All living cells need certain substance to keep them alive.

These substances are:

 Oxygen for aerobic respiration

 Glucose as a source of energy
 Proteins for growth and repair
 Fats to make membranes and to be a store for energy
 Water allows metabolic reaction to occur and acts as transport medium
 Minerals to maintain their water potential and to help enzyme action and other aspects of
metabolism

Metabolic activities produce waste products

 Co2 for animals and microorganisms, also plants cells not actively undergoing
photosynthesis
 Oxygen is a bi-product of photosynthesis in plant cells and in some protoctists
 Other wastes are ammonia or urea, when there is excess nitrogen

Single cells and small organisms find it easy to exchange gases, nutrients and wastes through their
outer membranes as they have a small SA:VOL ratio, however as an organism gets larger this ratio is
reduced and cells need more supplies. There is not a large enough surface area to enable gases and
nutrients to enter the body fast enough to keep all the cells alive. There is also a larger diffusion
distance; the substances have to travel a bigger distance.

Exchange surfaces are specialised areas that are adapted to make it easier to for molecules to cross
from one side of the surface to the other

All good exchange surfaces need:

 A large surface area to provide more space for the molecules to pass through (folding
membranes). Individual alveoli are very small (100-300micrometers across) but there are so
many they provide a SA larger than that of the skin- total SA of the lung exchange surface is
70m2
 Thin barrier to reduce the diffusion distance- for example the alveolus wall and the walls of
the capillaries are one cell thick. These walls contain squamous cells- which are flat and
much thinner. Capillaries are in close contact with the alveolus wall. The capillaries are so
narrow the red blood cells are squeezed against the capillary wall, making them closer to the
air in the alveoli and it also reduces the rate at which they flow past the blood. The total
barrier to diffusion is only two flattened cells thick, less than 1micrometer
 Steep diffusion gradient -
 Some exchange surfaces use active transport
 They need to be permeable to the substances- need to readily allow the diffusion of them
(co2 and 02), plasma membranes

Examples of exchange surfaces:

 Small intestine- where nutrients are absorbed, vili

 Liver- where levels of sugars in the blood are adjusted
  Root hairs of plant- where water and minerals are absorbed
 Hyphae of fungi where nutrients are absorbed
 Alveoli- lungs

Gaseous exchange is the movement of gases by diffusion between an organism and its environment
across a barrier such as the alveolus wall

What requirements must the lungs meet to be efficient?

 The larger airways must be large enough to allow sufficient air to flow without obstruction
 They must also divide into smaller airways to deliver air to all the alveoli
 The airways must be strong enough to prevent them collapsing when the air pressure inside
is low (inhalation)
 They must be flexible to allow movement
 They must be able to stretch and recoil

Using the mammalian gaseous exchange system as an example, explain how the different
Cells and tissues enable the effective exchange of gases.

 The gaseous exchange system has squamous cells, there is the squamous epithelium in the
alveoli and the thin endothelium in the capillaries, and both layers are also one cell thick,
this provides a short diffusion distance.
 A thin layer of moisture lines the alveoli. This moisture passes through the cell membranes
from the cytoplasm of the alveolus cells. As we breathe out, it evaporates and is lost.
Surfactant is produced from the epithelial cells to reduce the cohesive forces between the
water molecules (reducing the surface tension), this prevents the alveoli from collapsing.
 We use erythrocytes to transport gases like oxygen from and carbon dioxide to alveoli. We
can use this then to maintain a steep diffusion gradient. It ensures that the carbon dioxide
concentration in the blood is higher than that in the air of the alveoli. As o2 is taken away
from the alveoli, it ensures that there are lower concentrations of 02 in the blood than in the
air of the alveoli. Breathing movements due to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles help
ventilate the lungs by providing fresh air and removing used air maintaining the steep
diffusion gradient.
 Goblet cells and glandular tissue secrete mucus. The role of the mucus is to trap bacteria and
pollen in the air. The ciliated epithelium wafts the mucus up to the back of the throat where
it is swallowed and all the bacteria are killed by the acid in the stomach.
 Cartilage plays a structural role, supporting and holding the trachea and bronchi open. This
prevents collapse when the air pressure inside is very low during inhalation. The cartilage is
in a ‘c’ shape, incomplete rings giving some flexibility. Allowing the oesophagus to expand
when swallowing and allows you to move your neck without constricting the airways. It also
has a low resistance to air movement
 Smooth muscle constricts the airway, narrowing the lumen, preventing harmful substances
from getting further down. This is not a voluntary act. This is often seen in allergic reactions
bronchioles will constrict making it difficult to breathe; this is also one of the causes of
asthma.
 Elastic fibres then recoil and open up the airways, aiding ventilation.
  Macrophages and neutrophils engulf and destroy pathogens protecting us from infection.

What are the steps for gas exchange in the lungs?

 Diaphragm contracts to become flatter and pushes the digestive organs down
 External intercostal muscles contract and raise the ribs up and out
 Volume of the chest cavity increases
 Pressure in the chest falls below atmospheric pressure
 Air moves in (to the lungs)
 As you breathe the air enters the trachea
 The trachea splits into two bronchi- one bronchus leading to each lung
 Each bronchus then branches of into smaller tubes called bronchioles
 The bronchioles end in small air sacs called alveoli – gas exchange occurs here
 Diaphragm relaxes and is pushed up by displaced organs beneath
 External intercostal muscles relax and ribs fall
 Volume of chest cavity decreases
 Pressure in the lungs increases above atmospheric pressure
 Air moves out of the lungs

What is a single circulatory system?

The blood passes through the heart one in a single cycle

What is a closed circulatory system?

The blood remains in the vessels

Explain why the wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the left atrium?

 The blood needs to be pushed much further, to all parts of the body
 The blood will have to pushed against a higher resistance (friction)
 Therefore the heart will have to create a higher pressure and greater force
 Right ventricle also needs to create a lower force/pressure
 This is because it pumps blood to the fine capillaries at the lungs, the capillaries are not
supported and can burst with a high pressure

Explain how pressure changes in the heart bring about the closure of the atrioventricular
(bicuspid) valve.

 The ventricle contracts, ventricular systole occurs

 This raises ventricular pressure
 Eventually it exceeds that of the atria
  The blood moves from areas of high pressure to low, therefore blood travels to the atria
forcing the valves shut as the blood accumulates in the valve pockets
 Chordae tendinae prevent inversion

The heart acts as a muscular double pump

Arteries are used to maintain pressure

Blood/plasma is used as a transport medium

Capillary walls act as an exchange surface

Describe how the action of the heart is initiated and coordinated

 The SAN is the pacemaker, it initiates the heart beat

 The SAN creates a wave of excitation
 This wave spreads over the atrial walls
 This causes atrial systole
 The contraction is synchronised
 There is a delay the AVN
 The excitation spreads down the septum/purkyne fibres and the bundle if his
 Ventricular systole occurs from apex up

What is the cause of angina?

 if the coronary arteries are restricted, the blood flow to the heart is reduced
 This would mean that the cardiac cells will not receive sufficient amounts of fatty acids and
oxygen
 Cardiac cells will starve of oxygen
 Fatty acids can only be broken down to release energy aerobically

What are the features of a good transport system?

 A fluid or medium to carry nutrients and oxygen around the body

 A pump to create pressure that will push the fluid around
 Exchange surfaces that enable oxygen to and nutrients to enter the blood and to leave it
again where it is needed

Pulmonary circulation- heart to lungs

Systemic circulation- heart to all parts of the body

Outline the advantages of a double circulatory circulation

 It allows the heart to increase the pressure of the blood after it passes through the lungs, so
blood will flow to all parts of the body much quicker (tissues)
 The system circulation can carry blood at a higher pressure

Outline the factors that affect the need for a transport system
  Size- the bigger the animal the larger the diffusion distance and the harder it is for all the cell
to receive sufficient amounts of nutrients
 SA:Vol
 Level of activity- more active the animal the higher the demand

Cells

Microscopes allow biologist to see detail of the cell structure and ultrastructure

How does DNA from a bacterial cell differ from that of a eukaryotic cell?

 The DNA is ‘naked’, it is not in the nucleus

 The DNA is not linear, it is circular
 DNA is not associated with proteins, histones
 The is a single unit of nuclear material

What happens to proteins in the Golgi apparatus?

 Proteins are modified

 A carbohydrate/sugar molecule is added to form a glycoprotein
 They are then concentrated
  And are packaged into vesicles (lysosomes) to be transported to where it is needed
 Often secreted out of the cell via exocytosis

The Golgi is made up of cisternae and vesicles (lysosomes)

Explain why structure A’s double membrane cannot be seen clearly

 The resolution of the microscope is low

 The angle of the section
 Damage
 Poor printing

Structure C and E are examples of the same organelles explain why whey look different

 The sections were cut in different planes/angles

 The organelle can vary in shape
 The organelle may be dividing or growing
 The section may have been damaged, deforming the organelle, in preparation

Outline the sequence of events that follow the production of extracellular proteins that lead it to
be released out the cell

 The proteins move to the Golgi apparatus

 Here the protein is modified and processed
 It is packaged into vesicles
 The vesicles travel to the cell surface membrane via microtubules
 The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane
 Exocytosis occurs and the protein is secreted out of the cell

State the function of mitochondria

 It is the site of aerobic respiration

 ATP production
 It releases energy for the cell
 It is involved in the Krebs cycle
 Lipid synthesis
 Protein synthesis
 Oxidation of fats

Why do ciliated cells contain a lot of mitochondria?

 ATP is required to release energy to allow the movement of cilia (wafting)

Name types of cells which contain chloroplast and are found in the leaf

 Palisade mesophyll cells

 Spongy mesophyll cells
  Guard cells

What happens to the vacuole when it fuses with a lysosome?

 Hydrolytic enzymes enter the vacuole

 These break down the contents
 The waste material is taken out of the cell
 The food substances are absorbed by the cytoplasm (cell)

Outline the functions all of the parts of the plant cell

 The nucleus controls the activities of the cell for example cell division and transcription
 It also house of all the genetic information that can be passed on the next generation
 The nucleolus produces ribosomes and rRNA
 The smooth ER makes and transports lipids like steroid hormones
 The rough ER and free ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis, translation
 The rough ER also transports the proteins to the Golgi app
 The Golgi processes and modifies the proteins, adding a carbohydrate/sugar molecule
 Then packages the proteins into vesicles
 Involved in secretion
 Formation of lysosomes
 The mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration
 Make ATP
 Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes and break down cells/organelles/ingested material
 The plasma membrane is partially permeable, making it selectively permeable
 Controls and regulates the exchange between the environment and the cell
 Cell recognition/ signalling
 Allows exocytosis and endocytosis
 The cell wall gives the cell shape, support and strength
 Prevents bursting when water enters by osmosis, goes against the turgor pressure
 Fully permeable
 Vacuoles and tonoplasts are the reservoirs for salts, sugars, waste and pigment
 Exerts turgor pressure
 Controls the water potential
 Starch grains are used in storage (energy)
 Cytoplasm is the site of chemical reactions in the cell
 Protein channels and carriers used is transport of ions
 Phospholipid bilayer allows the transport of lipid soluble substances
 Lignin used to waterproof the cell

Prokaryote Eukaryote
 No nucleus or anything associated with  Nucleus, nucleolus
it, envelope, nucleolus  Linear DNA
 Circular loop of DNA  DNA + histones=chromosomes
 Naked DNA, no histones  Membrane bound organelles
 No membrane bound organelles  May have cell wall
  Cell wall  Cellulose cell wall
 Peptidoglycan/ murien cell wall  Ribosomes larger 80S
 Ribosomes smaller 70S  No plasmids
 Plasmids  Cytoskeleton
 No cytoskeleton  No pili
 Pili  No mesosomes, mitochondria
 Mesosomes  No capsule
 Has capsule  Flagellum 9 + 2
 Flagellum not 9 + 2

Explain why the xylem is described as a tissue

 It is made up of more than one type of cell

 Each one has a role
 They all work together to carry out a specific function, transport of minerals

Outline the stages of mitosis

 In prophase the chromosomes supercoil, they shorten and fatten this allows the pair of
sister chromatids to be seen.
 Also the nuclear envelope disintegrates.
 The centrioles divide into two each daughter centriole moves to the opposite poles of the
cell to form spindle (protein)
 In metaphase the chromosomes align at the equator
 Each chromosome becomes attached by a spindle fibre at the centromere
 In anaphase the spindle fibres contract and shorten pulling the sister chromatids apart and
towards the poles, the centromere splits
 They take up a ‘V’ shape and point in the direction they move, the centromere leads
 In telophase they detach from the spindle fibres and the separated sister chromatids reach
the poles
 Spindle breaks down
 New nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes
 The chromosomes uncoil- cannot be seen
 Cytokinesis occurs

Explain why it is important that the gametes in meiosis are haploids

 To restore the diploid number when they fuse

 Prevents the doubling of chromosome number in successive generations
 Without gametes there will be no genetic variation
 There will be no input of genetic material from more than one individual
 Triploid will be infertile

What occurs in interphase?

 In G1 biosynthesis occurs, protein synthesis, respiration, new organelles formed

 In S DNA replication/ synthesis, respiration
  In G2 growth of cell, translation, , respiration, centrioles replicate

What are the roles of mitosis?

 To produce new cells

 Produce genetically identical cells
 Asexual reproduction
 Maintains the chromosome number
 Growth of organism
 Repair of tissues

Explain the meaning of tissue

 A group of cells, where there are more than one cell type, they all work together to perform
a particular function

Name a plant tissue

 Xylem, phloem, epidermis, mesophyll, meristem, cambium

Describe features that will allow you to identify as white blood cell as a lymphocyte

Same size as RBCs, but have a very large nucleus and a non-granular cytoplasm

Outline the features of a red blood cell that enable efficient collection of oxygen

 They have a biconcave shape, this provides large SA: Vol ratio, allowing optimum uptake of
oxygen and fast diffusion of oxygen
 They are about the same size as the capillaries, this means they have to squeeze through
them, reducing diffusion distance and flow rate, maximising uptake of oxygen, and rapid
diffusion
 Haemoglobin is close the surface of RBCs, short diffusion distance
 No nucleus and very few organelles, giving maximum space for carrying oxygen/
haemoglobin
 They are flexible allowing them to go through the capillaries more easily

Explain how the structure of a sperm cell is specialised for carrying it’s role

 Flagellum for movement

 It has a haploid number of chromosomes
 Its head is shaped to penetrate into the egg cell
 It had acrosome on its head to breakdown the wall of the egg cell
 Many mitochondria for movement, ATP

Describe how you would you prepare a root tip squash so that mitosis can be studied

 Heat with acetic orcein stain

  Break open the tip with a needle
 Mount in stain
 Gently squash under coverslip
 Warm gently to intensify the stain

Why would you use the root tip

 It is meristematic therefore cell division will be occurring here, mitosis is active

Why is it necessary to quash in the preparation

To attain a single layer of cell, to spread out the cells

Explain why staining is necessary

 To make the chromosomes visible

What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?

 Tissues are groups of different cell types working together to perform a function
 Organs are more than one tissue working together to perform a fuction

State why the leaf is described as an organ

 The leaf is made up of more than one tissue

Explain what is meant by the term clone

Cells that are genetically identical to each other/parent cell

Outline the advantages of asexual reproduction to an organism

 It is very quick
 Only one parent needed
 Preserves desirable traits

What is meant by the term stem cell?

Undifferentiated cells capable of differentiating to a number of different cell types

Describe the mechanism by which the oxygen in the alveolar space gets into the RBCs

 There is a high partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli

 There is a low partial pressure of oxygen in the RBC
 The oxygen simple diffuses across from a high partial pressure to low

Why do mammals need a circulatory system while unicellular organisms don’t?

 Size- mammals are larger and the cells are deep within the body
 Large diffusion distance
 Diffusion will be too slow
  Activity- Mammals are more metabolically active
 They need more rapid supply and have a bigger demand, removal of wastes
 SA: Vol- mammals have a small ratio
 This means that diffusion is not efficient on its own

Explain how changes in the SA : Vol ratio has influenced the need for a transport system

 Diffusion is inadequate
 As there is not enough area
 Volume is great, therefore the diffusion distance to too large, cells are too deep inside
 Mass flow system needed
 Transport systems would link all the parts of the body
 This would allow substances, like gases and wastes to be transported
 Bigger organisms have a higher demand for substances and have a higher metabolic rate
 Diffusion cannot occur fast enough to keep all of the cells alive

What are the consequences of a blockage in the coronary artery?

 Oxygen/ glucose will not reach the cardiac muscle

 There will be less or no respiration
 This will lead to myocardial infarction and possible death

Outline the stages of the cardiac cycle

 Atrial systole- the pressure in the atria builds up and exceeds that of the ventricles
 The atrioventricular valves open
 The blood passes into the ventricles
 Ventricular systole- pressure builds up and exceeds that of the atria and arteries
 The blood tries to go back to the atria
 The atrioventricular valves snap shut preventing back flow
 Semi-lunar valves open
 Blood flows into the arteries
 Diastole occurs
 Ventricular pressure lowers and blood tries to flow from the arteries to the ventricles
 The semilunar valves close to prevent back flow
 During diastole the blood from the major veins enter the atria and since the atrioventricular
valves are still open, drip into the ventricles

Describe how the structure of an artery is related to its function

 Thick tunica media, which contains elastic fibres and smooth muscle
 Thick wall is able to withstand pressure and therefore stops the vessel from bursting
 Relatively narrow lumen to maintain the high pressure
 Elastic tissue allows stretching and flexibility- the recoiling of the elastic tissue also helps to
maintain high pressure
  Recoil evens out surges of pressure from the beating of the heart, this maintains flow
 Collagen provides mechanical strength
 The smooth endothelium reduces friction
 Smooth muscle helps to maintain pressure and causes vasoconstriction

Blood aorta Tissue fluid Lymph Blood in vena

cava
RBC many None none many
WBC Many Some Some Many
Glucose conc High- transported High can be low, Low- used up by High- absorbed
in blood used by cells cell, tissue fluid from gut
pressure High- comes from Low- pressure is Low, far from Low- no
heart lost here heart mechanism of
raising it

Feature Blood Tissue fluid Lymph

Cells Erythrocytes, Some phagocytic WBCs Lymphocytes
leucocytes, platelets
Proteins Hormones and plasma Some hormones, Some proteins from
proteins, albumen proteins released by the tissue fluid
cells
Fats Lipoproteins, some None More than in blood,
absorbed from lacteals
in intestine
Glucose High High/low Low
Amino acids High Low Low
Oxygen High Low, absorbed by cells Low
Carbon dioxide Low More, released by cells more

How is tissue fluid formed?

 Oxygenated Blood flows in to a capillary bed

 At the arterial end there is high hydrostatic pressure
 due to the contractions of the heart
 this is greater than the osmotic effect
 This will push the blood fluid out of the capillaries through gaps/pores in the capillary walls
 This fluid consists of plasma with dissolved nutrients and oxygen
 RBCs and large proteins like albumen and most WBC are too big to pass through and remain
in the blood
 The fluid pushed out Is the tissue fluid and it is at lower pressure
 It surrounds the body cells so exchange can occur through diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
 Wastes leave the cell and enter the tissue fluid
 The fluid itself has some hydrostatic pressure
 Since a lot of the nutrients and gases have been used by the body cells the water potential
of the tissue fluid is higher and due to the osmotic effect the fluid returns via osmosis
  So water from the fluid moves back into the blood via osmosis down a water potential
gradient

How is lymph formed?

 Not all of the tissue fluid returns to the blood

 Some of it drains into the lymphatic system
 It passes through lymph nodes and lymphocytes are added to the fluid to make lymph,
bacteria are destroyed here
 Lymph will have more fatty acids as it absorbs it from the intestines

Describe how carbon dioxide causes the release of oxygen?

 As cells respire they release carbon dioxide, this diffuses into the blood plasma and enters
the red blood cells.
 Here is reacts with water to form weak carbonic acid, this reaction is catalysed by carbonic
anhydrase.
 The carbonic acid then dissociates releasing hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions
(HCO3-).
 The hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse out of the cell into the plasma they react then with
sodium ions in the plasma.
 The chloride shift occurs, where chloride ions move into the cell, this is to maintain the
charge in the cell.
 The build-up of H ions causes the cell to become very acidic, so the haemoglobin acts as a
buffer and dissociates from the oxygen, releasing 4 molecules of oxygen. It then reacts with
the H ions to form haemoglobinic acid.
 Oxygen diffuses out into the plasma

Why is a person in fibrillation unlikely to survive if not treated?

 The contractions of the heart are not coordinated/ irregular

 Less blood will reach the lungs or the body
 Parts of the body and the heart, brain, will be deprived of oxygen
 Tissues/ cells will not be able to respire- brain cells/ cardiac cells
 The cells will die

What would happen if the purkyne fibre ceased to function?

 The wave of excitation will stop at the AVN

 The wave will not reach the heart apex
 There will be no ventricular systole
 Atrial contraction will continue
 Fibrillation
 Uncoordinated beating
 Blood will not leave the heart

Why is it important that the two sides of the heart are separate?
  It stops the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing
 Ensures that oxygenated blood reaches the body an deoxygenated blood reaches the lungs
 If there is a hole the pressure will drop in the heart
 Allows different pressures being maintains on either side of the heart
 Is not separate the heart rate would have to rise

Outline all the features of the veins and explain how they relate to their function

 Smooth endothelium reduces the friction

 Thin tunica intima, media and externa – only can withstand low pressures
 Thin layer of collagen fibres provide mechanical strength
 Contains squamous cells
 Has little smooth muscle and elastic fibres – no need to stretch and recoil
 Large/wide lumen –eases the flow of blood
 They have valves to prevent back flow
 Thin walls allow skeletal muscle to squeeze the veins, this allows the blood to flow

Explain why the pressure in the blood vessels goes down?

 The distance from the heart increases

 There is increased friction/resistance as we go along
 Dissipation of energy in elastic recoil
 Pressure has to be reduced as we get to the capillaries, to prevent bursting
 Thinner tunica media and externa as we go along, vessels let capable of maintaining
pressure

Explain why the pressure has to drop as we get to the capillaries

 To stop damage/busting
 Due to thin less elastic walls
 To slow down the flow rate
 Allowing more time for exchange

Explain how structural features of capillaries help its function

 Wall is one cell thick- short diffusion distance, rapid diffusion

 Smooth endothelium- reduces resistance
 Small gaps between endothelium cells- allows nutrients out
 Small diameter- short diffusion distance
 Large surface area- allows more exchange, close to all the body cells, more contact

Explain why the foetal oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve being to the left is essential for the
foetus’s survival

 The fetus is able to gain oxygen from the maternal blood across the placenta
 The partial pressure of oxygen in the placenta is low, 2-4kpa
 Maternal blood releases oxygen
  Fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen and absorbs it
 This maintains the diffusion gradient
 Fetus needs o2 for respiration

Why is it necessary for the fetal haemoglobin to be replace by the adult form?

 Affinity would be too high

 Would not release oxygen readily enough
 Adult females would not be able to pass oxygen to their fetus
 There is no need for such a high affinity because of the high partial pressure of oxygen in the
lungs

The steep part of the dissociation curve corresponds to partial pressure of oxygen of the tissues,
which have a higher demand for oxygen. A change in p02 releases more oxygen

Explain how carbon dioxide ensures a greater deliver of oxygen

 More H ions are produced

 It will displace the oxygen in oxyhaemoglobin
 Haemoglobinic acid will form
 Haemoglobin will release more oxygen in a given partial pressure of o2

Suggest how exercising muscle tissue can release more oxygen

 Exercising muscles release heat increasing the body temperature

 Respiration releases energy as heat
 ATP to ADP releases heat
 More oxygen is released from haemoglobin

Why is it important that fetal and adult haemoglobin are different?

 It allows fetal haemoglobin to take oxygen at the placenta

 At the same partial pressures of oxygen
 So maternal haemoglobin releases oxygen

Differences between tissue fluid and blood

No RBCs RBCs
No plasma proteins Plasma proteins
Few WBCs Full range of WBCs
No platelets Platelets
Always low pressure Can be high and low
Some fats More fats, lipoproteins
Not in vessels In vessels

How would a spirometer trace change when you do exercise?

 The trace will fall more quickly as the rate of oxygen consumption increases
  The breathing rate will increase
 The tidal volume will increase/ amplitude

State ways in which the cardiovascular system will respond to exersise

 Heart rate will increase

 Blood pressure will increase
 Increased stroke volume
 Increased cardiac out put
 Blood diverted to the muscles/ vasodilation in muscles
 Blood diverted from digestive system, vasoconstriction in D system
 Blood will be moved to the skin later on

Describe and explain how the alveoli are adapted to their function

 They contain thin squamous cells/ squamous epithelium

 Decreases the diffusion distance
 Permeable to respiratory gases
 Collectively have a large surface area
 Increases diffusion- co2 and o2
 Surrounded by capillaries- large blood supply
 The blood maintains a steep diffusion gradient
 Presence of surfactant- prevents the alveoli from collapsing

How would the lack of surfactant produce problems?

 The alveoli would collapse and they would lose surface area as less are working
 Less oxygen reaches the tissues
 Less respiration
 So less energy/ATP
 Anaerobic respiration would lead to a build-up of lactic acid

Outline the roles of membranes at the surface of cells and within cells

 They separate the cell from the outside environment

 Control the entry and exit of molecules/ions
 The phospholipid bilayer allows fat-soluble substance through
 It is used in facilitated diffusion
 And in active transport
 Also in bulk transport eg. Endocytosis
 Used in cell recognition/cell surface antigens
 Cell to cell attachment
 Receptors for hormones
 Compartmentalise organelles
 Prevents disruption of reactions
 Reactions take place on membranes
  Isolates DNA
 Nuclear pores allow RNA out
 Form lysosomes/Golgi/ER
 Intracellular transport
 Protects from the contents of lysosomes
 Surround contents of vacuole

Describe how molecules pass through cell membranes

 Active transport- against the concentration gradient

 Uses ATP
 Facilitated diffusion- down conc gradient
 Passive, no energy
 Protein carriers- attaches to one side of it
 Protein changes shape
 Releasing it out on the other side
 Channel proteins- pore/passage through a protein
 Hydrophilic conditions/ line with water
 Phospholipid bilayer prevents some diffusion of molecules/ions
 Not lipid soluble/ polar/ too big
 Proteins can be specific

Function of glycoproteins

 Cell recognition/ antigen

 Act as receptors
 Hold enzymes
 Can bind cells together in tissues
 Stabilises membrane in aqueous environment- forms H bonds with water

Why do some cells lyse and different salt concs?

 The cells have different solute concentrations/water potential

 Cell membranes differ/ thickness
 age

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration down
a concentration gradient

The factors that affect the rate of diffusion

 Concentration gradient
 Temperature
 Diffusion distance
 SA
 Size of molecules
 Polarity/ solubility in lipids
Why is water potential negative?

 The water potential of pure water is zero

 Solutes lower the water potential
 And cells always have solutes in them

What is meant by facilitated diffusion?

 Movement down the conc gradient

 Involves the help of proteins

Active transport- uses carrier/transporter proteins- span the membrane

Only in one direction

Molecule binds to carrier protein

Explain how xylem vessel elements are adapted to their function

 Lack of cell contents, little cytoplasm- hollow to ease flow as less resistance
 Aligned end to end in a continuous tube
 Wide lumen- carries more water reduces resistance
 Lignified-waterproof and strength/support, also allow adhesion- stops collapse
 Pits to allow lateral movement
 Continuous column allows cohesion

What would happen to a plant that is in a low water potential soil?

 Less water uptake by osmosis

 Water may be lost from roots
 Becomes flaccid- water stress
 Plasmolysis
 Die- less yield

Describe an active mechanism for transport of sugars from source to sink

 H ions are actively pumped out of the companion cell/ ATP/proton pump
 This sets up a diffusion gradient
 H ions then diffuse back with sucrose along the co transporter protein
 As the conc of sucrose builds up they diffuse out through the plasmodesmata
 This lowers the water potential of the sieve tube elements
 Via osmosis water comes in down the water potential gradient
 Mass flow occurs

Transpiration- the loss of water vapour from aerial parts of the plants via diffusion from a high
water potential to low, out the stomata

Unavoidable losses
  Gas exchange is always active – co2 in 02 out
 Stomata will be open
 Water potential gradient will form
 Water vapour will move out via osmosis

Potassium ions are pumped into guard cells/neurons

H ions out of companion cell

How to measure tidal volume

 idea of not breathing through nose ;

 subject breathes , evenly / normally / regularly ;
 idea of (measure) height / amplitude , of waves
 (from trace) ;
 measure at least three waves and calculate mean ;
 detail of how spirometer works ;

Factors that must be considered

 check health of volunteer ;

 oxygen used ;
 new / sterilised / disinfected ,
 mouthpiece (for each volunteer);
 idea of: soda lime working ;
 sufficient oxygen in chamber ;
 water level not too high / water must not enter tubes ;
 ensure valves working correctly ;

Describe how you could use a spirometer trace to measure the rate of oxygen uptake.

 measure , volume of oxygen used /

 decrease in volume in chamber ;
 one detail of how to measure volume change ;
 measure time taken (to use this oxygen) ;
 divide (volume) by time taken ;
how transpiration contributes to water transport

remove air bubbles- restore continuous column of water