● The surface area to volume ratio determine whether diffusion alone will allow substances to move in and out
of all the
cells.
● The larger the surface area the smaller the surface area to volume ratio becomes.
● The distance from outside the organism to the inside gets longer, and there is less surface for substances to enter through,
this takes longer to diffuse in.
● Fick’s Law of Diffusion:
(Surface area x Concentration difference)
Rate of diffusion =Distance (thickness of exchange membrane or barriers)
○ Volume= Length x Width x Height
● Nasal cavity: is the main route by which air enters the respiratory system.
● Mouth: air can enter the respiratory system here, but misses out on the cleaning, warming and moistening effect of the
nasal route.
● Epiglottis: closes over the glottis in a reflex action when food is swallowed.
○ This prevents food from entering the respiratory system.
● Pleural cavity: is the space between the pleural membranes.
○ Usually filled with a thin layer of lubricating fluid which allows the membranes to slide easily with breathing movements.
● Pleural membrane: surround the lungs and line the chest cavity.
● Ribs: protective bony cage around the respiratory system.
● Bronchi: transport air to the bronchioles.
○ The tubes are similar in structure to the trachea but are slightly narrower.
● Diaphragm: is a broad sheet of tissue, which forms the floor of the chest cavity, also important in breathing.
● Alveoli: The main site of gaseous exchange in the lungs.
● Bronchioles: are small tubes which spread through the lungs and end in the alveoli.
○ The larger tubes have cartilage rings but once the diameter is 1mm or less, there is no cartilage and they collapse quite
easily.
○ Their main function is as an airway but little gaseous exchange may occur.
● Incomplete rings of cartilage: prevent the trachea and bronchi from collapsing.
● Surface area, the concentration gradient of the particles diffusing and the distance over which diffusion is taking place.
● Surface area:
○ The bigger the surface area the more particles can be exchanges at the same.
● The concentration gradient of the particles diffusing:
○ The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster particles move across, so maintains the gradient and making the
diffusion faster.
● The distance over which diffusion is taking place:
○ The shorter the diffusion distance the faster diffusion can take place.
● Most of the gaseous exchange in the human respiratory system occurs in the alveoli (single one is alveolus).
○ The alveoli have a tendency to collapse, this is prevented by a special phospholipid known as lung surfactant, which coats
the alveoli and makes breathing easier.
● Gaseous exchange occurs by simple diffusion between the deoxygenated blood in the capillaries and the alveolar air.
● The folded surface of alveoli is made of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells.
○ The capillaries that are close to the alveoli are only 1 cell thick.
○ So both are very permeable and there’s a very short distance between them.
○ The large folded surface area and short diffusion distance speeds up the rate of diffusion.
○ Between the capillaries and alveoli is elastic connective tissue holding everything together.
○ The elastic tissue helps to force air out of the lungs, which are stretched when you inhale. This is the elastic recoil of the
lungs.
● The continuous flow of new deoxygenated blood maintains the concentration gradient on the capillary side.
○ The blood has a low oxygen and high carbon dioxide content.
○ The lungs have a high oxygen and low carbon dioxide content.
○ The air with the alveoli is also constantly being refreshed with air from outside by breathing.
○ The movement of gases in and out of the alveoli is mainly by diffusion, but movement of air in and out of the lungs is a
mass transport system.
● Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation.
● Inhalation is an active energy using process.
● During inhalation the muscles around the diaphragm contracts.
○ So the diaphragm contracts and is lowered and flattened.
● The intercostal muscles contract.
○ Raising the rib cage upwards and outwards.
● The muscle movements cause the volume in the chest cavity to increase, reducing the pressure.
○ The pressure within the chest cavity is lower than the outer airs, so air moves in to equalise the inner and outer pressures.
● Exhalation is a passive process.
● The muscles surrounding the diaphragm relax.
○ So the diaphragm moves into a resting dome shape.
● The intercostal muscles relax.
○ So the ribs move down and in.
○ The elastic fibres around the alveoli of the lungs return to normal length.
● The movement of muscles causes the volume of the chest cavity to decrease, causing an increase in pressure.
○ The pressure in the chest cavity in now greater than that of the outside air, so air moves out of the lungs, through the
bronchioles, bronchi and trachea to the outside air.
● Forced exhalation can force air out more rapidly than passive exhalation.
○ The intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs down and in.
○ The abdominal muscles contract forcing the diaphragm upwards.
○ These movements increase the pressure in the chest cavity, causing exhalation.
○ E.g. coughing is exaggerated forced exhalation used to force out mucus.
