Grade 11 Chemistry

Unit 3 –Unit 5 Full ppt

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 Grade 11 Chemistry
UNIT 3
PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

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Introduction
• Matter is defined as anything occupying space and having mass, which is
the material of the Universe.
• It exists in three common states: gas, liquid and solid
• The three physical states of water are:
Steam (water vapor): gaseous state of water
Water: liquid state of water
Ice: solid state of water

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• Most solids change to liquids and most liquids change to gases as they are
heated.
• Liquids and gases are known as fluids because they flow freely.
• Solids and liquids are referred to as condensed states because they have
much higher densities than gases.
• Generally, the physical states of matter can be changed to solids, liquids,
gases, or plasma by varying temperature and/or pressure.

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Solid
• A solid is rigid; it has a fixed volume and a fixed shape.
• Solids cannot be compressed.
• Solids have higher densities than liquids because their particles are
usually packed closer than those in liquids.
• The tightly packed particles of solids are also highly organized.
• The particles of a solid, whether they are atoms, ions or molecules, only
vibrate at a fixed point with respect to the neighboring particles.
• As a result, its particles stay in a fixed position.
• Metals, chalk, sand, soil, and stone are examples of solids.

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Liquid
• A liquid has a definite volume, but does not have a definite shape.
• It takes the shape of its container.
• It is very slightly compressible and has the ability to flow.
• In a liquid, particles vibrate about a point, and constantly shift their
positions.
• Water, ethanol, mercury, bromine, and oil are examples of liquids

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Gas
• A gas has neither definite volume nor definite shape; it takes on the
shape and volume of its container.
• Gas is highly compressible because most of the volume of a gas is
composed of the large amounts of empty space between the gas particles.
• For example, air, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen are gases

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Plasma
• Plasma is the fourth physical state of matter that exists at a high
temperature (million degrees Celsius).
• At such high temperatures molecules cannot exist.
• Most or all of the atoms are stripped of their electrons and thus, exist in
their ionized form.
• This state of matter, a gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons, is
called plasma.
• In another word, plasma is an ionized gas. Because of the extreme
temperatures needed for fusion, no material can exist in the plasma state.
• Like gases, plasmas have no fixed shape and a fixed volume. They are also
less dense than solids or liquids

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 kinetic theory and properties of matter
• The three states of matter in which substances are chemically the same
but physically different are explained by the kinetic theory of matter.
• The kinetic theory of matter gives an explanation on the nature of the
motion and the heat energy.
• According to the kinetic theory of matter, every substance consists of a
very large number of very small particles called ions, atoms and
molecules.
• The particles are in a state of continuous and random motion with all
possible velocities.
• The motion of the particles increases with a rise in temperature.

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Generally, the kinetic theory of matter is based on the following
assumptions:
1. All matter is composed of particles that are constantly moving.
2. All particles have kinetic energy (movement energy) and potential
energy.
• Molecules in the solid phase have the least amount of energy, while
gas particles have the greatest amount of energy.
3. The difference between the three states of matter is the energy contents
they have and the motion of the particles. A change in phase may occur
when the energy of the particles is changed.

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4. The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles.
5. There are spaces between particles of matter. The average amount of
empty space between molecules gets progressively larger as a sample
of matter moves from the solid to the liquid and gas phases.
6. There are attractive forces between atoms/molecules, and these
become stronger as the particles move closer together. These attractive
forces are called intermolecular forces.

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 Properties of Matter
• The properties of these three states of matter are explained in terms of
the kinetic theory as follows:

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Properties of Gases
• From the kinetic molecular theory of gases, the following general
properties of gases can be summarized.
1. Gases have no fixed shape and fixed volume. They assume the volume
and shape of their containers.
2. Gases can be easily compressed. By applying pressure to the walls of a
flexible container, gases can be compressed; the compression results in a
decrease of its volume. This happens due to the large spaces between the
particles of gases.

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3. Gases have low densities compared to liquids and solids. Because the
particles of a gas are very far apart each other and the number of molecules
per unit volume is very small.A small mass of a gas occupies a large volume
and hence results in a very low density.

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4. Gases exert pressure in all directions. Gases that are confined in a
container exert pressure on the walls of their container. This pressure is due
to collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the container.
5. Gases easily flow and diffuse through one another. A gas moves freely
and randomly throughout a given space.

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Properties of Liquids
Liquids have the following properties:
1. Liquids have a definite volume, but have no definite shape. They
assume the shapes of their container. Lack of a definite shape for liquid
substances arises from low intermolecular forces of attraction between
their particles as compared to that of solids.
2. Liquids have higher densities than gases. Their density is a result of the
close arrangement of liquid particles. Thus, the particles are closer in liquid
than in their gaseous state. This accounts for the higher densities of liquids
as compared to gases.

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3. Liquids are slightly compressible. The available free space between
particles in liquids is very little as a result, liquids resist an applied external
force
4. Liquids are fluids. A fluid is a substance that can easily flow. Most
liquids naturally flow downwards due to gravitational force. But, the fluidity
of liquids is much slower than gases.

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Properties of Solids
• Solids have the following properties:
1. Solids have a definite shape and definite volume, due to the presence of
the strong force of attraction between the particles in a solid.
2. Solids generally have higher densities than gases and liquids. The
particles of solids are very close to each other, and thus, there is almost no
free space between the particles of solids. This closeness of particles makes
solids to have more particles (mass) per unit volume.

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3. Solids are extremely difficult to compress because the high interparticle
forces of attraction between the particles of solids are very strong due to a
very short distance between them.
4. Solids are not fluids. Solids normally do not flow because particles of
solids are rigidly held in position by strong forces that restrict them

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The Gaseous State
Assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases:
1. A gas is a collection of particles (molecules) in constant, straight-line
motion.
2. Gas particles do not attract or repel each other, they do not interact. The
particles collide with each other and with the surfaces around them, but
they bounce back from these collisions like pool balls.

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3. There is a lot of space between gas particles compared with the
size of the particles themselves. In other word, the volume of the particles
is negligible compared to the total volume of the gas.
• The molecules are so far apart, the total volume of the molecules is
extremely small compared with the total volume of the gas.
• This assumption explains why gases are so easily compressed and why
they can mix so readily.

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4. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the
temperature of the gas in kelvins.
• This means that as the temperature increases, the particles move faster
and therefore have more energy. The mathematically expressed as:

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Generally, the gaseous state is characterized by the following physical
properties:
• Gases are highly compressible.
• Gases exert pressure equally in all directions.
• Gases have much lower density than solids and liquids.
• The volume and the shape of gases are not fixed. These take the volume
and shape of the container.
• Gases mix evenly and completely.
• Simplicity of gases is due to the fact that the forces of interaction between
their molecules are negligible.

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 GAS lAWS
• The gas laws are the result of various research conducted for several
centuries on the physical properties of gases.
• The first reliable measurement on the properties of gases was made by
Robert Boyle in 1662 (an Anglo-Irish scientist).
• The observation of Boyle’s and other scientists led to the development of
the gas laws.
• The gas laws express mathematical relationships between the volume,
temperature , pressure, and quantity of a gas.

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• Pressure: The pressure exerted by a gas sample is defined as the force per
unit area that results from the collisions of gas particles with surrounding
surfaces.

• Pressure is one of the measurable properties of gases. Thus, the pressure

of a gas can be expressed in unit of atmosphere, Pascal, torr, millimeter of
mercury.
• The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).

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Volume: Volume is the space occupied by a substance.
• The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3).
• Volume is also expressed in cubic centimeter (cm3) and cubic decimeter
(dm3).
• Other common units of volume are milliliter (mL) and liter (L).

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Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Three temperature scales are commonly used.
• These are °F(degrees Fahrenheit), °C (degrees Celsius) and K(Kelvin).
• In calculations, the Kelvin scale is usually used.
• The three units are inter-converted by Equations 3.3 and 3.4:

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Molar Volume and Standard Conditions:
• The conditions of a pressure of 1 atmosphere and a temperature of 0oC
(273K) are called standard temperature and pressure (STP) for gases.
• At STP the volume of one mole of any gas is 22.4 liters. This volume is
known as the molar volume of gases.

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i. Boyle’s Law
• The first quantitative experiments on gases were performed by
Robert Boyle(1662).
• His experiment helped to understand the relationship between the
volume and pressure of a fixed amount of a gas at constant temperature.
• On the basis of his experiments, Robert Boyle concluded that, at constant
temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies inversely with
its volume

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• He discovered that at constant temperature doubling the pressure on a
sample of gas reduces its volume by one-half, and tripling the gas pressure
reduces its volume to one-third of the original.
• Generally, the volume of a gas decreases, as the pressure on the gas
increases.

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• Generally, Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas
is inversely proportional to the pressure at a constant temperature.
Mathematically this is written as:

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ii. Charles’ Law
• Scientists was Jacques Charles (a French physicist), who was the first
person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas and who made the first balloon
flight.
• In 1787, Charles found that the volume of a gas at constant pressure
increases linearly with the temperature of the gas.

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• For example, doubling the Kelvin temperature causes the volume of a gas
to double, and reducing the Kelvin temperature by half causes the volume
of a gas to decrease by half.
• This relationship between Kelvin temperature and the volume of a gas
is known as Charles’ law.

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• Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure varies directly with the Kelvin temperature.

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iii. Gay Lussac’s Law
• Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (a French scientist) studied how the pressure
and temperature of a fixed amount of gas at constant volume are related.
• The relationship that he established is called Gay-Lussac’s law or the
pressure-temperature law.
• It states that at constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas
varies directly with the temperature.
• Mathematically:

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iv. The Combined Gas Law
• A sample of a gas can undergo simultaneous changes in temperature,
pressure, and volume. In such cases, the three variables should be
considered at the same time.

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• The three gas laws we have learned can be brought together into a single
equation known as the combined gas law .
The combined gas law expresses the relationship between pressure,
volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas.
Mathematically:

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v. Avogadro’s law
• In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro (an Italian scientist) suggested that at the
same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain equal
numbers of moles.
• This observation is called Avogadro’s law, shown as:

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• This equation states that for a gas at constant temperature and pressure,
the volume is directly proportional to the number of moles (molecules) of
gas.
• In other words, equal numbers of molecules of different gases compared
at the same temperature and pressure occupy equal volumes.

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• For two samples of gas at the same temperature and pressure, the
relation between volumes and numbers of moles can be represented as:

• The volume occupied by a mole of gas at STP, is called the standard molar
volume.
• It is nearly constant for all gases.
• The standard molar volume of an ideal gas is equal to 22.4 L per mole at
STP.
• For an ideal gas: 1mol gas = 22.4 L gas
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vi. The Ideal Gas Equation
• An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws.
• Real gases only obey the ideal gas laws closely at high temperature and
low pressure.
• The ideal gas law is a combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and
Avogadro’s law.
Boyle’s law: V α P(at constant T and n)
Charles’ law: Vα T(at constant P and n)
Avogadro’s law: V α n(at constant P and T)

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• This relationship indicates how the volume of gas depends on pressure,
temperature and number of moles.

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vii. Graham’s Law of Diffusion
• We have discussed that the gas molecules are in constant, rapid, random
motion and occupy quickly throughout any container. This spreading of
gas molecules throughout the container is called diffusion.

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• Thomas Graham (1805-869), a Scottish chemist, studied the rate of
diffusion of different gases.
• He found that gases having low densities diffuse faster than gases that
have higher densities.
• Based on his observations, in 1829, he postulated the relationship
between the density of a gas and its rate of diffusion, which is known as
Graham’s law of diffusion.

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• Graham’s law of diffusion states that, at constant temperature and
pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas, r, is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density, d, or molar mass, M.

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 LIQUID STATE
• As in a gas, particles in a liquid are in constant motion.
• However, the particles in a liquid are closer together than those in a gas.
• The attractive forces between particles in a liquid are stronger than
between particles of a gas.
• This attraction between liquid particles is caused by the intermolecular
forces of attraction such as dipole dipole forces, London dispersion forces,
and hydrogen bonding.
• Liquids are more ordered than gases because of the stronger
intermolecular forces and the lower mobility of liquid particles.

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Energy Change in Liquids
• The process by which a liquid changes to a gas is known as vaporization
or evaporation.
• Evaporation is the process by which molecules on the surface of a liquid
break away and go into the gas phase.
• Molecules on the surface of a liquid are held less tightly than those in the
interior, so the most energetic molecule can break away into the gas.

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• Evaporation is explained in terms of the energy that the molecules on the
surface of the liquid have.
• In an open container, evaporation continues until all of the liquid enters
the gas (vapor) phase (Figure 3.8).
• Most of the molecules that escape into the vapor phase do not collide
with the surface of the liquid and return to the liquid phase.
• Instead, they will diffuse through the gas phase away from the container
and equilibrium cannot be established.
• Under these conditions, the liquid will continue to evaporate until it has
disappeared.

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• However, liquids in a closed container behave differently.
• The volume of the liquid decreases for some time, and then, remains
unchanged.
• This is because in closed containers, the vapor cannot escape.
• As more molecules leave the liquid, more gaseous molecules collide with
the container walls, with each other, and with the liquid surface and
return to the original liquid state.

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• The process of when a vapor returns to the liquid state is called
condensation.
• Evaporation and condensation are opposing processes.
• Evaporation is a liquid turning into a gas, and condensation is a gas turning
into a liquid.

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• For instance, when liquid water is initially put into a closed container,
more evaporation happens than condensation because there are so
few gaseous water molecules in the space above the water (Figure
3.9a).
• However, as the number of gaseous water molecules increases, the rate of
condensation also increases (Figure 3.9b).
• At the point where the rates of condensation and evaporation become
equal (Figure 3.9c),dynamic equilibrium is reached and the number of
gaseous water molecules above the liquid remains constant.

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The rate of evaporation of a liquid can be affected by these factors:
• Temperature
• Intermolecular forces and
• Surface area of the liquid.

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 Temperature
• An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the
molecules and thus increases the tendency to change into the gaseous
state.
• Some liquids evaporate readily at room temperature. Such liquids are said
to be volatile.
• Volatile liquids have relatively weak forces of attraction between
particles.
• Liquids such as formaldehyde, ethyl alcohol, mercury, and benzene are
volatile liquids.

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• Liquids that do not vaporize easily at a given temperature are said to be
nonvolatile.
• They have relatively stronger attractive forces between their molecules.
• Liquids such as motor oil, edible oil, glycerin, water, and molten ionic
compounds are nonvolatile.

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Vapor pressure
• The partial pressure of the vapor above a liquid is called vapor pressure.
• The vapor pressure of a liquid depends up on the temperature.
• At a given temperature, vapor pressure is constant.
• The vapor pressures of liquids always increase as temperature increases
because the rate of evaporation increases with increasing temperature.

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Intermolecular forces
• Vapor pressure depends also on the intermolecular forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
• The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower will be the vapor
pressure of the liquid because fewer molecules will have enough kinetic
energy to overcome the attractive force at a given temperature.

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• For example, water and ethanol have relatively low vapor pressure
because the very strong hydrogen bonding in these liquids account for
their unusually low vapor pressures.
• However, liquids with low intermolecular forces have high vapor pressures
at room temperature.
• For example, diethyl ether, a non-polar molecule with relatively weak
dispersion forces, has a relatively higher vapor pressure.

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Surface area of the liquid
• Evaporation occurs at the liquids surface, where it interfaces with the air
surrounding it.
• Liquid surface area is the amount of liquid that is exposed to the
atmosphere (air).
• The number of liquid molecules present at the surface increases as the
surface area of the container (or the surface area occupied by the liquid)
increases.
• This, in turn, increases the number of molecules that separate from the
liquid surface and change into gases at a specific moment, increasing
the rate of evaporation.

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• However, for liquids having the same surface area, the rate of evaporation
depends on the two factors:
Temperature and
The strengths of intermolecular attractions.

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Boiling and Boiling Point
• When heat energy is added to a liquid, it increases the kinetic energy of
the molecules and the temperature of the liquid increases.
• Heating a liquid always increases its vapor pressure.
• When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature under a given
applied (usually atmospheric) pressure, bubbles of vapor begin to form
below the surface.
• If the vapor pressure inside the bubbles is less than the applied pressure
on the surface of the liquid, the bubbles collapse as soon as they form.

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• On the other hand, if the temperature is raised sufficiently, the vapor
pressure is high enough that the bubbles can persist and rise to the
surface, and burst, releasing the vapor into the air.
• This process is called boiling. In short, boiling is the change of a liquid to
bubbles of vapor that appear throughout the liquids.

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• It is the conversion of liquid to vapor within the liquid as well as at its
surface.
• During evaporation, only molecules at the surface escape into the vapor
phase.
• It is the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid itself that
characterizes boiling and distinguishes it from evaporation.

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• If the temperature of the liquid is increased, the equilibrium vapor
pressure also increases.
• Finally, the boiling point is reached. The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the external atmospheric
pressure.
• The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid is equal to exactly one atmosphere.

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• For instance, water boils at 100 °C at 1.0 atmospheric pressure and thus,
its normal boiling point of water is 100 °C.
• Nevertheless, the boiling point of water at 0.83 atm is 95 °C. Generally,
when the pressure exerted on a liquid is varied, the boiling point of a
liquid also varies

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• Note that as heat energy is added to vaporize a pure liquid at its boiling
point, the temperature remains constant until the liquid is completely
changed to vapor .
• Then, the temperature begins to rise after the liquid is completely
changed to vapor.

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• Boiling of a liquid requires a certain amount of heat energy to break the
forces of attraction between the molecules.
• The amount of heat energy necessary to bring about the vaporization
of a fixed amount of a liquid at a fixed temperature to the gaseous state is
called the heat of vaporization.

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• The molar heat of vaporization is the amount of heat needed to convert 1
mole of a liquid at its boiling point to a gas.
• It is equal to the amount of energy that is released when 1 mole of vapour
condenses to liquid at the condensing point of a vapour.
• During condensation heat is released.
• Thus, the amount of heat realized when 1 mole of a gas is converted to a
liquid at its condensation point is called the molar heat of
condensation(∆Hcond).

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• Molar heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) and molar heat of condensation
(∆Hcond) are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign:

• Note that vaporization is an endothermic process whereas

condensation is an exothermic process.

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 SOLID STATE
• The temperature at which a pure liquid changes to a crystalline solid, or
freezes, is called the freezing point;
• it is identical to the melting point.
• The melting or freezing occurs at the temperature where the liquid and
solid are in dynamic equilibrium.

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• When a solid is continuously heated the ordered crystalline structure of
solids will be disturbed.
• As a result, particles gradually get freedom of motion and melting (or
fusion) take place.
• Melting is the process of converting solid into the liquid.
• The temperature at which a crystalline solid changes to a liquid or melts is
called the melting point.

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• On the other hand, when a liquid is cooled, its molecules come closer to
one another and thus, the intermolecular forces of attraction between
them get stronger.
• As a result, its particles arrange themselves into a regular pattern and
then converted to a solid.
• This process is called freezing or solidification.
• For instance, ice melts at 0 °C and water freezes at 0 °C.
• Ice and water coexist in equilibrium at 0 °C as follows:

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• Unlike boiling points, melting points are affected only by large
pressure changes.
• Note that both the melting point and the boiling point are characteristics
of physical properties of a substance and can be used to help identify it.

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• The amount of heat needed to convert one gram of solid to liquid at the
melting point is called heat of fusion.
• The molar heat of fusion or molar enthalpy of fusion (∆Hfus) is the
quantity of heat needed to convert one mole of a solid at its melting point
to the liquid state.
• Melting requires the supply of energy; therefore, it is an endothermic
process.
• During the process of solidification, the amount of heat liberated is
exactly equal to the heat of fusion.
• The heat liberated is called the heat of solidification or heat of
crystallization.

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• The molar heat of crystallization (∆Hcryst ) is the quantity of energy that is
removed from one mole of a liquid to convert it to the solid state at its
freezing point.

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• Some solids have significant vapor pressure and thus, evaporate directly
from the solid to the vapor state without passing through the liquid
state.
• This process is called sublimation,i.e., the change of solid to vapor.
• The opposite of sublimation is deposition that is the change of vapor to
solid.

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• The enthalpy of sublimation, ΔHsub, is the energy required to convert
one mole of a substance from the solid to the gaseous state.
• Sublimation is an endothermic process.
• The enthalpy of deposition, ΔHdep, is the energy released when one
mole of a substance from the gaseous state change to solid.
• The heat (enthalpy) of sublimation is related to the enthalpies of fusion
and vaporization by:

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 Heating curve
• Heating curve is a plot of the temperature versus the amount of heat
added
• It is commonly used to show the relationship between phase changes and
enthalpy for a given substance.
• There are two main observations that we can learn from the heating
curve:
regions where the temperature increases as heat is added and
plateaus where the temperature stays constant.
• It is at plateaus that a phase change occurs.

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The End

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