Introduction to environmental science

Enhl 220
Lecture 1 (notes )

Environment (living and non-living organisms that have a certain impact on you)
Environmental health combines multiple fields physics chemistry bio social science ethics,
politics economy and sociology.
Ex of polluted water near a town. Test the water, finding what are the reasons economical
social.
. how environment function
. how it affects us
. how we are affecting it positively or negatively

Natural sciences+ social sciences

Degrading the environment: Wasting natural resources resulting in natural reduction of these
resources/ overuse of resources that are big enough so that nature is not able to replenish
them.

“Tragedy of the communs”:

Fact that anytime we have a public use of resources people will overuse it. This will result in
some point of time that resources will no longer be able to access it. Basic needs need to be
allocated for the poor over use will be deducted. You cannot privatize water it is a natural
resource right to all.

Resources are perpetual always there /renewable that replenishes in human time
/nonrenewable needs a long period of time to get renewed minerals fossil fuels
Natural services: that nature provides us for free
Air pollification the air naturally cleans itself through the process of dilution degradation of
organic mater

Resource depleted (finished)

Economically depleted (ex: fossil fuels) the cost of extracting and processing a certain resource
can be avalaible it is more than what I can sell it for. Extracting oil from the well at the
beginning I sell it more than what I pay to extract it economically feasible. When I have been
extracting for a while the oil that is left is too costly to extract.

Ecological footprint: negative impact that we as individuals or one by one by capita is

measured, by hectares of land. How much you are emitting air pollution how much you are
degrading the environment

 Population growth
 Income
 Technology
Pollution she gave def check
Single source pollution/multiple source pollution

Mitigation methods to deal with pollution (output solution control system) :take water treat
it

Prevention (input solution control system) : not allowing pollution to go into system I try to
have waste water treatment plan, I prevent water in the river from being polluted (easier
quicker and cheaper)

Sustainable development:
Using resources, we have without compromising the resource’s we have for others that will
come after us. We are using them in a quantity and in way for coming societies to use it.
Respecting sustainable yield or resources.
 Session 2 lecture 2 Notes

Ecology: the study of how individuals interact with one another and how they interact with
the living world
the smallest matter in nature is the atom, many atoms form molecules-tissues-organs-organ
systems-populations-communities etc the realm of ecology is from the level of the organism to
the level of the biosphere everything below that organ system

etc in bio chem.

-Organism is any living them divided into species organisms belonging to the same species are
very similar to each other.

=> When we have organism of the same species living and interacting together we call this a
population.
=> these populations of different species living and interacting together, we call this a
community.
=> When all these populations of different species live and interact together and interact with
the environment we call this an ecosystem.

The biome is any aquatic or terrestrial region that has a certain climate either a desert forest
grass. Terrestrial and aquatic regions that have similar climate and consequently same animals
belong in the biome (doesn’t matter where they are in the world)

Within an ecosystem there is something called range of tolerance present within a certain
system within a certain range. The range of tolerance of oxygen for a certain species is within a
certain range.
The climate dictates what types of animal’s plants there is with in that system. Different
between habitat and a rang of a certain species.
The habitat is where an organism lives /the range is the area where we find that species.

Ecosystem includes living and non-living biotic and abiotic components these are limiting
factors for the survival of biotic components. If the abiotic is not present (ex sun). biotic
components cannot survive. Biotic are the living things in an ecosystem divided into 3
categories.
I- Consumers
II- producers (produce there own food, phytoplans in the environment)
III- and decomposers.

Photosynthesis: make use of co2 water solar energy and release oxygen. That is why we say
that forests are carbon sinks. The forest will uptake the carbon dioxide reducing climate
change.
  The consumers these are the heterotrophs they feed on producers or other
consumers. Carnivores, herbivores, omnivores.
 Secondary/high level/consumers feed on herbivores check :
 or tertiary high level consumers feed on other consumers

Why are decomposers imp in ecosystems?

Natural capital/ natural services and resources, natural services recycling of nutrient fungi
recycle enzymes in the environment.

3- organism energy release:

cellular respiration aerobic anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration: use the glucose they got from photosynthesis or they got from eating
other organisms they use the glucose source of energy to release carbon dioxide water and
energy.

Some organisms undergo anaerobic (they live in the soil) they release substances like methane
water energy. Some of these substances have bad smells water …

Energy flow and loss in ecosystems

Why do we say in nature we have no waste?
The waste of an organism is the food for the other: food chain

In ecosystems you do not have a food chain that is simple you have a “food web” things that
feed on each other. They are many primary consumers for that producer

All organisms that have the same number of energy transfer from the main source of energy in
ecosystem (sun) have the same trophic number.

Be careful the blu bird is a tertiary consumer

Food chain transfer of energy 10 percent called ecological efficiency

Multiple food chains better to always eat low in a food chain for energy levels, yet you cannot
compare different food chains to each other

Matter cycling in ecosystems nutrient cycles as natural services, matter that processes carbon
water oxygen nitrogen are all nutrient cycles.
Ex: water, carbon cycles

Water cycle is the hydrological cycle it distributes collects

 Lecture 3 notes
Communities populations and species interactions

Niche the role a species plays in the organism,

 fundamental niche theoretically available resources.
 Realized niche the resources that species actually use.

(ex: rabbit doesn’t have access to all available resources in presence of competition. So out
of the total the part that is actually accessible is it’s realized niche.)

There are different categorization of species generalists vs specialists species that have
broad niches, they can eat different foods cope with different environmental conditions we
call them the generalists. On the contrary specialists can eat very specific type of food can
live in certain conditions 1,2 or 3, they cannot cope with environmental changes to the
point that some cannot cope with any type of changes. Specialists are more prone to
extinction they cannot leave the place they are in if they are changes in the environmental
conditions, they cannot sustain themselves.

Community:

I-Describe geographical location

II-How would you describe a species diversity in x ecosystem?
1- species richness 2- and evenness. (ex: richness high evenness low)
-what are interactions between species?
III-what’s the niche structure

Types of species:
 native vs non-native
 species normally found in that area: native to that region
 nonnative species that migrated to a certain ecosystem intentionally or accidentally.
Went to Australia got kangaroos to Lebanon, went and bought coffee beans there was
an infestation of insects.
 Invasive nonnative species are usually the ones that wipe off the species.

 Indicator/ keystone/ and foundation species

 Indicator species: species that are an early indication of change in an ecosystem,
whether it’s a positive indication or a negative one
(ex: trout need high amount of dissolved oxygen to survive, good indicator that the
water is good at least organically. If trout begins to die that means that the water is
polluted organically. Absence of trout in the water is an indication of the level of
pollution of species
  Keystone species whether certain species can live amongst other species that are
already present (ex: bee’s keystone species helping flowers grow, pray predictor
relationship predictor is a keystone specie not allowing the pray to stay.)
 The foundation species is one specific category of the keystone. Helps sustain a certain
specie by providing them just a place to stay (ex: savannah elephants pave the way, so
that the plants grow tall)

4-species interactions:
 Preditor prey
 Mutualism
 Commensalism
 Competition: members of 1 or more of a specie fight over common resources.
Some die some adapt some decrease in number. The ones that decrease or die are
specialist species the ones that leave are the generalists.

Many species over the time develop new traits that allows them to share resources way
that allows the species to adapt like the owl and the hawk one feeds during the day the
other during the night

 Predator prey relationships:

Without it populations would grow exponentially

Parasitism: parasite feeds on host thus benefiting this type of interaction in the ecosystem is
a “win lose situation”.

Mutualism: “win win relationship”. When 2 species interact in a way when both of them
are winning. (elephants on top of them birds, birds are cleaning the elephants by eating the
insects and they are getting transported)

Commensalism: one species is benefitting from the other species whereas the other is not
being impacted by it at all.

Ecological successions: 2 types of successions primary ecological succession and secondary

-primary building ecosystems from scratch land ecosystem no sediments if talking about
acquatic. We do not see it very frequently because it’s a long process we need to build soil.
Pioneer species mosses litchens come and attach themselves to the bare rocks and start the
soil building process, they secrete enzyme to build rock and as they die they will be
transformed into nutrients to increase the soil ready to accommodate more developed
species than bare rocked. They can start living in the ecosystem.
The mid-successional species -the late successional species
- additional thousands of years the soil will deepen with nutrients and organic material
ready for late successional species. Deep rooted trees and others.
 Primary ecological succession not common
What is very common is the secondary ecological succession development of new
ecosystem in the place of an ecosystem that was disturbed. Forrest fire animals left, soil is
still there. There is a regeneration of the forest.

Facilitators species that prepare and make it easy for other species to come.

6- stability and sustainability of aspects:

Ability of species to survive,living systems use:
Persistence /inertia, constancy and resilience

Persistence: living body of water, clean itself by dilution

Resilience: full damage in the forrest secondary succession
Constancy: living system that tries to keep population system constant (first lecture imitation of
nature by keeping population sizes within limits)

7- population dynamics carrying capacity

Populations live in clumps to mate find resources and fend off other predators.
Immigration
Pre-reproductive age gives an idea on population changes in the future (view power-point)

Intrinsic rate of increase: R

Rates of which a population may grow if they are not population control factors
 Density independent population control factor (will kill species regardless if there are
or not a lot of organism’s aquatic systems polluted with pesticide whether there are lots
or a small number of fish they are going to die)
 density dependent population growth factors (infectious diseases/competition)

forest fire can be dependent and independent

carrying capacity of an ecosystem: how much it can accommodate in terms of population or in

terms of ecosystems without degrading that ecosystem. When the carrying capacity increases it
will decrease because of the depletion of resources. The carrying capacity fluctuates.
Stable,irruptive,regular irregular

8- reproductive pattern (sexual, asexual)

(view table)

9- species survivorship
Late loss (live to an old age)
Early loss (die early)
Constant loss (die at any age: ex birds)
Sustaining biodiversity, the species approach (lecture 4)

Looking into biodiversity most important natural resource, biodiversity might be meaning
species diversity (how many species are present in a certain areas) ecological diversity(ex: do
we have forests/deserts/ farmlands: how many types of ecosystems do we have in a certain
area), functional diversity (resettling of nutrients by decomposers, genetic diversity (genetic
variability within a certain population). Referred to population genetic diversity already.
If not specified we mean species biodiversity
2 schools of thoughts some protect biodiversity for its intrinsic value (regardless of economic
value, believe that all species have the right to exist) instrumental value (value of a population
based on economical or ecological services). Some of the ecological services is keeping the
function within the ecosystem so it can adapt within certain services, keeps species within
limits, speciation aspect new species develop with time, allows them to adapt more compete
more. Species are a main part of ecotourism, if biodiversity is not there the country cannot
sustain themselves. (ex: Lebanon relies on tourism, biodiversity provides us with jobs, main
pillar survival of individuals)

2-species extinction:
Either local extinction or ecological extinction, or biological extinction
Local extinction: Species are no longer found in a certain location
Ecological extinction: species size starts to decrease can no longer play its ecological role it can
no longer catch enough pray it is still there but numbers are decreasing to ecological level.
Biological extinction: species is no longer found anywhere anymore.

Before species reaches biological extinction, it becomes first threatened species, they are still
abundant but they are starting to decrease in number to become endangered. They are ready
to become biologically extinct.
If not specified what type of extinction biological extinction
Some species have some characteristics that makes them prone to ecological and biological
extinction, some species are more prone they cannot cope with climate change they have a
certain diet, only can live in certain climates, have a certain niche, fixed migratory patterns (if
not accommodated in certain place go extinct faster rather than those who migrate easily),
there distribution is not wide. They spread widely into that ecosystem, they cannot mate easily
they are more prone to extinction. Species that are rare. And those that are commercially
valuable. We kill consume them more specially if not protected by law.
Feeds at high trophic level: the energy decreases, we are getting less energy per individual,
more nutrition more food needed, sometimes not available due to competition.

How is the extinction rate estimated:

 rate we are making use of the species
 how many species we are losing per year
  computer system: model of ecosystem, characteristics of species found in that
ecosystem, is it a place where we have fires ..non accurate number rough estimation.
 Species extinction is a long process scientist need to keep up, might take more than the
average person’s life, barely know all the species on earth, introducing only those that I
know, playing a role that we are still not aware of. Another gap missing information.

Species extinction is a natural process “background extinction rate” 1 specie per million per
year, throughout history we had 5 mass extinction, lost many species in short periods of times.
The main reasons are not very known in addition to human activities it is about climate change,
glacial changes did not allow species to adapt. That leads to the question about now species
then couldn’t adapt, thousand times more than the background extinction rate losing thousand
species per year. International union for conservation of nature issued a red list for species
extinction.

3. causes of species extinction “HIPPCO”old acronym hipo, habitat destruction, habitat

fragmentation, invasion population growth, pollution, climate change, overexploitation of
resources

-> overexploitation of resources

-> climate change
-> population growth

Invasive species: leave native space invade new territory intentionally or non-intentionally.
Maybe beneficial or harmful, native species have competitors in that ecosystem limit their
growth, the invasive species may not have predators in that ecosystems may not have
competitors they grow in big numbers inside the ecosystem. (ex: given last time Canada fill
form about what kind of species you have, protecting borders, education, satellite imaging
important)

Good invaders:
 High reproductive rate live long period of time, exponential growth
 Pioneer species, they can survive in harsh environments
 High dispersal rate
 Generalists (live anywhere eat anything)
 High genetic variability (allows them not to have competitors for all of them)

Ecosystem prone to invasion

 Where there is not a lot of human activity
 Ecosystem similar to climate they come from allows them to adapt fast
 Absence of natural disasters fires
 Less predation
  Early successional system: ecological succession last time, it has less species less
developed less diversity, would love to come to a system with less diversity, less
possible to meet predators

Population growth: as human population increases affect biodiversity, pollution use of

resources increases, acid rain air pollution affects water, decreases in number of species,
climate change was added to the acronym quick species don’t have enough time to adapt to
drastic climate change.

To protect biodiversity: gene bank mitigation to the problem, work on protecting species in
zoos if habitat destroyed, put them back in natural habitats idea of reserves,

Conventions not ratified …

 (LECTURE 5) LECTURE 9
FOOD PRODUCTION SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
3 systems of production rangeland fishery and feedlots

1960’s increase in global food production.