Chemistry

Grade-9
By Melkamu A.
UNIT- 5
Physical States of Matter
5.1 Introduction
All objects around us are called matter.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
It can exist in the form of gas, liquid and solid.
Example: water
The three physical states of water are:
• Steam, water in the form of gas.
• Water, in the form of liquid.
• Ice, water in the form of solid.
The physical state of a given sample of matter depends on the
temperature and pressure.
Solids:
•Have a definite shape and a definite volume.
•Are almost completely incompressible
•Have high average density due to the particles tightly packed closer.
•The particles of solid, (atoms, ions or molecules) vibrate with fixed point at position.
•Examples: Metals, wood, coal and stone, are solids.
Liquids:
•Have a definite volume, but not a definite shape and take the shape of their container.
•Explained in terms of arrangement of particles.
•Particles vibrate about a fixed point, and shift their positions to their neighbors
•Examples: At room temperature, water, ethanol, benzene and oil are liquids.
Gases:
•Have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.
•Particles are virtually independent of one another.
•Examples: Air, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are gases.
Plasma:
•A fourth-state of matter at very high temperature (million degrees Celsius).
•At such high temperatures molecules cannot exist.
•Most or all of the atoms are stripped of their electrons.
•This state of matter is a gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons.
•B/c of the extreme temperatures needed for fusion, no material can exist at this state.
2 KINETIC THEORY AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
.

5.2.1 The Kinetic Theory of Matter

Kinetic theory of matter is the states of matter in which substances are
chemically the same but physically different.
The particles are in a state of continuous and random motion with all possible
velocities.
The motion of the particles increases with a rise in temperature.
The kinetic theory of matter is based on the following three assumptions:
1. All matter is composed of particles which are in constant motion.
2. The particles possess kinetic energy and potential energy.
3. The difference b/n the three states of matter is due to their energy contents
and the motion of the particles.
5.2.2 Properties of Matter
Properties of Gases
Gases have no definite shape and definite volume.
Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers.
Gases can be easily compressed by applying pressure to the walls of a flexible container
The compression of gases results in a decrease in volume.
This happens due to the large spaces between the particles of gases.
Gases have low densities compared to liquids and solids
It is due to the particles far apart & the number of molecules per unit volume is very small.
A small mass of a gas in a large volume results in a very low density.
Gases exert pressure in all directions.
 Gases that are confined in a container exert pressure on the walls of their container.
 This pressure is due to collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the container.
Gases easily flow and diffuse through one another.
A gas moves freely and randomly throughout in a given space.
Properties of Liquids
Liquids have a definite volume,
But have no definite shape due to low intermolecular forces as compared to that of
solids.
They assume the shapes of their container.
Less dense than solid due to the loosely far apart arrangement of liquid particles.
But, the particles of liquids are closer than those of gases.
 This accounts for the higher densities of liquids as compared to gases.
 Liquids are slightly compressible.
Liquids are fluids and fluid is a substance that can easily flow.
Most liquids naturally flow downhill because of gravity.
Because of liquids flow readily the molecules of a liquid can mix with each other.
They flow much more slowly than gases.
Properties of Solids
Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume.
 This is due to the strong force of attraction that holds the particles of solids together.
Solids generally have higher densities than gases and liquids.
The particles of solids are very close to each other.
There is almost no empty space between the particles of solids.
Solid particles closer and have high density.
The number of particles of solid per unit volume is very large and difficult to compress.
 There is the high inter particle forces, and a very short distance between the particles.
 Solids are not fluids and do not flow.
Solid are rigidly held in position by strong forces and restricted motion of their particles.
 [Link] GASEOUS STATE
5.3.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases
•The particles are in a state of constant, continuous, rapid, random motion
Therefore, possess kinetic energy.
The motion is constantly interrupted by collisions with molecules or with the container.
The pressure of a gas is the effect of these molecular impacts.
•The volume of the particles is negligible compared to the total volume of the gas.
Gases are composed of separate, tiny invisible particles called molecules.
These molecules are so far apart and the total volume of the molecules is extremely small.
Therefore, under ordinary conditions, the gas consists chiefly of empty space.
This is why gases are so easily compressed and why they can mix so readily.
•The attractive forces between the particles are negligible.
There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles.
You can think of an ideal gas molecule as behaving like small billiard balls.
When they collide, they do not stick together but immediately bounce apart.
•The average kinetic energy of gas particles depends on the temperature of the gas.
At any particular moment, the molecules in a gas have different velocities.
The mathematical formula for kinetic energy is K.E. = ½ mv2, where m is mass and
v is velocity of gas molecules.
Because the molecules have different velocities, they have different kinetic energies.
However, it is assumed that the average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly
proportional to the absolute (Kelvin) temperature of the gas.
The gas laws express mathematical r/ships b/n the volume, temperature, pressure, and quantity
of a gas.
The observation of Boyle and other scientists led to the development of the Gas Laws.
Pressure: pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area.

Force
Pressure is one of the measurable properties of gases.
Pressure = Area
The pressure of a gas can be expressed in unit of atmosphere, Pascal, torr,
millimetre of mercury.
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa), and is defined as one Newton per
square metre.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 76 cmHg = 760 torr =
101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
Volume: Volume is the space taken up by a body.
The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3).
Volume is also expressed in cubic centimetre (cm3) and cubic
decimetre(dm3).
Other common units of volume are millilitre (mL) and litre (L).
1 cm3 = (1×10–2 m)3 = 1×10–6 m3
1 dm3 = (1×10–1 m)3 = 1×10–3 m3 = 1 L
A litre is equivalent to one cubic decimeter.
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Three temperature scales are commonly used. These are °F (degree Fahrenheit), °C
(degreeCelsius) and K (Kelvin). In all gas calculations, we use the Kelvin scale of temperature.
We use the following formulae for all necessary inter-conversions:
K = °C + 273
C = ( F– 32 )x5/9
F = ( 9/5 × C )+ 32
Molar Volume and Standard Conditions (STP)
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) for gases:
The conditions of a pressure of 1 atmosphere and a temperature of 0oC (273.14 K)
The volume of one mole of any gas is equal to 22.4 liters.
This volume is known as molar gas volume.
Quantity of gas: - The quantity of a gas is expressed in mole (n).
Mole is the quantity of gas in terms of number of particles.
 It is the number of atoms or molecules in1 gram-atom or
 1 gram-molecule of an element or a compound.
1. Boyle’s Law:
The first quantitative experiments performed on gases by Robert Boyle (1627-1691).
It is the r/ship b/n the volume and pressure of a fixed amount of a gas at constant temperature.
By decreasing the external pressure, causes the gas to expand and to increase in volume.
By increasing the external pressure allows the gas to contract and decrease in volume.

The relation between pressure and volume

Boyle studied: -the r/ship b/n the pressure of the trapped gas and its volume.
-At constant temperature doubling the pressure of gas reduces its volume by one-half.
-Tripling the gas pressure reduces its volume to one-third of the original.
Generally, the volume of a gas decreases, as the pressure on the gas increases.
ig. Volume versus pressure graph for a gas at constant temperature and mass .

Boyle's law: states that “the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure at a constant temperature”.
The inverse relationship between pressure andand volume is mathematically given as
 P1V1 = P2V2
Vα1
P (at constant T and n) From which follows,

V=k1 or PV = k; where k is a constant at a specific temperature for a given sample of ga

P

If P1 and V1 represent the initial conditions; and P2 and V2 represent the new or
final conditions, Boyle’s law can be written as:
Example 1
An inflated balloon has a volume of 0.55 L at sea level (1.0 atm) and is allowed to rise
to a height of 6.5 km, where the pressure is about 0.40 atm.
Initial conditions Final conditions
P1 = 1.0 atm P2 = 0.40 atm
V1 = 0.55 L V2 =?
Solution: P1V1 = P2 V2, V2 = P1V1 = 0.55 L × 1.0 atm = 1.4 L.
He discovered the r/ship b/n the volume and temperature of fixed amount of gas at constant pressure.

Relationship between the volume of air in the balloon and its temperature.
In 1848, Lord Kelvin realized that a temperature of -273.15oC is considered as absolute
zero. Absolute zero is theoretically the lowest attainable temperature,
Then he set up an absolute Tscale, with absolute zero as the starting point on the
Kelvin scale.
The volume of a gas and Kelvin temperature are directly proportional to each other.
Doubling the Kelvin temperature causes the volume of a gas to double, and reducing
the Kelvin temperature by half causes the volume of a gas to decrease by half.
Charles’ law: states that “the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure
varies directly with the Kelvin temperature”.
Mathematically; V  T at constant P and n:
V = kT, or V = k
T
V1 = V2
T1 T2 , where V1 and T1 represent the initial condition; V2 and T2 represent the
new condition.
Charles found that the volume of a gas at constant pressure increases linearly with T
of the gas.
If the graph is extrapolated to give zero volume for a gas, the temperature reached is –
273.15oC.
 = 400K ×

Example 2: A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 804 cm3 at a temperature of 127°C. At what temperature
will the volume of the gas be 603 cm3, assuming that there is no change in the pressure?
Solution: Initial conditions Final conditions
T1 = 127oC T2 =?
= 127 + 273 V2 = 603 cm3
= 400 K
V1 = 804 cm3

 300K
 3. The Combined Gas Law:
A sample of a gas often undergoes changes in temperature, pressure, and volume.
When this happens, the three variables must be dealt with at the same time.
Combined gas law: combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
It expresses the r/ship b/n pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas.
Derivation of the combined gas law:
Boyle’s law: V  1/P
Charles’ law: V  T Then, V  T/P (combined)
V = kT/P (where k is a constant)
It follows, ,
and
Since in each case k is constant,
, Where P1, V1 and T1 are the initial pressure, volume and temperature;
P2, V2 and T2 are the final one of the gas respectively.

Example 4: A 300 cm3 sample of a gas exerts a pressure of 60.0 kPa at 27°C. What pressure
would it exert in a 200 cm3 container at 20°C?
Solution: Initial Conditions: V1 = 300 cm3 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K P1= 60.0 kPa
Final Conditions: V2 =200 cm3 T2 = 20 + 273 = 293 K P2 = ?
P2 P = 2
P = 87.9 kPa 2
Avogadro’s law:
The relationship between the volume of a gas and its number of molecules was explained by
Avogadro.
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of different gases, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules.
Thus, the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of molecules (moles) of the gas at STP.
Mathematically, V á n; where V is the volume and n is number of moles.
The Ideal Gas Equation:
An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws.
Real gases only obey the ideal gas laws closely at high temperature and low pressure.
Under these conditions,their particles are very far apart.
The ideal gas law is a combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law.
 Boyle's law: V  1/ P (at constant T and n)
 Charles' law: VT (at constant P and n)
 Avogadro's law: V  n (at constant P and T)
 This relationship indicates how the volume of gas depends on pressure, temperature and number of moles.
V  nT , V = R nT , PV = nRT (the ideal gas equation)
P P
where R, is a proportionality constant called the gas constant.
R= PV =0.082057 [Link] = 8.314 L. kPa/[Link]
nT [Link]
R = 8.314 J/mol.K

Example 5: Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 7.4 g of CO2 at STP?
Solution: The ideal gas equation is given as PV = nRT
V = nRT (since n= m /M by rearranging V= mRT
P MP

V = 7.4 g x 0.082 [Link] /K mol 273 K

44 g / mol 1 atm

V = 3.77 L
Example 6: At STP, 0.280 L of a gas weighs 0.400 g. Calculate the molar mass of the gas.
Solution: Given: V = 0.280 L, m = 0.400 g At conditions of standard temperature and pressure
T = 273 K, P = 1 atm
R = 0.082 [Link]/[Link]
PV = nRT
PV= m RT (Since n= m )
M M
M=mRT =31.98g/mol
PV
•Graham's Law of Diffusion:
We have seen that a gas tends to expand and occupy any space available to it.
This spreading of gas molecules is called diffusion.
Thomas Graham an English chemist studied the rate of diffusion of different gases.
He found that gases having low densities diffuse faster than gases with high densities.
He was described quantitatively the r/ship b/n the density of a gas and its rate of diffusion.
Graham’s law of diffusion states that “at constant temperature and pressure, the rate
of diffusion of a gas, r, is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, d, or
molar mass, M”. Mathematically it can be expressed as:
Example 7
Which gas will diffuse faster, ammonia or carbon dioxide? What is the relative rate of diffusion?
Solution: The molecular weight of CO2 is 44 g/mol and that of NH3 is 17 g/mol.
Therefore, NH3 diffuses faster than CO2.
We can calculate the rate of diffusion as follows:
Let the rate of diffusion of NH3 be rNH3

Let the rate of diffusion of CO2 be rCO2

•This means rate of diffusion of NH3 is 1.6 times that of CO2.
Also the rate at which a gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the time taken.
Mathematically ,r  1/ t
where t1 and t2 are the time taken, r1 and r2 are the rates, M1 and
M2 are the molecular masses of Gas 1 and Gas 2 respectively.
[Link] LIQUID STATE
Energy Changes in Liquids
Vaporization is process by which a liquid changes to a gas.
Evaporation is the process by which liquid molecules break freely from the liquid surface and
enter the vapor phase. It is explained in terms of the energy possessed by the molecules on the
surface of the liquid.
In an open container, evaporation continues until all of the liquid enters the vapor phase.
However, liquids in a closed container behave differently.
In closed containers, the vapor cannot escape. As the vapor concentration increases, some of
the vapor molecules lose energy and return to the liquid state.
Condensation is process a vapor returns to the liquid state.
Liquid Evaporation Gas
Condensation
The rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on three factors:
These are temperature, intermolecular forces, and surface area of the liquid.
Volatile: - Liquids that readily evaporate at room temperature.
-They have relatively weak forces of attraction between particles.
Examples: Diethyl ether, ethyl alcohol, benzene and acetone.
Non-volatile:- Liquids that have a little tendency to evaporate at a given temperature.
-They have relatively stronger attractive forces between their molecules
Examples: Sulphuric acid, water, and molten ionic compounds.
Vapour pressure:- The partial pressure of the vapour above a liquid.
-The vapour pressure of a liquid depends up on the temperature.
-At a given temperature, vapour pressure is constant.
-As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure of a liquid also increases.
- Also depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces b/n the particles.
-The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure.
-Liquids with low intermolecular forces have high vapour pressures atRT.
E.g. diethyl ether, a nonpolar molecule with relatively weak dispersion forces, has a relatively
higher vapour pressure.
Boiling and Boiling Point:
Boiling is the change of a liquid to bubbles of vapour that appear throughout the liquids.
It occurs when the equilibrium vapour pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure.
Boiling point is the temperature at which the equilibrium vapour pressure of the liquid equals
the atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, the lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the boiling point will be.
The boiling point of a liquid can be reduced as lowering the external pressure.
Normal boiling point the boiling point at external pressure is 1.0 atmosphere (760 mmHg).
For instance: Water boils, at 100°C at 1.0 atmospheric pressure.
Thus, the normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
Q. Where will water boil first? In Addis Ababa or Hawassa? Why?
Boiling of a liquid requires a certain amount of heat energy to break the bonds of molecules.
Heat of vaporization: The amount of heat energy necessary to bring about the vaporization of a
fixed amount of a liquid at a fixed temperature to the gaseous state.
Molar heat of vaporization (Hvap): the heat of vaporization per mole of a given molecules.
Molar heat of condensation (Hcond): are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, i.e;
Hvap = -Hcond.
Vaporization is an endothermic processes where as condensation is an exothermic process.
5.5 THE SOLID STATE
When a solid is continuously heated its ordered crystalline structure is disturbed.
The particles attain their freedom of motion gradually and melting (fusion) and convert to liquid.
Melting point: - the temperature at which a crystalline solid is converted to a liquid.
Freezing (solidification):- when a liquid is cooled, the molecules become closer and become solid.
Freezing point: - temperature at which a liquid converted to a crystalline solid.
- Freezing point of a liquid is the same as the melting point of a crystalline solid.
Both melting and freezing take place at the same temperature.
Both liquid and solid phases coexist at equilibrium with each other at the melting or freezing point.
Ice Melting 0 C Liquid water
Freezing 0 C
Heat of fusion:-the amount of heat needed to convert 1gm of a solid to a liquid at the melting point.
Molar heat of fusion or molar enthalpy of fusion (Hfus):-is the quantity of heat needed to convert one
mole of a solid at its melting point to the liquid state.
Example:
The molar heat of fusion of ice is 6.01 kJ at 0°C.
Melting requires the supply of energy; therefore, it is an endothermic process.
Heat of solidification (Heat of crystallization): The amount of heat which is equal to the heat of fusion
liberated during the process of solidification.
Molar heat of crystallization (Hcryst): is the quantity of energy that must be removed from one
mole of a liquid to convert it to the solid state at its freezing point. Hcryst = –Hfus
 Sublimation:-The process that solid evaporate directly to the vapour state without
passing through the liquid state. Solid sublimation Vapour (gas)
Deposition
Sublimation is an endothermic process due to absorbed heat energy.
Molar heat of sublimation (Hfus): is the quantity of heat required to convert one mole
of a solid to a gas at its sublimation point.
The heat (enthalpy) of sublimation is related to the enthalpies of fusion and vaporization
by: Hsub = Hfus + Hvap
Phase Changes and Energy Changes in Solids
•A phase:
• is any part of a system that has uniform composition and properties.
•A state of matter represents a phase.
•Most solid substances undergo two changes of state when heated.
•A solid change to a liquid at the melting point.
•The liquid changes to vapour at the boiling point.
A heating curve is a plot of temperature verses the uniform addition of heat.
The changes in the temperature and phases of a pure substance on heating, it begins
with a solid and continues to the gaseous.
End of the Note!
Thank you!!!