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Statistical Tests
Statistical tests are a way of mathematically determining whether two sets of data are significantly different from each other. To do this, statistical tests use several statistical measures, such as the mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation. Once the statistical measures are calculated, the statistical test will then compare them to a set of predetermined criteria. If the data meet the criteria, the statistical test will conclude that there is a significant difference between the two sets of data.
There are various statistical tests that can be used, depending on the type of data being analysed. However, some of the most common statistical tests are t-tests, chi-squared tests, and ANOVA tests.
Types of Statistical Tests
When working with statistical data, several tools can be used to analyze the information.
1. Parametric Statistical Tests
Parametric statistical tests have precise requirements compared with non- parametric tests. Also, they make a strong inference from the data. Furthermore, they can only be conducted with data that adhere to common assumptions of statistical tests. Some common types of parametric tests are regression tests, comparison tests, and correlation tests.
1.1. Regression Tests
Regression tests determine cause-and-effect relationships. They can be used to
estimate the effect of one or more continuous variables on another variable.
Simple linear regression is a type of test that describes the relationship
between a dependent and an independent variable using a straight line. This test determines the relationship between two quantitative variables.
1 Multiple linear regression measures the relationship between a quantitative dependent variable and two or more independent variables, again using a straight line. Logistic regression predicts and classifies the research problem. Logistic regression helps identify data anomalies, which could be predictive fraud.
1.2. Comparison Tests
Comparison tests determine the differences among the group means. They can be used to test the effect of a categorical variable on the mean value of other characteristics.
T-test
One of the most common statistical tests is the t-test, which is used to compare the means of two groups (e.g. the average heights of men and women). You can use the t-test when you are not aware of the population parameters (mean and standard deviation).
Paired T-test
It tests the difference between two variables from the same population (pre-and post-test scores). For example, measuring the performance score of the trainee before and after the completion of the training program.
Independent T-test
The independent t-test is also called the two-sample t-test. It is a statistical test that determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means in two unrelated groups. For example, comparing cancer patients and pregnant women in a population.
One Sample T-test
In this test, the mean of a single group is compared with the given mean. For example, determining the increase and decrease in sales in the given average sales.
2 ANOVA
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) analyzes the difference between the means of
more than two groups. One-way ANOVAs determine how one factor impacts another, whereas two-way analyses compare samples with different variables. It determines the impact of one or more factors by comparing the means of different samples.
MANOVA
MANOVA, which stands for Multivariate Analysis of Variance, provides
regression analysis and analysis of variance for multiple dependent variables by one or more factor variables or covariates. Also, it examines the statistical difference between one continuous dependent variable and an independent grouping variable.
Z-test
It is a statistical test that determines whether two population means are different, provided the variances are known and the sample size is large.
1.3. Correlation Tests
Correlation tests check if the variables are related without hypothesizing a cause- and-effect relationship. These tests can be used to check if the two variables you want to use in a multiple regression test are correlated.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
It is a common way of measuring the linear correlation. The coefficient is a
number between -1 and 1 and determines the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. The change in one variable changes the course of another variable change in the same direction.
2. Non-parametric Statistical Tests
3 Non-parametric tests do not make as many assumptions about the data compared to parametric tests. They are useful when one or more of the common statistical assumptions are violated. However, these inferences are not as accurate as with parametric tests.
Chi-square test
The chi-square test compares two categorical variables. Furthermore, calculating
the chi-square statistic value and comparing it with a critical value from the chi- square distribution allows you to assess whether the observed frequency is significantly different from the expected frequency.
7 Essential Ways to Choose the Right Statistical Test
1. Research Question The decision for a statistical test depends on the research question that needs to be answered. Additionally, the research questions will help you formulate the data structure and research design.
2. Formulation of Null Hypothesis
After defining the research question, you could develop a null hypothesis. A null hypothesis suggests that no statistical significance exists in the expected observations.
3. Level of Significance in Study Protocol
Before performing the study protocol, a level of significance is specified. The level of significance determines the statistical importance, which defines the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis.
4. The Decision Between One-tailed and Two-tailed
You must decide if your study should be a one-tailed or two-tailed test. If you have clear evidence where the statistics are leading in one direction, you must perform
4 one-tailed tests. However, if there is no particular direction of the expected difference, you must perform a two-tailed test.
5. The Number of Variables to Be Analyzed
Statistical tests and procedures are divided according to the number of variables that are designed to analyze. Therefore, while choosing the test , you must consider how many variables you want to analyze.
6. Type of Data
It is important to define whether your data is continuous, categorical, or binary. In
the case of continuous data, you must also check if the data are normally distributed or skewed, to further define which statistical test to consider.
7. Paired and Unpaired Study Designs
A paired design includes comparison studies where the two population means are compared when the two samples depend on each other. In an unpaired or independent study design, the results of the two samples are grouped and then compared.
Now that you know the seven steps for choosing a statistical test, you are on your way to finding the right test for your research question. Each situation is unique; it is important to understand all of your options and make an informed decision.
Remember to always consult with your principal investigator or statistician, or
software, if you are unsure which test to choose.
Contingency Table
In statistics, a contingency table (also known as a cross tabulation or crosstab) is a type of
table in a matrix format that displays the (multivariate) frequency distribution of the variables. They are heavily used in survey research, business intelligence, engineering, and scientific research. A contingency table, sometimes called a two-way frequency table, is a tabular mechanism with at least two rows and two columns used in statistics to present categorical data in terms of frequency counts.
5 Construct and interpret contingency tables.
A contingency table provides a way of displaying data that can facilitate calculating probabilities. The table can be used to describe the sample space of an experiment. Contingency tables allow us to break down a sample pace when two variables are involved.
Speeding violation No speeding violation Tot
in the last year in the last year al
Cell phone 30 25 280 user 5
Not a cell 45 45 405 phone user 0
75 Total 70 685 5
When reading a contingency table:
The left-side column lists all of the values for one of the variables. In the table shown above, the left-side column shows the variable about whether or not someone uses a cell phone while driving. The top row lists all of the values for the other variable. In the table shown above, the top row shows the variable about whether or not someone had a speeding violation in the last year. In the body of the table, the cells contain the number of outcomes that fall into both of the categories corresponding to the intersecting row and column. In the table shown above, the number of 25 at the intersection of the “cell phone user” row and “speeding violation in the last year” column tells us that there are 25 people who have both of these characteristics. The bottom row gives the totals in each column. In the table shown above, the number 685 in the bottom of the “no speeding violation in the last year” tells us that there are 685 people who did not have a speeding violation in the last year. The right-side column gives the totals in each row. In the table shown above, the number 305 in the right side of the “cell phone user” row tells us that there are 305 people who use cell phones while driving. The number in the bottom right corner is the size of the sample space. In the table shown above, the number in the
6 bottom right corner is 755, which tells us that there 755 people in the sample space.
Example 01
Suppose a study of speeding violations and drivers who use cell
phones while driving produced the following fictional data:
Speeding No speeding Tot violation in the violation in the last al last year year
Cell phone 25 280 305 user
Not a cell 45 405 450 phone user
Total 70 685 755
Calculate the following probabilities:
1. What is the probability that a randomly selected person is a
cell phone user? 2. What is the probability that a randomly selected person had no speeding violations in the last year? 3. What is the probability that a randomly selected person had a speeding violation in the last year and does not use a cell phone? 4. What is the probability that a randomly selected person uses a cell phone and had no speeding violations in the last year?
Solution:
1. Probability=number of cell phone users total number in
study=305755Probability=number of cell phone users total number in study=305755 2. Probability=number of no violations total number in study=685755Probability=number of no violations total number in study=685755 3. Probability=number of violations and not cell phone users total number in study=45755Probability=number of
7 violations and not cell phone users total number in study=45755 4. Probability=number of cell phone users and no violations total number in study=280755
Example 02IT
This table shows the number of athletes who stretch before exercising and how many had injuries within the past year.
Injury in No injury in Total last year last year
Stretches 55 295 350
Does not 231 219 450 stretch
Total 286 514 800
1. What is the probability that a randomly selected athlete stretches
before exercising? 2. What is the probability that a randomly selected athlete had an injury in the last year? 3. What is the probability that a randomly selected athlete does not stretch before exercising and had no injuries in the last year? 4. What is the probability that a randomly selected athlete stretches before exercising and had no injuries in the last year? 5. Probability=350800=0.4375Probability=350800=0.4375 6. Probability=286800=0.3575Probability=286800=0.3575 7. Probability=219800=0.27375Probability=219800=0.27375 8. Probability=295800=0.36875
Example 03 The table below shows a random sample of 100 hikers broken down by gender and the areas of hiking they prefer.
On Gend The Near Lakes Mountain Total er Coastline and Streams Peaks
Femal 18 16 45 e
Male 14 55
Total 41
8 1. Fill in the missing values in the table 2. What is the probability that a randomly selected hiker is female? 3. What is the probability that a randomly selected hiker prefers to hike on the coast? 4. What is the probability that a randomly selected hiker is male and prefers to hike near lakes and streams? 5. What is the probability that a randomly selected hiker is female and prefers to hike on mountains?
Solution:
1.
Near Lakes On The Gender and Mountain Total Coastline Streams Peaks
Example 04: The table below relates the weights and heights of a group of individuals participating in an observational study.
Weight/ Tal Mediu Sho Total
Height l m rt s
Obese 18 28 14
Normal 20 51 28
Underweigh 12 25 9 t
Totals
1. Find the total for each row and column.
9 2. Find the probability that a randomly chosen individual from this group is tall. 3. Find the probability that a randomly chosen individual from this group is normal. 4. Find the probability that a randomly chosen individual from this group is obese and short. 5. Find the probability that a randomly chosen individual from this group is underweight and medium. 6.
