be:

 areas where there have been leaks before

 areas where there is heavy traffic, because this would exert a load on the pipes,
and also the vibrations caused by the traffic can cause damage.
Once a leak is discovered it has to be repaired quickly, so that wastage of water and
money is avoided. Public opinion is also important – water seen gushing out onto the
street for a long period quickly leads to accusations that the water utility is being
complacent!

Special collars that fit around the pipe are used to repair small leaks. For large leaks, a
smaller-diameter pipe may be inserted into the section of pipe concerned, so that the
water flows through this new pipe (effectively a pipe within a pipe). Alternatively, the
pipe section itself can be replaced.

Detecting leaks at home

For homes with a piped water supply, if the water bill suddenly goes up when the
circumstances in the home have not changed, it is a sign that perhaps there is a leak in
the water system. A way of confirming this is to turn off all the water appliances and
observe the water meter. If the dials on it are turning, there is a leak somewhere. It may
be possible to hear the hissing noise of water escaping. A search for the source of the
sound will reveal the leak.

Water-flushed toilet systems can be checked by putting a few drops of food colouring in
the water tank of the cistern, and 30 minutes later checking the water in the toilet bowl.
If it has colour in it, the cistern is leaking.

Illegal connections

There are cases in Ethiopia and many other places of people illegally tapping into a
water main in order to obtain water without paying for it. The cost of the water they use
is borne by others who do pay for the water produced by the utility. Apart from
committing a crime (theft of water, thus depriving the water utility of revenue), people
who make illegal connections to the water supply system also endanger the safety of
the mains water through possible contamination. This can be caused simply by making
a break in the pipe without taking the necessary precautions to prevent contamination.
The same can also happen if the illegal connection consists of a hose or pipe that, at one
end, is connected to the water main and, at the other end, is left immersed below the
water level of a storage tank, bucket or other container. This situation is illustrated in
Figure 7.8. If there is a reduction in water pressure in the water main (say, due to a pipe
burst), water from the container could be drawn into the mains supply. This
phenomenon is referred to as back-siphonage. If the water in the bucket is
contaminated in any way, this will result in contamination of the mains water too.

Figure 7.7 Back-siphonage.

Illegal connections mainly occur in newly established residential areas where some of
the newly built households are supplied with water from the mains, while others do not
have a piped supply. They get water from their neighbours through illegal connections
using water hoses or plastic and metal pipes, without the knowledge and authorisation
of the water utility.

Sustainability
The sustainability of a water distribution and supply system will be improved if pipes
are made of robust, long-lasting material. The laying of the pipes has to conform with
good civil engineering practice so that leaks are prevented. The pipes should not be laid
where excessive pressure or vibration from above (such as from road traffic) is present.
Maintenance of the distribution system is paramount, with proactive leakage control,
and repair and replacement of pipes, etc. when appropriate. The sustainability of the
whole water supply system can be improved if leakage is minimized and illegal
connections are eliminated. Sustainability will also be enhanced if the volume of potable
water used for purposes other than personal consumption is minimized. You will learn
about ways of using less water in Study Session 11.

Summary of Study Chapter 7

In Study chapter, you have learned that:

 Drinking water distribution systems take water to indoor taps, taps in yards and
public taps.

 Water pipes are now mainly made of plastic that last at least 100 years, and they
are easier to transport and lay than metal pipes.

 Care must be taken when handling water so as not to contaminate it.

 Non-revenue water is water from which no income comes to the water utility.
This includes water that is used by the water utility in its operations, water that
is not recorded as used, water that is stolen through illegal water connections
and water that is lost by leakage.

 Leakage, the biggest portion of non-revenue water, results in lost revenue, less
water being available for supply, and damage to infrastructure.

Leakage occurs when pipelines are old and corroded, badly constructed, poorly
maintained and damaged externally by digging or internally by aggressive
 ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain six major non-domestic use of water.

2. Briefly describe the important roles that water plays in the human body.
3. List the types of people who are most vulnerable to waterborne diseases. Explain
your answers why and how to overcome the diseases
4. Suppose that inhabitants of a village obtain water from a spring. What advice
would you give to the users about the prevention of contaminants entering the
spring?
5. The following are pollution sources. Give two specific pollutants for each source.
a) A residential area:
b) A metal plating plant:
c) Agricultural activities:
d) An uncontrolled landfill site:
e) Urban surface water run-off