THERMODYNAMICS

AND HEAT TRANSFER

Engr. Jackielou L. Paches

 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamic Properties, Systems, and Processes
 LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Identify extensive, intensive, and specific properties of

a working substance in a thermodynamic system.
2. Calculate the values of thermodynamic properties of a
working substance in a thermodynamic system
3. Recognize the thermodynamic process taking place in
a thermodynamic system.
 THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is a science relating heat and work transfers
and the related changes in the properties of the working
substance; it’s from the Greek words, therme: heat, and,
dynamis or dynamikos: power.
Thermodynamics is only concerned with macroscopic changes
and observations.
It deals with transformation of energy of all kinds from one form
to another.
Total energy = thermal + mechanical + kinetic + potential +
electric + magnetic + chemical + nuclear
Classical Thermodynamics
concerns the relationships between
bulk properties of matter. Nothing is
examined at the atomic or molecular
level.

Statistical Thermodynamics
seeks to explain those bulk properties in terms of constituent
atoms. The statistical part treats the aggregation of atoms,
not the behavior of any individual atom
 Microscopic Description
complete description of every particle in
the system

Macroscopic Description
In terms of a few properties which is thus far more accessible and
useable for engineering applications
Homogeneous System
A system that consists of a single physical phase
either solid, liquid or gas phase only. It is treated
as one constituent for its analysis.

Heterogeneous System
A system consists of a mixture of two or more than
two phases of matter. Each constituent present in
the system has its own independent properties,
the system cannot be analyzed as a single
constituent
Homogeneous System Heterogeneous System
Phase
- When a substance is of the
same nature throughout its
mass, it is said to be in a
phase.
✓ Single phase
✓ Two-phase
✓ Three-phase
 Triple point on a phase
diagram is indicated by the
point where all three
equilibrium lines meet.
Critical Point – the point in
temperature and pressure on a
phase diagram where the liquid
and gaseous phases of a
substance merge together into a
The curves shown in the figure represent single phase.
the coexistence of two phases.
 THERMODYNAMICS
Engineering Thermodynamics refers to the science that
involves the design and analysis of devices and systems for
energy conversion. It deals with heat and work and those
properties of substances related to heat and work.

Thermodynamic System is the quantity of matter of fixed mass

and identity upon which attention is focused on study.

Some of the common thermodynamic systems considered in engineering thermodynamics are Steam

and internal combustion engines, Refrigerator, Heat Pump, Power Plants, Jet Engines,etc.
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
Surroundings are everything external to the system
Boundary is a physical or imaginary surface, enveloping the system
and separating it from the surroundings
Universe is the combination of system and surroundings
 TYPES OF THERMODYANMIC SYSTEMS
Isolated Systems - cannot exchange matter or energy with the
surroundings; one that is not influenced in any way by the
surroundings

Closed systems - has the ability to exchange only energy with

its surroundings and cannot exchange matter

Open systems - has the capacity to exchange both matter and

energy with its surroundings; Boundaries are placed so that
location does not change with time
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Property is a characteristic which can be quantitatively evaluated or
a characteristic quality of the system which depends on the final
system state. e.g. pressure, temperature, velocity, energy, etc.

Classifications:
1. Intensive Property – independent of the amount of mass
e.g. Specific volume, temperature, pressure and density
2. Extensive Property – vary directly with the mass
e.g. Mass, Total Volume, Total Energy
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
• Extensive Properties • Intensive Properties
- vary directly with - independent of mass
mass ▪ temperature T
▪ mass m ▪ pressure P
▪ volume V ▪ specific volume v
▪ internal energy U ▪ specific internal energy
▪ enthalpy H , and u
▪ entropy S ▪ specific enthalpy h,
and
▪ specific entropy s
 Some Extensive Thermodynamic Properties
Mass of a body – the amount of matter a body contains
Weight of a body – the force acting on a body in a gravitational
field, equal to the product of its mass and the gravitational
acceleration of the field
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
Every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a
force directed along the line of the centered for the two objects
that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the separation between the two
objects.
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
 MASS AND WEIGHT
F = ma
W = mg
where: F = driving force
m = mass of the object
a = acceleration object
W = Weight of the body
g = gravitational acceleration
*at standard condition (45°N latitude, close to the sea level) local
gravitational acceleration is 9.806 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2
 Sample Problems
1. What is the weight of a 66-kgm man at standard
condition?
2. The weight of an object is 50lb. What is its mass at
standard conditions?
3. Determine the force of gravitational attraction
between the earth (m = 5.98 x 10 kg) and a 70-kg
24

physics student if the student is standing at sea

level, a distance of 6.38 x 10 m from earth's
6

center.
 Practice Problems
1. Determine the force of gravitational attraction
between the earth (m = 5.98 x 10 kg) and a 70-kg
24

physics student if the student is in an airplane at

40000 feet above earth's surface. This would
place the student a distance of 6.39 x 10 m from
6

earth's center.
2. Suppose that two objects attract each other with a
gravitational force of 16 units. If the distance
between the two objects is doubled, what is the
new force of attraction between the two objects?
 Practice Problems
3. Suppose that two objects attract each other with a
gravitational force of 16 units. If the distance between
the two objects is reduced in half, then what is the
new force of attraction between the two objects?
4. Suppose that two objects attract each other with a
gravitational force of 16 units. If the mass of both
objects was doubled, and if the distance between the
objects remained the same, then what would be the
new force of attraction between the two objects?
 Some Extensive Thermodynamic Properties
Internal energy (kJ/kg) – heat energy due to the movement of
the molecules within the substance brought about its
temperature.
Internal energy is zero if temperature is constant.

Flow work (kJ/kg) – work due to the change in volume.

W = F x L = PA x L = Pv
Where: P = pressure, kPA
v = specific volume, m /kg
3
 Some Extensive Thermodynamic Properties
Enthalpy – sum of the internal energy of a body and the product
of pressure and specific volume.
Enthalpy = Internal Energy + Flow Work

Entropy – measure of randomness of the molecules of a

substance.
- Measures the fraction of the total energy of a system that is not
available doing work.
 Some Extensive Thermodynamic Properties
Work (W) is an energy in transit. (For Mechanical System) It is
the action of a force on an object through a distance.

Heat (Q) is an energy in transit; It is the energy transferred by

virtue of temperature difference that exists across the
boundaries
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

Temperature - indicates the thermal state and ability to

exchange energy with a substance in contact with it.

°C = 5/9(°F – 32)

°F = (°C × 9/5) + 32

Thermometers – instruments used in measuring ordinary

temperatures
Pyrometers – instruments used in measuring high temperatures
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties
Absolute Temperature is the temperature measured using a
scale beginning at zero, with zero being the coldest
theoretically attainable temperature in nature.
Kelvin – the absolute temperature that corresponds to the
Celsius scale.
Rankine – the absolute temperature that corresponds to the
Fahrenheit scale.
°R = °F + 459.69 = 9/5 K

K = °C + 273.15
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

Relative Temperature Scale

Ice point exists when ice and water are in equilibrium at a
pressure of 101 kPa

Steam point exists when liquid water and its vapor are in a
state of equilibrium at a pressure of 101 kPa
 Sample Problem

The temperature of a substance is 80 F.

o Find its temperature
equivalent in oC, K, and oR.
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

Pressure - is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

against which the force is exerted.

Absolute pressure - is the measure of pressure

above zero
Gage pressure - atmospheric pressure minus
absolute pressure
Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa
Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties
Variation of Pressure with Depth
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

Absolute pressure uses absolute zero as its zero point.

Gauge pressure uses atmospheric pressure as its zero point.
Due to varying atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure measurement is not
precise, while absolute pressure is always definite.

Formulas to note:

Pgage = Pabs- Patm Pvac = Patm - Pabs

Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

Pgage = Pabs- Patm

 Sample Problems
1. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where
the barometric reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational
acceleration is 9.81 m/s . Assume the temperature of
2

mercury to be 10C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.

Engr. Jackielou L. Paches
 Sample Problems
2. A manometer is attached to a pressurized container. One
end of the manometer is open to the atmosphere and the
local atmospheric pressure is 760 mm-Hg. The height of the
manometer fluid is 42 cm and the fluid has a specific gravity
of 1.6. Calculate the absolute pressure on the inside surface
of the container.
Engr. Jackielou L. Paches
 Worksheet 2
1. In a piston system, the piston diameter is 25.0 mm, and
the mass of the piston and platform is 55.0 g. If a 0.584 kg
weight is placed on top of the platform to equilibrate the
pressure, then what is the manometric pressure inside?
2. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a
location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
3. Express a pressure gage reading of 35 psi in absolute
pressure
Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties

• Specific heat - the quantity of energy required to

raise the temperature of a unit mass by one
Kelvin.
Common specific heat values

Cp air = 1.0 kJ/kg-K

Cp H2O= 4.19 kJ/kg-K
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties
• Density (kg/m 3) – is a substance mass per unit volume. The
higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed
inside the substance
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
Density of air = 1.205 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 20°C
• Specific Volume (m 3/kg) – is the substance volume divided
by its mass. It is the reciprocal of the density of the
substance.
• Specific Weight ( kN/m 3)– is the substance weight per unit
volume.
Specific Weight of Water = 9.81 kN/m 3 or 62.4lb/ft 3 at 4 oC
 Some Intensive Thermodynamic Properties
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) – of a
liquid isa dimensionless unit and is the ratio
of the density of the liquid to the density of
water at a specified temperature.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density) – of a gas

is a dimensionless unit and is the ratio of the
density of the gas to the density of air at a
specified temperature.
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
Density of air = 1.205 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 20°C
 Sample Problems
A cylindrical vessel is 60 cm in diameter and 80 cm high. It
contains 5 kg of a gas. The pressure measured with
manometer indicates 650 mmHg above atmosphere when
barometer reads 760 mmHg. Find:
a. The absolute pressure of the gas in the vessel in bar,
b. Specific volume and density of the gas
 Sample Problems
Two cubic meters of air at 25°C and 1 bar has a mass of 2.34
kg.
a. List the values of three intensive properties and two
extensive properties for this system.
b. If the local gravity (g) is 9.65 m/s2, evaluate the specific
weight of the system
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Absolute Humidity is the mass of the water vapor divided by a
unit volume of air.
Relative Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the
air divided by the maximum amount that the air could contain
at that temperature
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
State- the state of an object is its condition described or
measured by a list of properties

When the properties

of the system change
and the system
reaches to the new
state, it is called a
change of state.
A system at two different states
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Two-Property Rule
All the other properties can be found if the two independent
properties are known.

Assumptions:
• The system is in equilibrium.
• Gravity, motion, electricity and magnetism are negligible
(without significant effect).
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The State Postulate
The number of properties required to fix
the state of a system is given by the
state postulate:

The state of a simple compressible

system is completely specified by The state of nitrogen is
two independent, intensive fixed by two independent,

properties. intensive properties.

 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

Thermodynamic equilibrium - the properties of which do not

change with time and that can be changed to another
condition only at the expense of effects on other systems.

• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is
isolated from its surroundings.
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Thermal Equilibrium Phase Equilibrium
- Temperature is the - The system involves two
same throughout the phases, and the mass of each
entire system phases reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.
Mechanical Equilibrium
- There is no change in Chemical Equilibrium
pressure at any point of - The chemical composition of a
the system with time. system does not change with
time.
 PATH AND PROCESSES
Path is a locus of series of states through which a system
passes between initial and final states. As series of states in
which as system passes during a process is called the path of
the process.

Process is any change that a system

undergoes from equilibrium state to
another.
 CYCLE
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of processes that begins
and ends at the same state that undergoes a series of
processes in such a way that its initial and final states are
identical.
 CYCLE

Point Function – quantity whose value at any state is

independent of the path or process used to
reach that state. ex. pressure, temperature, specific volume,
entropy, enthalpy
 PROCESSES DIAGRAMS

plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as
coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PROCESSES
1. Non-flow process - a process undergone by a fluid n a
closed system.
2. Flow process – a process undergone by a fluid in an open
system
3. Quasi-static process – a
process in which the system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with
its surroundings at all times.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PROCESSES
4. Reversible process - a process that can be reversed without
leaving any trace on the surroundings. It passes through a
series of equilibrium states.
• Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible
processes.
All real-world processes are irreversible.
• Friction
• Non-Quasi-Equilibrium Process
• Heat transfer across a finite change in temperature.
 TYPES OF PROCESSES
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.

• Isobaric: no change in pressure of the fluid (P1 = P2)

• Isochoric/ Isometric: no change in volume of the fluid
(v1 = v2)
• Isothermal: no change in temperature of the system (T1 = T2)
• Isenthalpic: no change of enthalpy (h1 = h2)
• Isentropic: no change of entropy of the fluid (s1 = s2).
 TYPES OF PROCESSES
Polytropic:
o When a gas undergoes a reversible process in which there is a
heat transfer, the process frequently takes place in such a
manner that a plot of the Log P vs Log v is a straight line.
o Pvn = Constant

P-V Diagram for Polytropic Process

 TYPES OF PROCESSES
• Throttling Process - an irreversible process which there is no
change in enthalpy from state 1 to state 2, h1 =h2; no work done,
W=0; and the process is adiabatic, Q = 0

For real gases, a temperature drop parallel to the decrease in

pressure is observed. Hence, a throttling process is the process of
suddenly decreasing the pressure without changing the enthalpy.
 ISOCHORIC PROCESS
• An isochoric process is a constant volume process. When the
volume of a system doesn’t change, it will do no work on its
surroundings.
• W=0
• ΔU = Q
 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
• An isothermal process is a constant temperature process. Any
heat flow into or out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium.
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0.
• Therefore, Q = W.
• Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as work (W).
 ISOBARIC PROCESS
• An isobaric process is a constant pressure process. ΔU, Q, and
W are generally non-zero, but calculating the work done by
an ideal gas is straightforward.
• W = P·ΔU
• One of the best examples of an isobaric process can be the
process through which water boils and gets converted into
steam
 ADIABATIC PROCESS
• An adiabatic process transfers no heat therefore Q=0.
• ΔU = Q-W
• When a system expands adiabatically, W is positive (the
system does the work) so ΔU is negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically, W is negative (work
is done on the system), so ΔU is positive.
Calculate the change in internal energy.

a. The system absorbs 300J of heat and performs 700J of

work.
b. The system absorbs 860J of heat energy and the
surroundings perform 250J on the system.
c. 400J of work is done on the system and the system loses
225J of heat energy.
 Practice Problem
1. How much work is required to compress a monoatomic ideal
gas at a constant pressure 0f 2.5 x 105 Pa from an initial
volume of 0.015 m3 to a final volume of 0.01 m3. What is the
change in internal energy if the system releases 350 J in this
process?
2. How much work does a gas perform at a constant pressure of
8.4 atm as it expands from a volume of 2.0 L to 4.5 L?
3. 4.5 moles of an ideal gas is heated at a constant pressure
from 30oC to 150oC. Calculate the work performed by this
gas.
ARE THERE ANY
QUESTIONS?
Remember to study the
information from this lecture!
 Sample Problem

A centrifugal compressor receives 1990m/min of air at a

pressure of 101 kPa and 30 oc. The air was compressed
while holding the entropy of the system constant. It
discharges the air at a pressure of 482 kPa. The mass
rate of flow is 38.5 kg/s. The work done on the working
substance is 6596 kW.