UNIT - I

ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

ENVIRONMENT
Environmental science is the study of nature and the facts about environment.
Environment can be defined as "all the social, economical, physical and chemical factors that
surrounds man" or "all abiotic and biotic components around man-all living and non living
things surrounds man".

PREREQUISITE DISCUSSIONS
The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environ’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’.
Objective of this course is to develop concern for our own environment which will
lead us to act at our own level to protect the environment we all live in.
Ever since people first recognized that their health and well-being were related to the
quality of their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to attempt to improve
the quality of their environment.

There are three reasons for studying the state of the environment.
The first is the need for information that clarifies modern environmental concepts like
equitable use of natural resources, more sustainable life styles etc.
Second, there is a need to change the way in which we view our own environment,
using practical approach based on observation and self learning.
Third, there is a need to create a concern for our environment that will trigger pro-
environmental action; including simple activities we can do in our daily life to protect it.
CONCEPTS
According to ancient man the environment was the Panchaboodhas (i.e.) air, water,
land, sky and energy.
The human were disciples of nature. They were able to protect themselves from
harmful one and protect the others. But according to modern man the environment is only air
land and water.
Exploitation of various earth resources to satisfy the increasing needs of human
population has resulted in 1) depletion of various resources of earth 2) pollution. Principles of
environmental education:

 Examine the major environmental issues

 Discover the root cause
 Develop problem solving skills
 Promote co-operation in solving problems
 Emphasis active participation in prevention and solution to problems

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

 Studying the interrelationship between the components of environment.

 Carrying out impact analysis and Environmental Audit
 Preventing pollution from existing and new industries
 Stopping the use of biological and nuclear weapons
 Managing unpredictable disasters etc.

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PUBLIC AWARENESS
Environmental Pollution or problems cannot be solved by mere laws. Public
participation is an important aspect which serves the environmental Protection.

 Public awareness of environmental issue is at infant stage

 30-40% of public of developing country are aware of environmental. Problems but
they do not bother about it.
 Ignorance and incomplete knowledge has lead to misconceptions.
 Development and improvement in std. of living has lead to serious environmental
disasters.
 Debates on environmental Issues are treated as anti-developmental.

APPLICATION

 Environmental science is essentially the application of scientific methods and

principles to the study of environmental issues, so it has probably been around in
some forms as long as science itself.
 Environmental science is often confused with other fields of related interest,
especially ecology, environmental studies, environmental education and
environmental engineering.
 Environmental science is not constrained with any one discipline and it is a
comprehensive field.
RISK AND HAZARDS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Environmental risk due to various environmental hazards is an important topic for
environmental engineers to recognise and understand in order to protect human society and
ecosystems from harms or damages at local, regional or global scales. For example, to deal
with contaminated soil and ground water at a brown field, risk and exposure assessment help
engineers choose an optimal solution to either treat the hazard (e.g., to remove the
contaminants from the soil and water) or reduce the exposure (e.g., to cover up the land with
a barrier).
A hazard is a threat to life, health, property, or ecosystems, i.e., it involves something
that could potentially be harmful. Therefore, when a dormant hazard comes to fruition, it will
cause physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment, and
result in an incident, accident, emergency event, or disaster. Hazards may be classified into:

 Chemical hazards – Combustion of Fossil fuels, industrial effluence, pesticides heavy

metals.
 Physical hazards – Radioactive and UV radiations, Global warming, Chlorofluro
carbons, Noise etc.
 Biological hazards – Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites.
ECOSYSTEM
Living organisms cannot be isolated from their non-living environment because the
later provides materials and energy for the survival of the farmer.
An ecosystem is therefore defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising
of living organisms and their non-living environment that interact to form a stable self
supporting system.

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 Types of Ecosystem

Natural Artificial/Man-made

Terrestrial Aquatic

Marine Fresh water

Lotic -river, stream or spring. Lentic -lake, pond or swamp.

Ecology - Study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the flows of energy and materials
between abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.
PREREQUISITE DISCUSSIONS
EO Wilson is an entomologist who envisioned that biological diversity was a key to
human survival on Earth. He wrote ‘Diversity of life’ in 1993, which was awarded a prize for
the best book published on environmental issues.
He emphasised the risks to mankind due to manmade disturbances in natural
ecosystems that are leading to the rapid extinction of species at the global level.
An Indian ornithologist and naturalist, Salim Ali known as the "birdman of India",
was among the first Indians to conduct systematic bird surveys across India.
He was instrumental in creating the Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National
Park) and prevented the destruction of what is now the Silent Valley National Park. He was
awarded India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1976.
His autobiography, Fall of a sparrow, should be read by every nature enthusiast. He
was our country’s leading conservation scientist and influenced environmental policies in our
country for over 50 years.
CONCEPTS
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the flows of
energy and materials between abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.
Structure of Ecosystem
1. Abiotic or non-living components or physical components
2. Biotic or Living components
3. Energy components
Function of organisms in an ecosystem
 Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae
 Consumer (heterotrophy): eat other organisms
 Decomposer: eat dead organic matter; bacteria and fungi

Classes of Consumers

 Herbivore – primary consumer – eats plants

 Carnivores – secondary – meat eaters; eat herbivores
 Tertiary – feed on carnivores
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  Omnivores – eat plants/animals

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

 All organisms must obtain a supply of energy and nutrients from their
environment in order to survive.
 The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy
from the sun.
 Because, it is the first step in the production of energy for living things, it is called
“Primary production”.
 Photosynthesis -- Chemical reaction where green plants use water & carbon
dioxide to store the sun’s energy in glucose.
 ENERGY is stored in glucose.
 Glucose is stored as starch in plants
 The majority of autotrophs are photoautotrophs that harness the energy of the sun
and pass some of this energy onto consumers through feeding pathways.
 The energy contained within producers and consumers is ultimately passed to the
decomposers that are responsible for the constant recycling of nutrients.
 Thus, there is a one-way flow of energy through the biotic community and a
cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem
 Energy flow cannot occur in reverse direction.

Energy Flow
 Starts from autotrophs (the producer level, i.e., first trophic level) to Heterotrophs
including plant eaters or Herbivores (second trophic level) and so on.
 The amount of energy decreases with successive trophic levels.
 Only About 1% of energy from the sun is used by green plants & rest remains
unutilized.
 Similarly, there is loss of energy in each trophic level.
 The transfer of food energy between the organisms in an ecosystem can be tracked

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 by constructing food chains, food webs, pyramids of numbers, biomass and
energy and energy flow diagrams.
FOOD CHAIN
Plants by photosynthesis convert solar energy into protoplasm. Small herbivores
consume the vegetable matter and convert into animal matter which in turn eaten by large
carnivores.

 A food chain may be defined as, “the transfer of energy and nutrients through a
series of organisms with repeated process of eating and being eaten”.
 In an ecosystem, all the organisms are linked together with one another by food
relationship.
 Each organism living or dead is potential food for some other organism.

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 Food Chain

FOOD WEB
The food relationship between various organisms is being depicted by linking all the
possible prey and predators of different food level. In an ecosystem linking of feeding habit
relations will provide a food web or Interlocking pattern of several interlinked food chains is
termed as FOOD WEB.

Food web in grassland ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
An”Ecological pyramid” is a graphical representation that shows the relative amounts
of energy or matter contained within each tropic level in a food chain or food web.
An ecological pyramid shows the relationship between consumers and producers at
different tropic levels in an ecosystem.

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 Ecological Pyramid
Types of Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers
Shows the relative number of individual organisms at each tropic level.

Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of Biomass
A pyramid of biomass represents the total dry mass (in grams per square meter of
area) of all the organisms in each tropic level at a particular time.

Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
A pyramid of biomass represents the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at
successive tropic levels. The pyramids of energy are always upright.

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 Pyramid of Energy
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen is crucial for all organisms
o Nucleic acids
o Proteins
o Chlorophyll
 Nitrogen- 78% in Atmosphere
 N2 is very stable and must be broken apart by organisms, combined with other atoms
into a usable form.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitogen cycle completes in 5 steps:
1) Nitrogen Fixation
Conversion of N2 → NH3
Combustion, volcanic action, Lightning, Industrial processes (making fertilizer).
Bacteria (Azotobactor, Clostridium, Nostoc etc.)
2) Nitrification
Conversion of NH3 → NO3
Soil bacteria convert in a two step process.
3) Assimilation
Roots absorb NH3, NH4, or NO3 and incorporate them into nucleic acids and protein.
4) Ammonification
Amino acids and nucleotides are broken down into waste products NH3 or NH4

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 5) Denitrification
The reduction of NO3 to N2 .Denitrifying bacteria return some of the nitrogen to the
atmosphere
OXYGEN CYCLE
oxygen cycle is the circulation of oxygen in various forms through nature free in the
air and dissolved in water.
Oxygen is second only to nitrogen in abundance among uncombined elements in the
atmosphere.
Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air and water as carbon
dioxide (CO2). CO2 is then taken up by algae and terrestrial green plants and converted into
carbohydrates during the process of photosynthesis, oxygen being a by-product.
The waters of the world are the main oxygen generators of the biosphere; their algae
are estimated to replace about 90 percent of all oxygen used.

The generalized oxygen cycle

Oxygen is involved to some degree in all the other biogeochemical cycles. For
example, over time, detritus from living organisms transfers oxygen-containing compounds
such as calcium carbonates into the lithosphere.
Despite the burning of fossil fuel and the reduction of natural vegetation (on land and
in the sea), the level of atmospheric oxygen appears to be relatively stable because of the
increase in plant productivity resulting from agricultural advances worldwide.

CARBON CYCLE

 Carbon enters plants, etc., as CO2

o Bacteria process carbon in a fashion that allows it to be recycled.
o Obtain energy from the molecules, and convert carbohydrates to carbon
dioxide as a result of respiration.
 Photosynthesis removes carbon from the abiotic environment (fixes carbon into
organic molecules)
 Carbon moves through food chain through consumption of one organisms by another

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  Cellular respiration, combustion, and erosion of limestone return carbon to the
atmosphere, water and abiotic environment.

Carbon Cycle
The source of atmospheric carbon dioxide is variable but only plants can utilize atmospheric
carbon directly.

PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

 The only cycle that does not have a gaseous state.

 Inorganic phosphate PO43- is released from rocks and sediments through the action of
erosion.

Phosphorous Cycle

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  Soil PO43- is absorbed by plants and incorporated into nucleic acids, phospholipids
and ATP.
 Animals obtain most of their PO43- by consumption of other animals and from water.
 PO43- is released to the soil again by decomposers.
o Dissolved PO43- gets absorbed by algae and aquatic plants.
o Decomposers break down waste and returns PO43- to sediments on the seabed.
o Some returns to terrestrial environment through geologic processes and via
seabirds.

Phosphorous Cycle

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological succession is defined as, “A change in the community in which new

populations of organisms gradually replace existing ones”.
There are two types of ecological succession:
 Primary Succession: Occurs where there is no soil, e.g. after a volcanic eruption
or a glacial retreat.
 Secondary Succession: Community development in the areas that were
previously occupied by another community. It occurs after a disturbance. E.g.,
loss of trees after disease, Fire or wind, deforestation etc.

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Primary Succession Vs Secondary Succession

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

 No soil  Soil already exists
 Pioneer species  Seeds have suitable soil conditions
 Weathering & decomposition  Occurs much faster
 Humus and sand increase over time  Climax community
 End = Climax community

FOREST ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

Introduction
 A forest is an area with a high density of trees.
 World’s total land area is 13,076 million hectares - (Source: FAO; 1989) of which
total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area.
 In India, the forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area.
 The forest ecosystems are of great concern from the environmental point of view.
 It provides numerous environmental services like;
 Nutrient cycling
 Maintaining biodiversity
 Providing wildlife habitat
 Affecting rainfall patterns
 Regulating stream flow
 Storing water
 Reducing flooding
 Preventing soil erosion
 Reclaiming degraded land & many more….
 Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems have some traditional values as
well.
Examples are:
 Fire Wood & Timber
 Fruits
 Gums
 Herbs & drugs
Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem
Biotic components
The various biotic components, representatives from the three functional groups, of a
forest ecosystem are:
1) Producer Organisms
 In a forest, the producers are mainly trees.
 Trees are of different kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that
climate.
 Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground vegetation.
 Dominant species of trees in major types of forest ecosystems are: Tectona grandis,
Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus.
2) Consumers
In a forest, consumers are of three main types;
a) Primary Consumers
These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers.

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Eg:
 Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves.
 Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots and/or fruits of
trees.

b) Secondary Consumers
These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers.
Eg: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes.
c) Tertiary Consumer
These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary consumers. These include top
carnivores like Lion, Tiger
3) Decomposers
 These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like;
 Bacteria (Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas.
 Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium.
 Actinomycetes (Streptomyces).
 They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes
place.
 Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse.

Forest Ecosystem

II. Abiotic components

These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & atmosphere.
In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests.

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AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
 Aquatic ecosystems deal with biotic community present in water bodies.
 In terrestrial ecosystem, carbon dioxide & oxygen are present in gaseous
form whereas in aquatic ecosystem, these are available in dissolved state.
 Depending upon the quality and nature of water, the aquatic
ecosystem are categorized into:
o Freshwater Ecosystem and
o Marine Ecosystem.
Freshwater Ecosystem
 Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009%
of its total water.
 Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species.
 Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For
example:
o They recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods, recharge ground
water and provide habitats for wildlife.
o Aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very
important to the tourism industry, especially in coastal region.
 There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
o Lentic: slow-moving water, including Pools, Ponds, and Lakes.
o Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example Streams and Rivers.
o Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated with water or inundated for
at least part of the time
River Ecosystem
•As Compared with lentic freshwater (Ponds & lakes), lotic waters such as streams, and
river have been less studied.
However, the various components of an riverine and stream ecosystem can be arranged
as follows.
Producers: The chief producers that remain permanently attached to a firm substratum
are green algae as Cladophora, and aquatic mosses.
Consumers: The consumers show certain features as permanent attachment to firm
substrata, presence of hooks & suckers, sticky undersurface, streamline bodies, flattened
bodies.. Thus a variety of animal are found, which are fresh spongy and caddis-fly
larvae, snails, flat worms etc.
Decomposers: Various bacteria and fungi like actinomycetes are present which acts as
decomposer
SIGNIFICANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS

 The food relationship among the different organisms in an ecosystem

 The food chains are the living components of the biosphere
 These are the vehicles of transfer of energy from one level to another
 Through the food chains, transfer of materials and nutrients also takes place
 The movement of some toxic substances (like DDT) in the ecosystem,
sprayed to kill the pests and insects, through the various trophic levels,
 their accumulation at the highest trophic level, etc. can be studied.

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all
sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.
PREREQUISITE DISCUSSIONS
Biologists most often define "biological diversity" or "biodiversity" as the "totality
of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region".
It is virtually synonymous with “Life on earth”.
The biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct
biological species, which is the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.

CONCEPTS : LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Genetic diversity: It is a level of biodiversity that refers to the total
number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.
2. Species diversity: It refers to the variety of species within a region.
Species diversity is an index that incorporates the number of species in an
area and also their relative abundance.
3. Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the diversity of a place at the level of
ecosystems.

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity
is classified into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
Direct value of biodiversity is of two types
1. Consumptive use value and
2. Productive use value
Consumptive use value: The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's
products that are consumed directly, without passing through a market. Some of them are
firewood, food, and game meat.

When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing, the
consumptive value is the whole recreational experience. Consumptive value seldom
appears in national income accounts, but could be easily included in measures such as
GDP. It is valued from the cost if resource was sold at market value, rather than being
consumed.
High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:
1. Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
2. Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
3. Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested
sustainably and managed efficiently.

Productive use value: Productive use value refers to products that are commercially
harvested (sold in a market). Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail
end by adding an inflated cost to the finished product. Productive use value is often the
only value of biological resource reflected in national income accounts and may have a
major impact on the national economy.
Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and game
meat sold in a market have productive use value.

Indirect value of biodiversity

Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not appear in
GDP. However, they are crucial to other natural products which influence the GDP. These
values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any use. Ex:
Ecological Processes etc. Direct values are often derived from indirect values because
plants and animals are supported by the services provided by their environments. Many
classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles
6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value
Non-consumptive use value: This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.
It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for other species by
maintaining water cycle, regulating climate, production and protection of the soil,
absorption and breakdown of pollutants, recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific,
educational, spiritual and historic values of natural environments. Recreational value is
important with regard to tourism and helps the national GDP.

Optional value: This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and
needs to be explored. This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that
may prove to be important in future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference
to a specific problem currently plaguing the society.
Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases like
cancer and AIDS.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic
growth of our country.
Existence value: This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also,
this is the value that people are willing to pay to keep a species/community/ecosystem from
going extinct. Examples of this are high amounts being spent for animals like pandas,
whales, lions etc.
Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and mountains. Examples
being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepal and plants like the Vambu, Tulsi and
Vengai are worshipped.

Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific, aesthetic and tourism values
of biodiversity in an ecosystem

Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect biodiversity. The most
important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.

Ex:
1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they
can enjoy aesthetic value of biodiversity. This is called eco-tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of
peacocks and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.
Social value:
It refers to the manner in which the bio-resources are used in the society. These
are associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects of the people.
e.g., Holy plants : Tulsi, Lotus, Neem
trees Holy animals : Cow, snake,
bull, peacock
Ethical value:
It means that a species may or may not be used but its existence in nature gives
us pleasure.
e.g., Holy river : River Ganga
Holy tree : Tulsi, Vengai

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY:
Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity. Waste generated
due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils the environment and leads
to decreased diversity in biological species. Any change in the system leads to a major
imbalance and threatens the normal ecological cycle. Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
Habitat loss:
The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss. Factors
influencing habitat loss are:
1. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities.
Forests and grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or
settlement areas or developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are natural home
to thousands of species which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.
2. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed
due to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
 3. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and
scattered patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the
disappearance of most wildlife
4. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw
materials leading to extinction of many wild plant species.
5. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the
production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
6. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat
loss
7. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled
with the discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
Poaching of wildlife:
Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It contributes to loss of
biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their
products.
Factors influencing poaching
1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to
pressure on forest resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats
2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on
the trade of products of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling of
wildlife products. Since trading of such products is highly profitable, poachers
continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their fur, skin and tusks to other
countries.
Wildlife products include furs, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products.
Richest source of biodiversity lies in developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Advanced countries like Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong are the major
importers of wildlife products.

MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to
man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the forest department officials to
convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers support for wildlife conservation.
Ex:
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation,
the villagers killed and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage
done by elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals
which explode when the elephants enter the fields
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai
Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
 3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals
(Elephants) who suffer pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity

1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of
animal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.
4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started
5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches
to prevent animals from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within
forest zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be
stopped.
Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The commercial,
medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity emphasizes the need
for its conservation.

FACTORS AFFECTING BIODIVERSITY:

1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of
habitats affect biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also
affect biodiversity
NEED FOR BIODIVERSITY
1. It provides recreation and tourism
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plants
and animals
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting
systems
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
 1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation
IN-SITUCONSERVATION

Biosphere reserves cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used to protect
species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
1. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem
2. Protect endangered species
3. Protect maximum number of species and communities
4. Serve as site of recreation and tourism
5. May also be used for educational and research purposes
Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed. No
tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere reserves.

A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more national parks
may exist within a biosphere reserve.
A national park is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment.
It is used to protect, propagate and develop wildlife.
Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is prohibited
All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park

Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
1. It protects animals only
2. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest
products, private ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does not
affect animals adversely
Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project,
Crocodile breeding project, project elephant etc

Advantages of in-situ conservation

1. It is cheap and convenient
2. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
1. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity
2. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution
Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild
relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant
and animal species under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the
endangered species.
Important centers of ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and
uses the Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryopreservation technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice,
turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for
years using this technique.

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal,

Haryana and preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility,
conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility has
been created within the NPBGR.

Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and
attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and
security thereby have a longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance
of survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

GLOSSARY
Abiotic: A non-living component of the environment
Biodivetsity: The variety and variability of different living
organisms Biotic: Of or relating to life
Conservation: Not wasting and renewing when possible
Consumers: Organisms which consume protoplasm produced from photosynthesis
directly or indirectly
Decomposers: Organisms which utilize energy from wastes or dead organisms and
complete the cycle by returning the nutrients to the soil or water and CO2 to air
Ecological Succession: The sequential replacement of one vegetative community by
another through a series of stages
Ecosystem: A community of living things interacting with one another and with
their physical environment
Endangered Species: A species threatened with extinction
Endemic: Peculiar to a certain region or country; native to a restricted area; not
introduced Producers: Autotrophic organisms which produce protoplasm using
inorganic carbon and energy from sun
Species: A group of organisms capable of interbreeding with members of other species
 UNIT II
POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT

Introduction
Environmental pollution may be defined as, “the unfavorable alteration of our surroundings”.
It changes the quality of air, water, and land which interferes with the health of humans and
other life on earth.
Pollution is different depending on the nature of pollutants generated from various sources.
Example: Industry, automobiles, thermal power plants, farming, and nuclear reactors, generate
different types of pollutants causing pollution to air, water bodies, and land.
Types of pollutants
1. Bio-degradable pollutants - decompose rapidly by natural processes.
2. Non- degradable pollutants - do not decompose or slowly decompose in the environment.
Classification of Pollution
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Marine pollution
 Noise pollution
 Thermal pollution
 Nuclear hazards
Air pollution
The presence of one or more contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odour in the
atmosphere which are injurious to human beings, plants and animals.
Sources of air pollution
Natural pollution - volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay.
Man – made activities – Thermal power plants, agricultural activities.
Classification
Primary pollutants – These are those emitted directly in the atmosphere in harmful form like
CO, NO.
Secondary pollutants – These may react with one another or with the basic components of air
to form new pollutants.
Sources of Air Pollution
1. Natural sources- Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay, pollen grains, marshes,
radioactive materials etc.
2. Man-made (anthropogenic) activities- Thermal power plants, vehicular emissions,
fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.,
 Common air pollutants sources(causes) and their effects

Substance Nature Sources Health effects Environmental effects

Carbon Colourless, odourless, Cigarette smoking, Causes headaches, Increases the global
poisonous gas. incomplete anemia, coma, temperature
monoxide Formed during incomplete burning of fuels, irreversible brain
combustion of motor vehicle cell damage &
(CO) fuels2C + O2 → 2CO exhaust death
Nitrogen Reddish-brown irritating gas Fuels burning in Lung irritation & HNO3 acid deposition
& gives photochemical smog, vehicles, damage damage trees, soils,
dioxide industrial plants & aquatic life. It corrode
(NO2) Can be converted to nitric acid metals, stones on
NO2 + Moisture → HNO3 buildings, statues,
monuments etc.

Sulphur Colourless, irritating gas. Burning of coal, Breathing problems Reduce visibility, acid
Formed by combustion of coal industrial deposition on trees, soils
dioxide & oil. Can be converted to process & aquatic life
sulphuric acid in
(SO2) atmosphere
Suspended Includes variety of particles & Burning coal in Nose & throat Reduce visibility, acid
droplets industries, diesel irritation, lung deposition,
particulate (aerosols). in vehicles, damage, bronchitis, H2SO4 droplets damage
agriculture, unpaved asthma, cancer trees,soils & aquatic life
matter roads, etc
(SPM)
Ozone (O3) Highly reactive irritating, Nitrogen oxides, - Moderates the climate
unpleasant odour gas. chemical
A major component of reaction with volatile
photochemical smog organic compounds

Photochemical Brownish smoke formed Formed due to Breathing problems, Damage plants & trees.
during chemical reaction cough, eye, Smog reduce visibility
smog automobile traffic among nitrogen nose & throat
oxides & irritation, heart
hydrocarbon diseases

Lead (Pb) Solid toxic metal Paint, smelters, leadBrain & nervous Can harm wild life
manufacture, system damage,
storage batteries,
mental retardation in
leaded petrol children,
digestive & other
health problems,
cause cancer
Chromium Solid toxic metal. Paint, smelters, Perforation of nasalCan harm wild life
chromium septum, chrome
manufacture, holes, ulcer, central
chromium plating nervous system
disease, cancer.
Greenhouse Effect
Definition
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon where certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap
heat, keeping the planet warm enough to sustain life. However, human activities have
intensified this effect, leading to global warming.
Causes
1. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
o Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – from burning fossil fuels, deforestation
o Methane (CH₄) – from agriculture, livestock, landfills
o Nitrous oxide (N₂O) – from fertilizers, industrial activities
o Water vapor – naturally occurring, but influenced by temperature changes
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – from refrigerants, aerosols (now largely banned)
2. Human Activities:
o Industrial emissions
o Deforestation (reduces CO₂ absorption by trees)
o Agriculture (livestock, paddy fields)
o Urbanization (increased energy consumption)
Process of the Greenhouse Effect
1. The Sun emits solar radiation, which passes through the atmosphere.
2. The Earth's surface absorbs sunlight and warms up.
3. The Earth releases heat in the form of infrared radiation.
4. Greenhouse gases trap some of this heat, preventing it from escaping into space.
5. This trapped heat keeps the Earth warm, maintaining an average temperature of about
15°C instead of -18°C.
Consequences
 Global Warming – Rising average temperatures
 Melting of Polar Ice Caps – Leads to rising sea levels
 Extreme Weather – More hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts
 Ocean Acidification – Affects marine life and ecosystems
 Loss of Biodiversity – Changes in habitats impact wildlife
 Impact on Agriculture – Altered rainfall patterns affect food production
Solutions to Reduce the Greenhouse Effect
1. Reduce Fossil Fuel Use – Shift to renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro)
2. Energy Efficiency – Use energy-efficient appliances, LED lights
3. Afforestation & Reforestation – Plant more trees to absorb CO₂
4. Reduce Industrial Emissions – Implement cleaner technologies
5. Sustainable Agriculture – Reduce methane emissions from livestock
 6. Promote Public Transport – Reduce vehicular emissions
7. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle – Minimize waste generation

Global Warming
Definition
Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth's average temperature due to excessive
greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from human activities. It leads to climate change and
severe environmental impacts.
Causes of Global Warming
1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
o Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), deforestation
o Methane (CH₄) – from agriculture (livestock, rice fields), landfills
o Nitrous oxide (N₂O) – from fertilizers, industrial activities
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – from refrigerants, air conditioners (now
regulated)
o Water vapor – contributes to the greenhouse effect naturally
2. Deforestation – Reduces CO₂ absorption, leading to higher atmospheric CO₂ levels.
3. Industrialization – Factories and power plants release large amounts of CO₂ and other
pollutants.
4. Agricultural Practices – Use of synthetic fertilizers, deforestation for farming, and
methane emissions from livestock.
5. Urbanization & Energy Consumption – More vehicles, air conditioners, and
industries contribute to increased emissions.
Effects of Global Warming
1. Rising Temperatures – Global average temperature has increased by 1.1°C since the
pre-industrial era.
2. Melting Polar Ice Caps & Glaciers – Causes rising sea levels, leading to coastal
flooding.
3. Extreme Weather Events – More frequent hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts, and
wildfires.
4. Loss of Biodiversity – Many species face extinction due to habitat destruction.
5. Ocean Acidification – Increased CO₂ absorption by oceans harms marine life.
6. Impact on Agriculture – Changes in rainfall patterns affect crop production and food
security.
7. Health Issues – Increased heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases due to air
pollution.

Solutions to Reduce Global Warming

 1. Switch to Renewable Energy – Solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power instead of
fossil fuels.
2. Increase Energy Efficiency – Use LED bulbs, fuel-efficient vehicles, and better
insulation in buildings.
3. Afforestation & Reforestation – Plant more trees to absorb CO₂.
4. Reduce Industrial & Transportation Emissions – Promote electric vehicles and
clean technology.
5. Sustainable Agriculture – Reduce methane emissions from livestock and use eco-
friendly fertilizers.
6. Waste Management – Reduce, reuse, and recycle to minimize landfill emissions.
7. Raise Awareness & Policy Changes – Implement government policies to regulate
emissions and promote climate action.

Climate Change
Definition
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, weather patterns, and environmental
conditions on Earth. While some changes occur naturally, human activities have significantly
accelerated the process.
Causes of Climate Change
1. Natural Causes
 Volcanic Eruptions – Release gases and ash that can temporarily cool the Earth.
 Solar Radiation Changes – Variations in the Sun’s energy output affect global
temperatures.
 Earth’s Orbital Changes (Milankovitch Cycles) – Slight changes in Earth's orbit
influence climate over thousands of years.
 Ocean Currents – Influence global climate by redistributing heat.
2. Human-Induced Causes
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions – From burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), leading to
global warming.
 Deforestation – Reduces CO₂ absorption, increasing atmospheric carbon levels.
 Industrialization – Factories release carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
 Agricultural Activities – Fertilizers, livestock farming, and deforestation contribute to
climate change.
 Urbanization – More energy consumption, pollution, and land-use changes.
Effects of Climate Change
1. Rising Global Temperatures – The Earth’s average temperature has increased by
1.1°C since the pre-industrial era.
2. Melting Ice Caps & Rising Sea Levels – Causes coastal flooding and habitat loss.
 3. Extreme Weather Events – More hurricanes, droughts, floods, and wildfires.
4. Disruption of Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Many species are at risk of extinction due
to habitat changes.
5. Agricultural Impact – Changes in rainfall patterns affect food production.
6. Ocean Acidification – Excess CO₂ absorption harms marine life.
7. Health Issues – Increased heat-related illnesses, malnutrition, and diseases spread by
insects (e.g., malaria, dengue).
8. Water Scarcity – Changes in rainfall patterns reduce freshwater availability.
Solutions to Combat Climate Change
1. Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions – Use renewable energy sources like solar and
wind power.
2. Afforestation & Reforestation – Plant more trees to absorb CO₂.
3. Energy Efficiency – Use energy-saving appliances and sustainable transportation.
4. Sustainable Agriculture – Reduce methane emissions and adopt eco-friendly farming
practices.
5. Waste Management – Reduce, reuse, recycle to cut down landfill emissions.
6. Public Awareness & Education – Encourage eco-friendly lifestyles.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Definition
Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer in the Earth’s stratosphere due
to harmful chemicals, leading to increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the surface.
Importance of the Ozone Layer
 The ozone layer (O₃) is found in the stratosphere (10-50 km above Earth’s surface).
 It absorbs 97-99% of harmful UV radiation, protecting humans, animals, and plants.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Found in refrigerants, air conditioners, aerosol sprays,
and foam-blowing agents.
2. Halons – Used in fire extinguishers, releasing bromine, which destroys ozone.
3. Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl₄) – A solvent used in cleaning and industry.
4. Methyl Chloroform – Used in adhesives and cleaning agents.
5. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) – Released from fertilizers and industrial processes, contributing
to ozone destruction.
Process of Ozone Depletion
1. CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) reach the stratosphere.
2. UV rays break down these chemicals, releasing chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br).
3. Chlorine reacts with ozone (O₃), breaking it down into oxygen (O₂).
 4. One chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules, leading to ozone layer
thinning.
Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
1. Increased UV Radiation – More harmful UV rays reach Earth.
2. Health Issues – Higher risks of skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems.
3. Harm to Marine Life – UV radiation affects plankton, disrupting the marine food
chain.
4. Reduced Crop Yields – UV rays damage plants, reducing agricultural productivity.
5. Climate Impact – Ozone depletion affects atmospheric temperature balance.
Ozone Hole
 Discovered over Antarctica in the 1980s.
 Forms due to extreme cold temperatures allowing CFCs to react more easily.
 The largest ozone hole appears during September–November.
Solutions to Prevent Ozone Depletion
1. Ban Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) – Use alternatives to CFCs and halons.
2. Montreal Protocol (1987) – A global agreement to phase out CFCs and other ODS.
3. Use Eco-Friendly Refrigerants – Switch to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which have
less impact.
4. Reduce Industrial Emissions – Adopt cleaner production technologies.
5. Plant More Trees – Trees help in absorbing pollutants that affect atmospheric
chemistry.
6. Raise Awareness – Encourage the use of ozone-friendly products.
Acid Rain
Definition
Acid rain refers to precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or fog) that contains high levels of acidic
pollutants, mainly sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). These gases react with
water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric
acid (HNO₃), which then fall to the Earth's surface.
Causes of Acid Rain
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels
o Power plants, industries, and vehicles release SO₂ and NOₓ into the atmosphere.
2. Industrial Emissions
o Factories using coal and oil contribute to high sulfur dioxide levels.
3. Vehicle Exhaust
o Cars and trucks emit nitrogen oxides, which form nitric acid in rainwater.
4. Volcanic Eruptions & Natural Sources
o Volcanoes and decaying vegetation release sulfur compounds, but human
activities contribute the most.
Process of Acid Rain Formation
1. Emission of SO₂ & NOₓ from industries, vehicles, and power plants.
2. Reaction with Water & Oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and
nitric acid (HNO₃).
3. Acidic Precipitation falls as rain, snow, or fog, damaging the environment.
Effects of Acid Rain
1. Environmental Effects
 Soil Degradation – Reduces soil fertility by leaching away nutrients like calcium and
magnesium.
 Damage to Water Bodies – Acid rain lowers pH levels in lakes and rivers, harming
aquatic life.
 Forest Damage – Weakens trees by dissolving essential nutrients from the soil.
 Harm to Marine Life – Fish and aquatic organisms die due to increased water acidity.
2. Structural and Material Damage
 Corrosion of Buildings & Monuments – Acid rain reacts with limestone and marble,
damaging structures like the Taj Mahal.
 Damage to Vehicles & Infrastructure – Paint, metals, and concrete erode over time.
3. Human Health Effects
 Respiratory Problems – SO₂ and NOₓ contribute to asthma, bronchitis, and lung
diseases.
 Contaminated Drinking Water – Acid rain can pollute water sources, affecting
human health.
Solutions to Control Acid Rain
1. Reduce SO₂ & NOₓ Emissions – Use cleaner energy sources (wind, solar, hydro).
2. Use Low-Sulfur Fuels – Shift to low-sulfur coal, natural gas, or biofuels.
3. Install Pollution Control Technologies
o Scrubbers in power plants remove sulfur dioxide from emissions.
o Catalytic Converters in vehicles reduce nitrogen oxide emissions.
4. Switch to Renewable Energy – Promote solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.
5. Enforce Environmental Laws – Implement strict air pollution regulations.
6. Public Awareness & Tree Plantation – Encourage sustainable practices and
afforestation.

Carbon Footprint
Definition
A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily carbon
dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄), emitted directly or indirectly by an individual,
organization, event, or product. It is usually measured in tons of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e) per
year.
Types of Carbon Footprints
1. Primary Carbon Footprint – Direct emissions from activities like:
o Burning fossil fuels (driving cars, using gas appliances)
o Electricity and heating consumption
o Air travel and transportation
2. Secondary Carbon Footprint – Indirect emissions from the lifecycle of products and
services, including:
o Manufacturing and supply chains
o Food production and transportation
o Waste generation and disposal
Major Contributors to Carbon Footprint
1. Energy Use – Coal, oil, and natural gas for electricity, heating, and cooling.
2. Transportation – Fossil fuel-powered vehicles, airplanes, and ships.
3. Industrial Activities – Factories, cement production, and chemical industries.
4. Deforestation – Reduces CO₂ absorption and increases atmospheric carbon.
5. Agriculture – Methane emissions from livestock, fertilizers, and paddy fields.
6. Waste Management – Landfills release methane from decomposing organic waste.
Impact of a High Carbon Footprint
 Climate Change – Global warming due to increased greenhouse gas emissions.
 Rising Sea Levels – Melting polar ice caps and glaciers.
 Extreme Weather Events – More hurricanes, floods, and droughts.
 Loss of Biodiversity – Habitat destruction due to temperature changes.
 Air & Water Pollution – Increased health risks from pollution.
Ways to Reduce Carbon Footprint
1. Use Renewable Energy – Solar, wind, and hydroelectric power instead of fossil fuels.
2. Energy Efficiency – Use LED bulbs, energy-efficient appliances, and smart home
technology.
3. Sustainable Transportation – Walk, cycle, use public transport, or switch to electric
vehicles.
4. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle – Minimize waste and promote recycling.
5. Eat a Sustainable Diet – Reduce meat consumption, prefer plant-based foods, and buy
locally.
6. Conserve Water – Less water use means less energy required for purification and
distribution.
7. Reforestation & Tree Planting – Trees absorb CO₂ and help combat climate change.
8. Support Green Policies – Advocate for climate-friendly policies and businesses.
Measuring Carbon Footprint
 Carbon Calculators – Online tools to estimate personal or business carbon footprints.
 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) – Analyzing the environmental impact of a product
from production to disposal.

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forestry, and Ecosystems

Climate change is one of the most pressing global challenges, affecting multiple sectors,
including agriculture, forestry, and ecosystems. Rising temperatures, erratic weather
patterns, and increased occurrences of extreme climatic events pose serious threats to food
security, biodiversity, and environmental stability. The consequences of these changes are far-
reaching, influencing the livelihoods of millions and the sustainability of natural resources.

1. Impact on Agriculture 🌾
A. Changes in Crop Growth & Yield
 Increased Temperatures:
o Heat stress reduces crop productivity (e.g., wheat, maize, and rice).
o Faster crop growth leads to shorter growing seasons and lower yields.
 Changing Rainfall Patterns:
o Unpredictable monsoons and droughts reduce soil moisture.
o Flooding damages crops and delays planting seasons.
 Soil Degradation:
o Higher temperatures increase soil evaporation, leading to desertification.
o Soil erosion from heavy rains affects fertility.
B. Pests and Diseases
 Warmer temperatures allow pests and diseases to spread to new regions.
 Increased CO₂ levels boost weed growth, competing with crops.
C. Livestock and Dairy Production
 Heat stress reduces milk production and fertility in animals.
 Water shortages affect pasturelands, leading to reduced livestock feed.
D. Fisheries and Aquaculture 🐟
 Rising ocean temperatures affect fish reproduction and migration.
 Coral bleaching and ocean acidification threaten fish populations.
Solutions for Agriculture
 Climate-resilient crops (drought-tolerant, heat-resistant)
 Efficient irrigation systems (drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting)
 Sustainable farming (crop rotation, organic fertilizers)
 Early warning systems for extreme weather
2. Impact on Forestry 🌳
A. Forest Health and Growth
 Rising CO₂ can increase tree growth, but excessive heat and drought reduce forest
productivity.
 Forest fires are more frequent due to higher temperatures and dry conditions.
B. Pest & Disease Outbreaks
 Warmer climates encourage insect infestations (e.g., bark beetles in pine forests).
 Weakened trees are more vulnerable to diseases.
C. Biodiversity Loss
 Tree species migration occurs as forests shift towards cooler regions.
 Some species fail to adapt, leading to habitat loss.
D. Carbon Sequestration Reduction
 Forests absorb CO₂, but deforestation and climate stress reduce their ability to store
carbon.
Solutions for Forestry
✅ Afforestation & Reforestation (plant more trees)

✅ Sustainable forest management (prevent illegal logging)

✅ Fire management strategies (controlled burns, firebreaks)

✅ Conserving biodiversity (protect endangered species and habitats)

3. Impact on Ecosystems & Biodiversity 🌎

A. Habitat Destruction
 Melting ice caps threaten polar species like polar bears and penguins.
 Rising sea levels flood coastal wetlands, endangering marine life.
B. Species Extinction & Migration
 Many species migrate to cooler areas, but some fail to adapt.
 Coral reefs are dying due to ocean acidification and bleaching.
C. Disruptions in Food Chains
 Loss of key species affects predator-prey relationships.
 Pollinators (bees, butterflies) decline, affecting plant reproduction.
D. Increased Natural Disasters
 Cyclones, hurricanes, and floods damage fragile ecosystems.
 Desertification spreads, reducing grasslands and savannahs.
Solutions for Ecosystem Protection
 Conservation programs (wildlife reserves, marine protected areas
 Reduce pollution & deforestation
  Restore degraded ecosystems (reforestation, wetland conservation)
 Combat climate change globally through emission reductions.
The impacts of climate change on agriculture, forestry, and ecosystems are profound
and far-reaching. Without immediate action, food security, biodiversity, and environmental
sustainability will be severely compromised. Governments, industries, and individuals must
collaborate to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, implement sustainable practices, and invest in
climate adaptation strategies. By taking decisive action today, we can safeguard the planet for
future generations and ensure a more resilient and balanced ecosystem.
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
Climate change is a global crisis that requires urgent action through mitigation and adaptation
strategies. Mitigation focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions to slow down climate
change, while adaptation involves adjusting to its effects to minimize damage. Both approaches
are essential to protect the environment, economies, and communities from the adverse impacts
of climate change.

1. Climate Change Mitigation 🌍

Definition:
Mitigation refers to actions taken to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
thereby limiting global warming and its impacts.
Key Mitigation Strategies:
A. Transition to Renewable Energy
 Replacing fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) with solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal
energy reduces CO₂ emissions.
 Investing in energy-efficient technologies in industries and households.
B. Sustainable Transportation
 Promoting public transportation, electric vehicles (EVs), and cycling to reduce
carbon emissions.
 Encouraging biofuels and hydrogen fuel cells as alternatives to gasoline and diesel.
C. Energy Efficiency
 Using LED lighting, smart grids, and efficient appliances to lower energy
consumption.
 Implementing green building designs with better insulation and natural ventilation.
D. Carbon Sequestration & Afforestation 🌳
 Planting trees (afforestation and reforestation) to absorb CO₂.
 Soil carbon storage through sustainable farming practices like no-till agriculture.
 Developing carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies in industries.
E. Sustainable Agriculture & Land Use
 Reducing methane emissions from livestock by improving animal diets.
  Using organic farming methods to minimize synthetic fertilizers.
 Preventing deforestation and land degradation to preserve carbon sinks.
F. Policy & Economic Measures
 Carbon pricing (carbon tax, cap-and-trade systems) to limit emissions.
 Government regulations & international agreements like the Paris Agreement to
enforce emission reductions.
 Encouraging sustainable investments in green technology and infrastructure.
G. Waste Management & Circular Economy
 Reducing, reusing, and recycling materials to minimize energy-intensive production.
 Converting organic waste into biogas to reduce methane emissions from landfills.
H. Technological Innovations
 Investing in clean energy research and development.
 Exploring geoengineering solutions like solar radiation management (reflecting
sunlight back into space).
Benefits of Mitigation:
 Slows down global warming.
 Reduces natural disasters like hurricanes and heatwaves.
 Improves air quality and public health.
 Supports sustainable economic growth and green jobs.

2. Climate Change Adaptation 🏡

Definition:
Adaptation refers to adjusting social, economic, and environmental systems to cope with
the effects of climate change and minimize risks.
Key Adaptation Strategies:
A. Climate-Resilient Agriculture 🌾
 Developing drought-resistant and heat-tolerant crops.
 Implementing smart irrigation systems like drip irrigation.
 Using soil conservation techniques to prevent desertification.
B. Water Resource Management 💧
 Constructing rainwater harvesting systems to reduce dependence on freshwater
sources.
 Improving wastewater treatment and desalination technologies.
 Developing flood control measures like reservoirs and levees.
C. Disaster Risk Reduction ⚠️
 Strengthening early warning systems for cyclones, floods, and heatwaves.
 Constructing climate-resilient infrastructure (earthquake-resistant buildings,
elevated roads in flood-prone areas).
  Implementing coastal protection measures like mangrove plantations and sea walls.
D. Urban Adaptation Strategies 🏙️
 Developing green cities with more urban forests and parks.
 Improving public transport and reducing urban heat islands.
 Constructing flood-proof and heat-resistant buildings.
E. Biodiversity & Ecosystem Protection 🌿
 Expanding protected areas and wildlife corridors.
 Restoring wetlands, coral reefs, and grasslands to buffer against climate shocks.
 Preventing habitat destruction to help species migrate to suitable climates.
F. Health & Social Resilience 🏥
 Strengthening healthcare systems to handle climate-related diseases (heat strokes,
malaria, respiratory issues).
 Raising awareness about climate risks and adaptation techniques.
 Supporting vulnerable communities with financial aid and insurance.
G. Sustainable Economic Policies 💰
 Investing in climate-resilient infrastructure and industries.
 Encouraging climate insurance for farmers and coastal communities.
 Supporting diversified livelihoods to reduce dependence on climate-sensitive sectors.
H. Governance & Community Engagement
 Local adaptation plans based on climate risk assessments.
 Indigenous knowledge integration for natural resource management.
 Strengthening global and regional cooperation on climate adaptation policies.
Benefits of Adaptation:
 Reduces vulnerability to climate impacts.
 Protects livelihoods and ecosystems.
 Improves economic resilience and disaster preparedness.
 Ensures sustainable development despite climate challenges.
3. The Need for a Combined Approach
Mitigation and adaptation are interdependent strategies. While mitigation addresses the root
causes of climate change, adaptation helps communities cope with its unavoidable impacts. A
combined approach ensures a sustainable future by reducing climate risks while promoting
economic and social stability.
For example:
 Investing in renewable energy (mitigation) can reduce reliance on fossil fuels, but
we also need resilient energy grids (adaptation) to withstand extreme weather events.
 Afforestation (mitigation) absorbs CO₂, but coastal mangrove restoration
(adaptation) protects against rising sea levels.
Governments, businesses, and individuals must work together to implement both mitigation
and adaptation strategies to create a climate-resilient world.

Action Plan on Climate Change

Tackling climate change requires urgent and coordinated action across all sectors of society.
An effective climate action plan must involve strategies for mitigation, adaptation, and the
promotion of sustainable development. Governments, businesses, and individuals all have
critical roles to play in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, building climate resilience, and
ensuring that the global community transitions toward a sustainable future. Below is a
comprehensive action plan to combat climate change, divided into short-term, medium-term,
and long-term actions.
1. Short-Term Actions (1-3 years)
A. Strengthening Climate Policies & International Cooperation
 Implement Carbon Pricing: Introduce carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems to put
a price on carbon and incentivize businesses to reduce emissions.
 Strengthen Climate Agreements: Ensure countries adhere to international climate
agreements like the Paris Agreement by setting more ambitious emissions reduction
targets and ensuring regular progress reports.
 Support Climate Finance: Increase investments in climate adaptation and
mitigation projects, particularly in developing countries, by establishing funding
mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund.
B. Accelerating Transition to Renewable Energy
 Incentivize Renewable Energy Adoption: Offer subsidies, tax credits, and grants
for the installation of renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, hydro, and
geothermal).
 Phase Out Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Redirect subsidies for fossil fuels towards clean
energy projects and energy-efficient technologies.
 Upgrade Energy Infrastructure: Invest in modernizing energy grids to support the
integration of distributed renewable energy sources and improve energy storage
systems.
C. Promoting Sustainable Transportation
 Expand Electric Vehicle Infrastructure: Increase the number of charging stations
for electric vehicles and offer incentives for EV purchases.
 Invest in Public Transportation: Improve and expand public transportation
systems, especially in urban areas, to reduce emissions from private vehicles.
 Encourage Active Transportation: Promote walking and cycling through the creation
of more pedestrian-friendly streets and cycling lanes.
D. Implementing Climate-Resilient Agriculture
 Promote Climate-Smart Agriculture: Encourage farmers to adopt sustainable
farming practices, including crop rotation, organic farming, and improved irrigation
systems.
 Support the Development of Climate-Resilient Crops: Invest in research and
development to create crops that are resistant to droughts, heat, and pests.
 Reduce Livestock Emissions: Promote the use of methane-reducing livestock feed
and improve animal breeding practices to lower methane emissions from livestock.
2. Medium-Term Actions (3-10 years)
A. Strengthening Resilience to Climate Impacts
 Build Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Invest in climate-resilient infrastructure
(e.g., flood-resistant buildings, stormwater management systems) to protect
communities from extreme weather events like floods, heatwaves, and hurricanes.
 Restore Ecosystems: Prioritize the restoration of mangroves, wetlands, forests, and
other critical ecosystems to enhance natural resilience against climate impacts and
preserve biodiversity.
 Improve Water Management: Implement efficient water management systems,
including rainwater harvesting, efficient irrigation, and wastewater treatment to
conserve water resources in regions affected by droughts.
B. Implementing Circular Economy Models
 Encourage Waste Reduction: Implement extended producer responsibility (EPR)
programs, promote recycling, and develop waste-to-energy technologies.
 Promote Sustainable Consumption and Production: Adopt sustainable business
practices and encourage companies to reduce waste and emissions in their operations.
 Support Green Manufacturing: Increase the adoption of clean technologies in
manufacturing to reduce the carbon footprint of production processes.
C. Expanding Climate Education and Awareness
 Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch education campaigns that raise awareness
about the importance of climate change and ways to reduce personal carbon footprints.
 Incorporate Climate Change into Education Systems: Integrate climate change into
school curricula to equip future generations with the knowledge and skills needed to
address environmental challenges.
 Promote Community Engagement: Empower local communities to develop and
implement climate adaptation and mitigation plans tailored to their specific needs.
D. Policy Implementation for Sustainable Land Use
 Stop Deforestation: Implement policies that prevent illegal logging, promote
reforestation, and incentivize sustainable forestry practices.
  Promote Sustainable Agriculture: Support initiatives to reduce agricultural land
expansion, protect natural ecosystems, and encourage sustainable food production
systems.
 Adopt Climate-Smart Land Use Planning: Integrate climate risks into land-use
planning and urban development to reduce vulnerability to extreme weather events.
3. Long-Term Actions (10+ years)
A. Achieving Net-Zero Emissions
 Decarbonize All Sectors: Pursue a net-zero emissions goal by transitioning all
sectors, including energy, industry, transport, and agriculture, to carbon-neutral
operations.
 Adopt Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Invest in large-scale carbon capture and
storage technologies to remove CO₂ emissions from the atmosphere.
 Develop Carbon Offsetting Programs: Promote the development of carbon offset
projects, including reforestation, renewable energy development, and methane capture,
to offset emissions from sectors that are difficult to decarbonize.
B. Transforming Global Food Systems
 Shift to Plant-Based Diets: Promote the adoption of plant-based diets by raising
awareness of their lower environmental impact, including reduced emissions from
livestock farming.
 Sustainable Fisheries Management: Implement sustainable fishing practices to
protect marine ecosystems and reduce overfishing.
 Support Agroecology: Encourage the use of agroecological principles that focus on
sustainability, biodiversity, and local food production.
C. Revolutionizing Green Technologies
 Invest in Clean Energy R&D: Increase funding for the research and development
of next-generation renewable energy technologies and energy storage systems.
 Develop Advanced Climate Engineering Solutions: Explore innovative solutions
such as solar geoengineering and cloud seeding to offset the impacts of climate
change, while considering their risks and ethical implications.
 Support Innovation in Sustainable Materials: Foster the development of green
technologies in industries such as construction, transportation, and manufacturing.
D. Global Climate Leadership and Cooperation
 Promote Global Climate Governance: Strengthen international organizations such as
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to
enforce climate commitments and facilitate climate negotiations.
 Support Climate Justice: Ensure that vulnerable populations, including marginalized
communities in developing countries, are supported through financial assistance,
technology transfer, and capacity-building.
  Collaborate on Global Solutions: Foster international partnerships between
governments, businesses, and NGOs to accelerate global efforts toward mitigating
climate change.
An effective climate action plan requires a comprehensive approach that spans short-
term, medium-term, and long-term actions. Governments, businesses, and individuals
must all play a role in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, adapting to the impacts
of climate change, and building a sustainable, resilient future for the planet. By
investing in renewable energy, promoting sustainable land use, encouraging
responsible consumption, and fostering international cooperation, we can address the
climate crisis and ensure a healthier, more secure world for future generations.
Role and responsibility of Individual participation in environmental
protection
Individuals can prevent pollution by
1. Minimize Single-Use Plastics by using reusable bags, bottles, and containers.
2. Recycle paper, plastics, metals, and glass properly.
3. Compost organic waste to reduce landfill contributions.
4. Use public transportation or carpool to reduce vehicle emissions.
5. Switch to electric or hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution.
6. Bike or walk for short trips to avoid using fossil fuel-based transport.
7. Install energy-efficient appliances like LED lights and low-energy refrigerators.
8. Turn off devices when not in use to save energy.
9. Use natural light during the day and natural ventilation for cooling.
10. Support renewable energy by installing solar panels if possible.
11. Choose locally sourced, seasonal foods to reduce transportation emissions.
12. Reduce meat consumption to lessen the environmental impact of livestock farming.
13. Avoid food waste by planning meals and storing food properly.
14. Fix leaks promptly to avoid wasting water.
15. Install water-efficient fixtures such as low-flow faucets and showerheads.
16. Avoid chemical fertilizers and pesticides in your garden to protect water sources.
17. Buy eco-friendly products made from sustainable materials.
18. Use non-toxic cleaning products to reduce chemical pollution.
19. Support companies with environmentally sustainable practices.
20. Spread awareness and educate others on pollution prevention.
21. Volunteer or donate to environmental organizations.
22. Advocate for stronger environmental policies at the local, national, and international
levels.
These small actions, when multiplied across communities, can lead to significant
environmental benefits.
Case studies related to disaster management (Flood, earthquake, cyclone
and landslide)
Case studies related to flood disaster management
1. Spain's 2024 Flood Disaster
 Date & Location: November 2024, Valencia, Spain.
 Event: Spain experienced one of its worst floods in history, with over 220 fatalities and
80 missing people.
 Cause: Heavy rainfall triggered massive flooding, exacerbated by delayed warnings
and poor coordination among authorities.
 Challenges in Response:
o National weather service issued alerts too late, with a delay of 12 hours after the
event.
o Insufficient flood defense infrastructure and inadequate real-time data
processing.
o Lack of preparation led to high casualties despite early warnings.
 Lessons Learned:
o Importance of timely alerts and coordinated responses at all levels of
government.
o Need for investments in flood defense infrastructure to reduce the risk and
impact of floods.
o Improved data management and real-time monitoring systems are crucial for
accurate forecasting.
 Action Plan for Future: Calls for stronger preparedness strategies, better coordination
among agencies, and investment in modern flood defense systems.
2. Kerala, India: 2020 Floods
 Date & Location: June-August 2020, Kerala, India.
 Event: Severe monsoon flooding in all 14 districts, resulting in 104 deaths and
extensive damage.
 Cause: Heavy rainfall, poor urban planning, deforestation, and inadequate drainage
systems led to the flooding.
 Challenges in Response:
o Delayed and disorganized response by local authorities, despite early warnings.
o Insufficient understanding of flood-prone areas, which exacerbated the damage.
o Limited capacity of dams to handle the extreme rainfall.
 Lessons Learned:
o Enhanced risk mapping and flood forecasting are necessary to improve
preparedness.
o Better management and maintenance of drainage systems and dams.
 o Need for integrated response plans that consider the local geographical and
environmental context.
 Action Plan for Future: Stronger community awareness programs and capacity
building, improved disaster response coordination, and investment in flood-resistant
infrastructure.
3. China’s 2020 Yangtze River Floods
 Date & Location: July-August 2020, Yangtze River, China.
 Event: The Yangtze River basin experienced the worst floods in over 40 years,
affecting millions of people.
 Cause: Excessive rainfall led to the overflow of rivers, damaging infrastructure, homes,
and agricultural land.
 Challenges in Response:
o Heavy reliance on existing flood defenses, which were overstretched.
o Challenges in evacuating large populations in flood-prone areas, especially rural
communities.
o Coordination issues between national and local disaster management
authorities.
 Lessons Learned:
o The importance of maintaining and upgrading flood control infrastructure,
particularly dams and levees.
o Need for efficient evacuation plans that ensure the safety of rural populations.
o Investment in flood prediction technologies to provide accurate early warnings.
 Action Plan for Future: Improve infrastructure maintenance, strengthen early warning
systems, and implement community-based flood management systems.
4. Bangladesh: 2020 Monsoon Floods
 Date & Location: July-September 2020, Bangladesh.
 Event: The country faced extensive monsoon flooding, with millions affected, leading
to displacement, loss of crops, and damage to infrastructure.
 Cause: Heavy rains, along with the overflow of rivers like the Brahmaputra and
Ganges, led to massive flooding.
 Challenges in Response:
o The rapid onset of floods overwhelmed existing infrastructure and emergency
systems.
o Limited resources for post-flood recovery and rehabilitation.
o Poorly maintained embankments and inadequate flood prevention measures.
 Lessons Learned:
o Need for more resilient flood defenses and better river management systems.
o Improved flood forecasting and community-level preparedness.
 o Need for timely humanitarian aid distribution to displaced populations.
 Action Plan for Future: Strengthening flood defenses, enhancing community-based
disaster management plans, and improving coordination between local and national
agencies.

Keys for Flood Disaster Management:

1. Timely Warnings & Coordination: Flood forecasts and early warning systems should
be enhanced and communicated to local authorities and communities in a timely
manner to allow for quick evacuations and preparations.
2. Infrastructure Investment: Upgrading flood defenses, such as dams, levees, and
drainage systems, is critical to reduce the impact of heavy rainfall and floods.
3. Community-Based Planning: Empower local communities with knowledge,
resources, and the capacity to manage flood risks.
4. Data Management & Technology: Implement more advanced technologies for flood
prediction and real-time monitoring.
5. Post-Flood Recovery: Efficient recovery plans are essential for minimizing long-term
damage, supporting displaced people, and restoring communities.
These case studies emphasize the need for comprehensive, well-coordinated flood management
strategies that prioritize both preparedness and long-term mitigation to prevent large-scale
disasters.
Case studies related to earthquake disaster management:
1. 2023 Turkey-Syria Earthquake
 Date & Location: February 6, 2023, Turkey and Syria.
 Event: A devastating earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 struck southern Turkey and
northern Syria, causing widespread destruction and killing more than 50,000 people.
 Cause: Tectonic plate movement along the East Anatolian Fault caused the earthquake.
Aftershocks followed, causing additional damage.
 Challenges in Response:
o Damage to infrastructure and communication networks made it difficult to
coordinate rescue operations.
o Lack of preparedness, especially in Syria, where civil conflict had already
strained resources.
o Delayed international aid due to ongoing geopolitical tensions in the region.
o Poor building construction in some areas, which increased the number of
casualties.
 Lessons Learned:
o Need for better earthquake-resistant building codes and enforcement.
o Importance of strong communication networks to coordinate rescue efforts.
 o Pre-disaster planning and international cooperation can help speed up recovery
efforts.
o Mobilizing local volunteer groups and international organizations early can
save lives.
 Action Plan for Future:
o Improved infrastructure resilience, especially in earthquake-prone zones.
o Strengthening emergency response systems and rapid deployment of aid.
o Community-based disaster preparedness and regular training for local
governments.
2. 2021 Haiti Earthquake
 Date & Location: August 14, 2021, Haiti.
 Event: A magnitude 7.2 earthquake struck southern Haiti, causing widespread damage
and over 2,200 deaths.
 Cause: Tectonic activity along the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone.
 Challenges in Response:
o Haiti's already fragile infrastructure and weak governance structures hindered
an effective response.
o Difficulty in accessing affected areas due to blocked roads and damaged
infrastructure.
o Limited healthcare and emergency resources compounded by the earthquake's
timing, which coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic.
o Overcrowding in shelters, making it harder to manage recovery.
 Lessons Learned:
o The importance of pre-positioning emergency supplies in vulnerable regions.
o Building stronger and more resilient infrastructure in disaster-prone areas.
o Strengthening local governance and emergency services to respond more
effectively.
o The need for international collaboration to provide timely support in such crises.
 Action Plan for Future:
o Implement community-based earthquake preparedness programs.
o Improve early warning systems and public education on earthquake risks.
o Enhance building standards and retrofitting in earthquake-prone zones.
3. 2019 Albania Earthquake
 Date & Location: November 26, 2019, Albania.
 Event: A magnitude 6.4 earthquake struck Albania, with its epicenter near the coastal
city of Durres.
 Cause: The earthquake occurred due to tectonic movements along the Albanian-
Albanian subduction zone.
  Challenges in Response:
o The earthquake caused significant damage to buildings and infrastructure,
especially in densely populated areas.
o Limited preparedness at the local level, leading to challenges in the initial
response.
o Coordination issues between national, regional, and local authorities.
o High vulnerability due to the prevalence of older, poorly constructed buildings.
 Lessons Learned:
o The need for strong building regulations and enforcement to ensure seismic
resilience.
o A national disaster management plan that includes rapid response teams and
coordination mechanisms.
o Public education on earthquake risks and emergency evacuation plans.
o Collaboration with international disaster response teams for faster recovery.
 Action Plan for Future:
o Invest in modernizing the national infrastructure, including retrofitting older
buildings.
o Conduct regular earthquake drills and preparedness exercises.
o Strengthen the capacity of local government and emergency services to handle
future crises.
4. 2015 Nepal Earthquake
 Date & Location: April 25, 2015, Nepal.
 Event: A magnitude 7.8 earthquake hit Nepal, resulting in more than 8,000 deaths and
widespread devastation.
 Cause: The earthquake occurred due to the tectonic collision of the Indian and Eurasian
plates along the Main Himalayan Thrust fault.
 Challenges in Response:
o Poor infrastructure, especially in rural and mountainous areas, complicated
rescue and relief efforts.
o Delayed arrival of international aid due to challenges with access and
coordination.
o Inadequate building standards in Kathmandu and surrounding areas, which
contributed to building collapses.
o Cultural and logistical barriers hindered timely communication and response.
 Lessons Learned:
o The importance of earthquake-resistant building codes and retrofitting
vulnerable structures.
 o Ensuring quick and efficient communication networks during a disaster to guide
rescue and relief efforts.
o Early involvement of local communities in the disaster management process can
aid in rapid recovery.
o Pre-positioning supplies in key disaster-prone regions can reduce response
times.
 Action Plan for Future:
o Strengthening the national earthquake disaster management system and
investing in early warning systems.
o Incorporating earthquake resilience into national and local building codes.
o Conducting awareness campaigns to prepare the public for earthquakes and
evacuations.
o Creating contingency plans to swiftly mobilize international support when
needed.
Keys for Earthquake Disaster Management:
1. Preparedness: Strong earthquake preparedness, including public education, can save
lives. This includes training communities on how to act during an earthquake and the
importance of having emergency supplies.
2. Infrastructure Resilience: Enforcing strict building codes and retrofitting older
buildings in earthquake-prone areas is crucial for reducing casualties and damage.
3. Early Warning Systems: Implementing earthquake early warning systems can help
people evacuate or take protective actions before the shaking starts.
4. Effective Coordination: Establishing clear disaster management plans and improving
coordination between local, regional, and national authorities ensures a quicker
response.
5. International Collaboration: Rapid international aid and support from disaster
management organizations can significantly speed up recovery efforts and provide
essential resources.
6. Post-Earthquake Recovery: A well-planned recovery phase that includes mental
health support, rebuilding infrastructure, and rehabilitating communities is key to long-
term resilience.
These case studies highlight the ongoing challenges and the critical need for stronger, more
effective earthquake disaster management systems, particularly in highly vulnerable areas.
Case studies related to cyclone disaster management
1. Cyclone Biparjoy (June 2023) – Gujarat, India
 Event: Cyclone Biparjoy made landfall near Jakhau on the Kutch coast of Gujarat,
affecting eight coastal districts.
 Response:
 o Over 1.1 lakh people were evacuated to shelter homes.
o Comprehensive arrangements were made, including trimming trees to prevent
casualties, providing necessary facilities at shelters, and ensuring zero
casualties.
 Outcome: Despite the cyclone's impact, Gujarat reported no loss of life, highlighting
the effectiveness of its disaster management strategies.
2. Odisha's Disaster Management Transformation
 Background: In 1999, Odisha was devastated by a super cyclone, resulting in over
10,000 deaths and affecting around 18 million people.
 Post-Disaster Actions:
o Establishment of the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA)
to lead disaster preparedness and response.
o Training of local communities, including women's self-help groups and
volunteers, to manage disasters effectively.
o Construction of over 800 multi-purpose cyclone shelters and evacuation roads
along the coastline.
o Development of an early warning system reaching nearly 1,200 villages through
sirens and mass messaging.
 Outcome: These measures have significantly reduced fatalities during subsequent
cyclones, such as Cyclone Phailin in 2013 and Cyclone Fani in 2019, demonstrating a
successful turnaround in disaster management.
3. Cyclone Chido (December 2024) – Mozambique and Mayotte
 Event: Cyclone Chido struck northern Mozambique and the Indian Ocean archipelago
of Mayotte, causing widespread devastation.
 Impact:
o In Mozambique, the death toll rose to 94, with fears of more casualties.
o Mayotte confirmed 35 fatalities, with concerns about additional deaths.
 Challenges:
o Delayed international aid due to logistical issues and ongoing geopolitical
tensions.
o Damage to infrastructure hampered rescue and relief operations.
 Outcome: The cyclone's impact underscored the need for improved disaster
preparedness and international cooperation in the region.
Keys for Cyclone Disaster Management
1. Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in disaster preparedness and
response enhances resilience and ensures effective management.
2. Infrastructure Resilience: Investing in cyclone-resistant infrastructure, such as multi-
purpose shelters and evacuation routes, is crucial for minimizing damage and casualties.
 3. Early Warning Systems: Developing and maintaining robust early warning systems
that reach all affected populations can facilitate timely evacuations and reduce loss of
life.
4. Government Coordination: Effective coordination among local, regional, and
national authorities, along with international partners, is essential for a swift and
organized response.
5. Post-Disaster Recovery: Implementing comprehensive recovery plans that address
immediate needs and long-term rehabilitation is vital for restoring communities and
livelihoods.
These case studies highlight the importance of proactive planning, community engagement,
and infrastructure investment in building resilience against cyclonic disasters.

Case studies related to landslide disaster management

1. 2024 Wayanad Landslides – Kerala, India
 Event: On July 30, 2024, heavy rainfall in Wayanad district led to devastating
landslides in villages such as Punjirimattom, Mundakkai, Chooralmala, and
Vellarimala.
 Impact:
o At least 420 fatalities.
o 397 injuries.
o 47 individuals reported missing.
o Approximately 10,000 people displaced.
 Challenges:
o Difficult terrain and continuous rainfall hampered rescue operations.
o High risk of further landslides in the affected areas.
 Response:
o Deployment of armed forces, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), and
local authorities for rescue operations.
o Provision of temporary shelters and medical aid to survivors.
 Lessons Learned:
o The importance of early warning systems and community preparedness.
o Need for sustainable land-use practices to prevent deforestation and soil
erosion.
o Enhancement of infrastructure resilience to withstand natural disasters.
2. 2024 Sulawesi Landslide – Gorontalo, Indonesia
 Event: On July 6, 2024, torrential rains triggered a landslide at an unauthorized gold
mine in Bone Bolango regency, Gorontalo province.
 Impact:
 o At least 23 fatalities.
o 18 injuries.
o Approximately 35 individuals reported missing.
 Challenges:
o Illegal mining operations lacked safety measures, increasing vulnerability.
o Difficult access to the remote site hindered rescue efforts.
 Response:
o Deployment of rescue teams to search for survivors.
o Provision of medical assistance to the injured.
 Lessons Learned:
o The necessity of regulating mining activities to ensure worker safety.
o Importance of community education on disaster risks and safety protocols.
o Need for improved infrastructure to facilitate timely rescue operations.
3. Madan Ashrit Highway Disaster – Chitwan District, Nepal
 Event: On July 12, 2024, a landslide on the Madan Ashrit Highway in Chitwan District
caused two buses to plunge into the Trishuli River.
 Impact:
o At least 19 fatalities.
o 3 injuries.
o 40 individuals reported missing.
 Challenges:
o Heavy monsoon rains increased landslide risks.
o High water levels in the river complicated rescue operations.
 Response:
o Mobilization of over 500 rescue personnel, including armed police and army
divers.
o Temporary suspension of nighttime bus travel in affected regions.
 Lessons Learned:
o The need for improved road infrastructure and maintenance to prevent
landslides.
o Importance of enforcing safety regulations for passenger transport.
o Enhancement of early warning systems for landslides in vulnerable areas.
Keys for Landslide Disaster Management:
1. Community Preparedness: Engaging local communities in disaster preparedness and
response enhances resilience and ensures effective management.
2. Infrastructure Resilience: Investing in landslide-resistant infrastructure, such as
reinforced roads and buildings, is crucial for minimizing damage and casualties.
 3. Early Warning Systems: Developing and maintaining robust early warning systems
that reach all affected populations can facilitate timely evacuations and reduce loss of
life.
4. Government Coordination: Effective coordination among local, regional, and
national authorities, along with international partners, is essential for a swift and
organized response.
5. Post-Disaster Recovery: Implementing comprehensive recovery plans that address
immediate needs and long-term rehabilitation is vital for restoring communities and
livelihoods.
These case studies highlight the importance of proactive planning, community engagement,
and infrastructure investment in building resilience against landslide disasters.
 U23GE401-ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY

Unit 3
Natural Resources

Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation,

Water resources: Use and overutilization of surface and ground water, drought, Dams
benefits and problems,
Food resources: changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern
agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, role of an individual in
conservation of natural resources (National and International).

1
NATURAL RESOURCES

“Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet)
independent of human actions.”
These are the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the
intervention of humans. Common examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water,
soil, stone, plants, animals, and fossil fuels.
The natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be
useful under conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn
from the earth supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals,
water, and geothermal power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the
natural sciences.

Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:

Renewable:
Renewable resources are the ones that are consistently available regardless of their use. They
can be fairly recovered or replaced after utilization. Examples include vegetation, water, and
air. Animals can also be categorized as renewable resources because they can be reared and
bred to reproduce offspring to substitute the older animals.
As much as these resources are renewable, it may take tens to hundreds of years to replace
them. The renewable raw materials that come from living things namely animals and trees are
termed as organic renewable resources while those that come from non-living things such as
sun, water and wind are termed as inorganic renewable resources.
Non-Renewable:
Non-renewable resources are the ones that cannot simply be substituted or recovered once
they have been utilized or destroyed. Examples of such natural resources include fossil fuels
and minerals. Minerals are categorized as non-renewable because, even though they take
shape naturally through the rock cycle, their formation periods take thousands of years. Some
animals mostly the endangered species are similarly regarded as non-renewable because they
are at the verge of extinction.
It brings about the many reasons the endangered species have to be protected by all means.
The non-renewable materials that come from living things such as fossil fuels are known as
organic non-renewable resources while those that come from non-living things such as rocks
and soil are referred to as inorganic non-renewable resources.

2
 Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in infinite Once completely consumed, it cannot be

quantity renewed due to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at

Replenish quickly
all

TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Land Resources
1. Forest Resources

2. Water Resources

4. Energy Resources
5. Food resources

(i) FOREST RESOURCES

Forest is important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and
can contribute substantially to the economic development of any country.Plants along
with trees cover large areas, produce variety of products and provide food for living
organisms, and also important to save the environment.
It is estimated that about 30% of world area is covered by forest whereas 26% by
pastures. Among all continents, Africa has largest forested area (33%) followed by
Latin America (25%), whereas in North America forest cover is only 11%. Asia and
former USSR has 14% area under forest. European countries have only 3% area under
forest cover. India’s Forest Cover accounts for 20.6% of the total geographical area of
the country as of 2005.

1. Significance of forests

• Forests are main source of many commercial products such as wood, timber,
pulpwood etc. About 1.5 billion people depend upon fuel wood as an energy source.
Timber obtained from the forest can used to make plywood, board, doors and
windows, furniture, and agriculture implements and sports goods. Timber is also a
raw material for preparation of paper, rayon and film.
• Forest can provide food , fibre, edible oils and drugs.
• Forest lands are also used for agriculture and grazing.
3
• Forest is important source of development of dams, recreation and mining.
 Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of forest
can be classified as under

(i)Commercial values

Forest provide food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital
role in the life and economy of tribes living in the forest.

(ii) Life and economy of tribal

Forest provide food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital
role in the life and economy of tribes living in the forest.

(iii) Ecological uses

Forests are habitat to all wild animals, plants and support millions of species. They help in
reducing global warming caused by green house gases and produces oxygen upon
photosynthesis.
Forest can act as pollution purifier by absorbing toxic gases. Forest not only helps in soil
conservation but also helps to regulate the hydrological cycle.

(iv) Aesthetic values

All over the world people appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the forest because forests
have a greatest aesthetic value. Forest provides opportunity for recreation and ecosystem
research.

2. Over exploitation of forests

Forests contribute substantially to the national economy. With increasing population

increased demand of fuel wood, expansion of area under urban development and industries
has lead to over exploitation of forest .At present international level we are losing forest at
the rate of 1.7 crore hectares annually. Overexploitation also occurs due to overgrazing and
conversion of forest to pastures for domestic use.

3. Deforestation

Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture, ,harvesting for wood and timber ,
development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short term where as long
term effects of deforestation are irreversible

1. Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present

rate of deforestation continues we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six
decades
2. For ecological balance 33% area should be under forest cover but our nation has only
20.6% forest cover.

4
 Causes of deforestation
Forest area in some developed area has expanded. However in developing countries area
under forest is showing declining trend particularly in tropical region. Main causes of
deforestation are

a) Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation

This practise is prevalent in tribal areas where forest lands are cleared to grow subsistence
crops. It is estimated that principle cause of deforestation in tropics in Africa, Asia and
tropical America is estimated to be 70, 50, and 35% respectively. Shifting cultivation
which is a practice of slash and burn agriculture are posses to clear more than 5 lakh
hectares of land annually. In India, shifting cultivation is prevalent in northeast and to
limited extent in M.P, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh and is contributing significantly to
deforestation.

b) Commercial logging

It is a important deforestation agent. It may not be the primary cause but definitely it acts
as secondary cause, because new logging lots permits shifting cultivation and fuel wood
gatherers access to new logged areas.

c) Need for fuel wood

Increased population has lead to increasing demand for fuel wood which is also acting as
an important deforestation agent, particularly in dry forest.
d) Expansion for agribusiness

With the addition of cash crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruits and ornamental plants,
there is stress to expand the area for agribusiness products which results in deforestation.

e) Development projects and growing need for food

The growing demand for electricity, irrigation, construction, mining, etc. has lead to
destruction of forest. Increased population needs more food which has compelled for
increasing area under agriculture crops compelling for deforestation.

f) Raw materials for industrial use

Forest provides raw material for industry and it has exerted tremendous pressure on
forest. Increasing demand for plywood for backing has exerted pressure on cutting of
other species such as fir to be used as backing material for apple in J&K and tea in
northeast states.

5
 Major effects of deforestation

Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living
beings .Major causes of deforestation are

• Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

• Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle
• Expansion of deserts
• Climate change and depletion of water table
• Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna
• Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems

4. Case studies

1. Jhum cultivation
Jhum Agriculture or shifting agriculture has destroyed large number of hectares of forest
tracts in North-Eastern states and Orissa. Jhum agriculture is subsidence agriculture in which
tract of forest land is cleared by cutting trees and it is used for cultivation. After few years,
when productivity of the land decreases, cultivators abandon the land and clear next tract. As
a result of this practise, combined with increasing population there is rapid deforestation as
more and more cultivators clear forest to cultivate land. Also, with increase in population
there is cultivators are forced to return to previous tracts of land in relatively shorter
durations, not allowing the land to regain its productivity.

2. Chipko movement
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a social-ecological movement that practised the
Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees
to protect them from being felled. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in
the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand,with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant
women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to
prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by
the contractor system of the state Forest Department. Their actions inspired hundreds of such
actions at the grassroots level throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had spread
throughout India and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop
to the open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.

3. Western himalayan region.

Over the last decade, there has been widespread destruction and degradation of forest
resources in Himalayas, especially western Himalayas. This has resulted in various problems
such as erosion of top soil, irregular rainfall, changing weather patterns and floods.
Construction of roads on hilly slopes, have not only undermined their stability, but also
damaged protective vegetation and forest cover. Tribes in these areas are increasingly facing
6
 shortage of firewood and timber, due large-scale tree cutting. Increased traffic volumes on
these roads leads to increased pollution in the area.

5. Timber extraction
There has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use. Due to increased
industrial demand; timber extraction has significant effect on forest and tribal people.

Logging
• Poor logging results in degraded forest and may lead to soil erosion especially on
slopes.
• New logging roads permit shifting cultivators and fuel wood gatherers to gain access to the
logging area.
• Loss of long-term forest productivity
• Species of plants and animals may be eliminated
• Exploitation of tribal people by contractor.

6. Mining

Major effects of mining operations on forest and tribal people are:

• Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep
deposits is done by sub-surface mining. It leads to degradation of lands and loss of top
soil. It is estimated that about eighty-thousand-hectare land is under stress of mining
activities in India
• Mining leads to drying up perennial sources of water sources like spring and streams
in mountainous area.
• Mining and other associated activities remove vegetation along with underlying soil
mantle, which results in destruction of topography and landscape in the area. Large
scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to
indiscriminating mining.
• The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-
forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to
landslides.
• Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50000 ha
of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas has caused
extensive deforestation in Jharkhand.
• Mining of magnetite and soapstone have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hilly slopes of
Khirakot, Kosi valley and Almora.
• Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing
similar threats of deforestation.
• The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining
projects for excavation of copper, chromites, bauxite and magnetite.

7
 7. Effects of dams on forests and tribal people

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru referred dam and valley projects as “Temples of modern India”.
These big dams and rivers valley projects have multi-purpose uses. However, these dams are
also responsible for the destruction of forests. They are responsible for degradation of
catchment areas, loss of flora and fauna, increase of water borne diseases, disturbance in
forest ecosystems, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal peoples.
• India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more
than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130).
• The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms of
capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh. Big dams have been in sharp
focus of various environmental groups all over the world, which is mainly because of several
ecological problems including deforestation and socio- economic problems related to tribal
or native people associated with them.
• The Silent valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the
tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people.
• The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was
led by Shri. Sunder Lal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement.
• The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues have been taken up by the environmental
activitistMedha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Ray and Baba Amte. For building big dams,
large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of
the region.
• Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the
repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying them
(particularly, the tropical rain forests), we are going to lose these species even before
knowing them. These species could be having marvellous economic or medicinal value and
deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which have evolved over millions
of years in a single stroke.
8. Forest conservation and management

Forest is one of the most valuable resources and thus needs to be conserved. To conserve
forest, following steps should be taken.

1. Conservation of forest is a national problem;thus, it should be tackled with perfect

coordination between concerned government departments.
2. People should be made aware of importance of forest and involved in forest
conservation activities.
3. The cutting of trees in the forests for timber should be stopped.
4. A forestation programmes should be launched
5. Grasslands should be regenerated.
6. Forest conservation Act should be strictly implemented to check deforestation.

7. Awards should be instituted for the deserving

8
 (ii) Water Resources

Water is an indispensable resource for life on earth. Approximately 70.8 % surface of earth is
covered with water in the form of oceans. Out of this, about 97% is not fit for human
consumption, about 2% is locked as a glacier and only less than 1% available as fresh water that
can be used for human consumption and other uses.

Water is a very important source and essential for life because it has very unique characteristic
such as
1. Water exists as liquid over a wide range of temperature 0-1000C with highest specific heat
and latent heat of vaporization.
2. Water is excellent solvent and act as carrier of nutrient and helps to distribute them to the
cells in the body, regulates the body temperature and support structure and can dissolve
various pollutant and can act as carrier of large number of microorganisms
3. It is responsible for hydrological cycle which acts as resource of water to the earth. It is
estimated that about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates and majority of water returns to
earth through hydrological cycle.

Water is renewable, but its overuse and pollution make it unfit for use. Sewage, industrial
use, chemicals, etc. pollute water with nitrates, metals, and pesticides.

Use of Water Resources

Water resources are used for agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational,
andenvironmental activities. Majority of the uses require fresh water.However, about 97
percent of water found on the earth is salt water and only three percent isfresh water. A little
over two-thirds of the available fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The
remaining freshwater is found mainly as groundwater and a negligible portion of it is present
on the ground or in the air.

Following is a brief account of how water is used in different sectors.

(i) Agricultural Use: Agriculture accounts for 69 percent of all water consumption basically
in agricultural economies like India. Agriculture, therefore, is the largest consumer of the
Earth’s available freshwater.

By 2050, the global water demand of agriculture is estimated to increase by a further 19%
dueto irrigational needs. Expanding irrigation needs are likely to put undue pressure on
water storage. It is still inconclusive whether further expansion of irrigation, as well as
additional water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater, will be possible in future.

(ii) Industrial Use: Water is the lifeblood of the industry. It is used as a raw material coolant,
a solvent, a transport agent, and as a source of energy. Manufacturing industries account for a
considerable share in the total industrial water consumption. Besides, paper and allied
products, chemicals and primary metals are major industrial users of water.
9
Worldwide, the industry accounts for 19 percent of total consumption. In industrialized
countries, however, industries use more than half of the water available for human use.

(iii) Domestic Use: It includes drinking, cleaning, personal hygiene, garden care, cooking,
washing of clothes, dishes, vehicles, etc. Since the end of World War II there has been a
Trend of people moving out of the countryside to the ever-expanding cities. This trend
has important implications on our water resources. Government and communities have had
to start building large water-supply systems to deliver water to new populations and
industries. Of all water consumption in the world, domestic use accounts for about 12
percent.

(iv) Use for Hydropower Generation: Electricity produced from water is hydropower.
Hydropower is the leading renewable source of electricity in the world. It accounts for
about 16 percent of total electricity generation globally. There are many opportunities
for hydropower development throughout the world.

Today, the leading hydropower generating countries are China, the US, Brazil, Canada,
India, and Russia.

(v) Use for Navigation and Recreation: Navigable waterways are defined as watercourses
that have been or may be used for transport of interstate or foreign commerce.
Agricultural and commercial goods are moved on water on a large scale in a number of
regions in the world.

Water is also used for recreational purposes such as boating, swimming, and sporting
activities. These uses affect the quality of water and pollute it. Highest priority should be
given to public health and drinking water quality while permitting such activities in
reservoirs, lakes, and rivers.

Over-Exploitation of Water
Water scarcity has become a burning global issue. The UN has held several conventions on
water in recent decades. Continuous overutilization of surface and ground water has led to
virtual water scarcity in the world today.

The depleting sources for high growth in human population over the centuries and increased
man-induced water pollution across the world have created unforeseen water scarcity around
the globe. As a result, there has been continuous overutilization of the existing water sources
due to mammoth growth in world population.

(i) Surface water

Surface water mainly comes directly from rain or snow covers. The various surface sources
are natural lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, artificial reservoirs. Availability of surface
10
water decides the economy of the country. On one side surface water availability affects the
productivity, but on the other side water sources may cause floods and drought. Due to
unequal distribution, water may lead to national (interstate) or international disputes. Sharing
of surface water due to these disputes is affecting productivity of different agro eco-zone and
creating problems for government.

(ii) Ground water

Groundwater is the major source of water in many parts of the world. However, there has
been continuous depletion of this source due to its overexploitation by rising human
population and the rapid rise in industrialization and urbanization in modern times.About
9.86% of the total fresh water resources are in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50
times that of surface water supplies.

Effects of extensive and reckless groundwater usage:

1. Subsidence
2. Lowering of water table
3. Water logging

Consequences of Overutilization

Water scarcity now becomes an important topic in international diplomacy. From village to
the United Nations, water scarcity is a widely-discussed topic in decision making.

Nearly three billion people in the world suffer from water scarcity. International, intrastate
and regional rivalries on water are not new to world. The ongoing Jordan River conflict, Nile
River conflict, and Aral Sea conflict are cases in point. The intra-state issues such as Cauvery
Water dispute in South India, 2000 Cochabamba protests in Bolivia is still a simmering
cauldron causing periodic tension at the national and regional levels.

According to World Health Organization (WHO) sources, a combination of rising global

population, economic growth and climate change means that by 2050 five billion (52%) of
the world’s projected 9.7 billion people will live in areas where fresh water supply is under
pressure. Researchers expect about 1 billion more people to be living in areas where water
demand exceeds surface-water supply.

(i) Climate Change

Scientists, environmentalists, and biologists worldwide are now alarmed that climate change
can have an impact on the drainage pattern and hydrological cycle on the earth thereby
severely affecting the surface and groundwater availability.
Climate change is believed to rise the global temperature at an increasing pace. Temperature
increase affects the hydrological cycle by directly increasing evaporation of available surface
water and vegetation transpiration.

11
As a result, precipitation amount, timing and intensity rates are largely affected. It impacts
the flux and storage of water in surface and subsurface reservoirs.

(ii) Floods & Draughts

Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former is due to
excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another depending on the
location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas in other
places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its rainfall in the monsoon
season.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets accumulated
in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive damage to crops,
domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many animals get carried away by
the force of water and eventually die.

On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a long
period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by the process of
evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to earth in the form of
rains, the soil becomes very dry.

The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies get
dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In drought
conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the survival. Life gets difficult and
many animals perish in such conditions.

Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming. Various
environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change is a long-term
change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in the distribution of
extreme weatherevents.

Major Water Conflicts

Some of the major water conflicts that have become thorn in relations between states and
countries are

(1) Water conflict in the middle east

Countries involved are Sudan, Egypt and Turkey. It also affects countries which are water
starved viz. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Israel and Jordan.

(2) The Indus water treaty

This Indus water treaty dispute between India and Pakistan is lingering since long.

(3) The Cauvery water dispute

It involves two major states of India viz. Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

(4) The Satluj-Yamuna link canal dispute

12
The dispute is between two Northern states viz. Punjab and Haryana and UP, Rajasthan as
well as Delhi has also interest in it.In traditional water management, innovative arrangements
ensure equitable distribution of water, which are democratically implemented. These disputes
can be solved amicably through ‘Gram Panchayats”, if transparency is maintained. But
disputes between countries or states sometimes attain war like situation and are difficult to
solve.

Dams - Benefits and Problems

Water is a precious resource and its scarcity is increasing at global level. There is a pressure
to utilise surface water resources efficiently for different purposes. Dam, structure built
across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are built to provide water for
human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use in industrial processes.

Major benefits of dams

The major benefits of dams are
1. Hydroelectricity generation
2. Year-round water supply to ensure higher productivity
3. Equal water distribution by transferring water from area of excess to area of deficit
4. Helps flood control and protects soil
5. Assure irrigation during dry periods
6. River valley projects provide inland water navigation, employment opportunities and can
be used to develop fish hatcheries and nurseries
7. River valley projects have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and will help to
raise the standard of living and can help to improve the quality of life

Disadvantages/problems
Although dams have proved very useful over the centuries but recent past big dams has
created lot of human as well as environmental issues

1. Submergence of large areas may lead to loss of fertile soil and displacement of tribal
people
2. Salt left behind due to evaporation increase the salinity of river water and makes it
unusable when reaches down stream
3. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs not only makes dams use less but also is
responsible for loss of valuable nutrients
4. Loss of non-forest land leads to loss of flora and fauna
5. Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds
6. Stagnation and water logging near reservoir leads to breeding of vectors and spread of
vector-borne diseases
7. Growth of aquatic weeds may lead to microclimatic changes.

13
 (iii) Food Resources

Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms. These essential materials are
called nutrients and these nutrients are available from variety of animals and plants. There are
thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, out of which only about three dozen
types constitute major food of humans.

Food sources

The majority of people obtain food from cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Although
some food is obtained from oceans and fresh waters, but the great majority of food for human
population is obtained from traditional land-based agriculture of crops and livestock.

❖ Food Crops
It is estimated that out of about 2,50,000 species of plants, only about 3,000 have been tried as
agricultural crops. Under different agro-climatic condition, 300 are grown for food and only
100 are used on a large scale.

Some species of crops provide food, whereas others provide commercial products like oils,
fibres, etc. Raw crops are sometimes converted into valuable edible products by using
different techniques for value addition .At global level, only 20 species of crops are used for
food. These, in approximate order of importance are wheat, rice, corn, potatoes; barley,
sweet potatoes, cassavas, soybeans, oats, sorghum, millet, sugarcane, sugar beets, rye, peanuts,
field beans, chick-peas, pigeon- peas, bananas and coconuts. Many of them are used directly,
whereas other can be used by changing them by using different techniques for enhancing
calorific value.

❖ Livestock

Domesticated animals are an important food source. The major domesticated animals used as
food source by human beings are ‘ruminants’ (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, camel, reindeer, llama,
etc.). Ruminants convert indigestible woody tissue of plants (cellulose) which are earth’s
most abundant organic compound into digestible food products for human consumption.
Milk, which is provided by milking animals, is considered to be the complete food. Other
domestic animals like sheep, goat, poultry and ducker can be used as meat.

❖ Aquaculture
Fish and seafood contributes 17 million metric tonnes of high quality protein to provide
balance diet to the world. Presently aquaculture provides only small amounts for world food
but its significance is increasing day by day.

14
 World Food Problems
As per estimates of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 840 million people
remain chronically hungry and out of this 800 million are living in the developing world. In
last decade, it is decreasing at the rate of 2.5 million per year, but at the same time world’s
population is increasing. Target of cutting half the number of world’s chronically hungry
and undernourished people by 2015 will difficult to meet, if the present trend continues. Due
to inadequate purchasing power to buy food, it is difficult to fulfil minimum calorific
requirement of human body per day. Large number of people are in India are poor which can
be attribute to equitable distribution of income. Food
insufficiency can be divided into two categories into under-nourishment and malnourishment.
Both of these insufficiencies are global problems.

Under-nourishment
The FAO estimates that the average minimum daily caloric intake over the whole world is
about 2,500 calories per day. People who receive less than 90% of their minimum dietary
intake on a long-term basis are considered undernourished. Those who receive less than 80% of
their minimum daily caloric intake requirements are considered ‘seriously’ undernourished.
Children in this category are likely to suffer from stunted growth, mental retardation, and other
social and developmental disorders. Therefore, Under-nourishment means lack of sufficient
calories in available food, resulting in little or no ability to move or work.
Malnourishment
Person may have excess food but still diet suffers from due to nutritional imbalance or inability to absorb
or may have problem to utilize essential nutrients. If we compare diet of the developed countries
with developing countries people in developed countries have processed food which may be deficient in
fibre, vitamins and other components where as in the diet of developing countries, may be lack of
specific nutrients because they consume less meat ,fruits and vegetables due to poor purchasing power .

Malnourishment can be defined as lack of specific components of food such as proteins,

vitamins, or essential chemical elements.
The major problems of malnutrition are:
• Marasmus: a progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein and calories.
• Kwashiarkor: a lack of sufficient protein in the diet which leads to a failure of neural
development and therefore learning disabilities.
Anemia: it is caused by lack of iron in the diet or due to an inability to absorb iron from

Balanced diet
Supply of adequate amount of different nutrient can help to improve malnutrition and its ill effects.
Cereals like wheat and rice can supply only carbohydrate which are rich in energy supply, are only
fraction of nutrition requirement. Cereal diet has to be supplemented with other food that can supply
fat, protein and minor quantity of minerals and vitamins. Balanced diet will help to improve growth
and health.

15
Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing
Every year, food problem kill as many people as were killed by the atomic bomb dropped
on Hiroshima during World War II. This shows that there is drastic need to increase food
production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth. Although India is the
third largest producer of staple crops, it is estimated that about 300 million Indians are
still undernourished. India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three times
population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to population.
From centuries, agriculture is providing inputs to large number of industries involved in
production, processing and distribution of food. Accordingly, agriculture has significant effect
on environment. The effects of agriculture on environment can be classified as local, regional,
and global level. The agriculture also makes impact on the usage of land generally as follows:
1. Deforestation
2. Soil Erosion
3. Depletion of nutrients
4. Impact related to high yielding varieties (HYV)
5. Fertilizers related problems include micronutrient imbalance, nitrite pollution and
eutrophication.
6. Pesticide related problems include creating resistance in pests and producing new
pests, death of non-target organisms, biological magnification.
7. Some other problems include water logging, salinity problems and such others.

The carrying capacity of land for cattle depends upon micro climate and soil fertility. If
carrying capacity is exceeded than land is overgrazed. Because of overgrazing the agricultural
land gets affected as follows,
1. Reduction in growth and diversity of plant species
2. Reduce plant cover leads to increased soil erosion
3. Cattle trampling leads to land degradation

Effects of Modern Agriculture

For sustainable production modern techniques are used to enhance productivity of different
cropping systems under different agro-eco-zones. Adoption of modern agricultural practises
has both positive and negative effects on environment. Effects of modern agriculture are briefly
discussed under different heads as under:

Soil erosion
Raindrops bombarding bare soil result in the oldest and still most serious problem of
agriculture. The long history of soil erosion and its impact on civilization is one of devastation.
Eroded fields record our failure as land stewards.

Irrigation
Adequate rainfall is never guaranteed for the dry land farmer in arid and semiarid regions, and
thus irrigation is essential for reliable production. Irrigation ensures sufficient water when
16
needed and also allows farmers to expand their acreage of suitable cropland. In fact, we
rely heavily on crops from irrigated lands, with fully one- third of the world's harvest coming
from that 17% of cropland that is under irrigation. Unfortunately, current irrigation practices
severely damage the cropland and the aquatic systems from which the water is withdrawn.

Agriculture and the loss of genetic diversity

As modern agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the earth's land surface to
monoculture, the genetic and ecological diversity of the planet erodes. Both the conversion of
diverse natural ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the
genetic diversity of crops contribute to this erosion.

Fertilizer-pesticide problems
For photosynthesis apart from water, sunshine and CO2, plants need micro and macro nutrients
for growth. These nutrients are supplied in the shape of fertilizers. There is lot of potential to
increase food productivity by increasing fertilizer use. On one hand application of artificial
chemical fertilizers increases the productivity at faster rate as compare to organic fertilizers,
on the other hand application of fertilizers can be a serious problem of pollution and can
create number of problems. Excessive level of nitrates in ground water has created problems in
developed countries. These are:
a. Accumulated phosphorous as a consequence of use of phosphoric fertilizer are posing serious
threat as residues in domestic water supply and for ecology of river and other water bodies.
Increased level of phosphates in different water results in eutropication.
b. Effect of chemical fertilizer is long term, therefore leads to net loss of soil organic matter.

To control insects, pests, diseases and weeds which are responsible for reduction in productivity
different chemicals are used as insecticides, pesticides and herbicides. Successful control of
insects, pests and weeds increases productivity and reduces losses and provide security for
harvest and storage. Applications of these synthetic
chemicals have great economic values and at the same time cause number of serious problems
such as:

➢ Affects human health which includes acute poisoning and illness caused by
higher doses and accidental exposes
➢ As long term effect, cause cancer, birth defects, Parkinson’s disease and other
regenerative diseases.
➢ Long term application of pesticides can affect soil fertility.
➢ Danger of killing beneficial predators.

17
Fertilizer operated problems, water logging and salinity
While fertilizer is generally a good thing for most plants, there is certainly too much of a
good thing. The nutrients fertilizer provides to plants can also damage them if used in
excess. But the damage from the misuse of fertilizer doesn't stop at your plants. It
creates problems for the environment too, especially aquatic life.

Root Burn
Root burn is a condition in which the roots of plants suffer damage from the overuse of
fertilizers. According to Optimara/Holtkamp Greenhouses, low-quality fertilizers often
contain Urea, which is a source of nitrogen. It is not organic and some plant roots are
sensitive to it. But over fertilizing with high-quality fertilizers can also lead to root burn
due to an overabundance of soluble salts in the soil. The salts essentially burn the roots,
and even sometimes the foliage. Plants that suffer from root burn become stunted, wilted
and are often unable to flower. In severe cases of root burn, the roots may not be able to
carry any water to the plant.
Environmental Issues
Excessive fertilizer that washes into storm drains eventually makes its way into bodies
of water, such as rivers and lakes, causing pollution. Although the environmental impact
is considerably larger from the overuse of fertilizers on farms -- simply due to the
amount they use -- it's also a problem from fertilizer use in home gardens. The misuse of
fertilizer often has negative effects on fish and other aquatic animals. Algae feed off of
the nutrients in fertilizers, using up oxygen that fish and other animals need.
Additionally, ammonia released by fertilizer is harmful to fish.
Diminished Plant Health
While the addition of nutrients found in fertilizer increases plant growth, too much
fertilizer can negatively affect their health. For example, according to the University of
Georgia Extension, over fertilizing rabbiteye blueberries results in lower quality fruit.
While Washington State University reports that over fertilizing sunflowers can cause
weak stems and fewer flowers.
Pests and Diseases
Plants that produce greener, more lush leaves because of over fertilization may attract
more pests, according to licensed arborist Dennis Panu. The increased vigor of the
foliage can attract unwanted insects, such as aphids, which feed on the leaves. The
University of Georgia reports that too much fertilizer on turfgrass can increase the
likelihood that the grass will develop brown patch, a type of fungus.
Water logging :-

Waterlogging occurs whenever the soil is so wet that there is insufficient oxygen in the
pore space for plant roots to be able to adequately respire. Other gases detrimental to
root growth, such as carbon dioxide and ethylene, also accumulate in the root zone and
affect the plants.

18
 Plants differ in their demand for oxygen. There is no universal level of soil oxygen that
can identify waterlogged conditions for all plants. In addition, a plant’s demand for
oxygen in its root zone will vary with its stage of growth.
Symptoms and causes

Lack of oxygen in the root zone of plants causes their root tissues to decompose. Usually
this occurs from the tips of roots, and this causes roots to appear as if they have been
pruned. The consequence is that the plant’s growth and development is stalled. If the
anaerobic circumstances continue for a considerable time the plant eventually dies.
Most often, waterlogged conditions do not last long enough for the plant to die. Once a
waterlogging event has passed, plants recommence respiring. As long as soil conditions
are moist, the older roots close to the surface allow the plant to survive. However, further
waterlogging-induced root pruning and/or dry conditions may weaken the plant to the
extent that it will be very poorly productive and may eventually die.
Many farmers do not realise that a site is waterlogged until water appears on the soil
surface (figure 1). However, by this stage, plant roots may already be damaged and yield
potential severely affected.

Cost of waterlogging and inundation

Most data on the cost of waterlogging and inundation are from the Upper Great Southern
(see McFarlane et al., 1992), although the problems are widespread. Cereal crop yields
decrease by about 150 kg/ha for every 10 mm of rainfall in excess of the decile 5 rainfall
during August in the Upper Great Southern. In the same study it was calculated that over
a 10 year period in eight shires from that region, excess rainfall costs farmers about 14
% in lost wheat production each year.

Waterlogging and inundation slow pasture growth in winter and delay the spring flush.
Pasture growth in winter is at least five times more valuable than extra production in late
spring. Waterlogged legumes grow more slowly than waterlogged grasses, so
waterlogged pastures become grassy and weedy.

In wet years, waterlogging reduces the area that can be cropped. When paddocks are
waterlogged shortly after seeding, germination and emergence are often reduced; and
crops may have to be re- sown when the soil is firm enough to support machinery.

Salinity :- Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved inorganic salt content of a body of water.
Substances that are dissolved in water are usually called solutes. The typical seawater
has a salinity of 35 ppt or 35‰. The average density of seawater at the surface is
1.025g/ml.
Seawater is denser than freshwater because of the added weight of the salts. Natrium and
sodium make up the majority of the salts dissolved in seawater. The other major ions are
magnesium, sulfate, calcium and potassium.

19
Classification of water bodies based upon salinity

Waters can be divided into several types, depending on salinity:

Hyperhaline waters are waters with a very high salinity.

Metahaline conditions ranges from 45 to 65 ppt.
Euhaline waters are waters with a salinity between 30 and 35. These are the most
marine and oceanic waters.
Polyhaline conditions ranges from a salinity of 18 to 30 ppt.
Mesohaline waters are waters with a salinity between 5 and 18 ppt.
Oligohaline waters are waters with a salinity from 0.5 to 5 ppt.

_______________________________XXXXXXXXXX_____________________________

20
 UNIT IV
INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE
It refers to any material or substance that is discarded after use, is no longer needed, or is
intended to be disposed of. Waste can be generated from various sources, including
households, industries, agriculture, and commercial activities. Proper management of waste is
essential to minimize its environmental and health impacts.

TYPES OF WASTE:
Waste can be categorized based on its origin, composition, and properties. Here are the main
types:
1. Solid Waste:
o Includes household garbage, industrial waste, construction debris, and more.
o Examples: Paper, plastics, glass, metals, food scraps, and textiles.
2. Liquid Waste:
o Waste in liquid form, often generated by industries, households, and
agriculture.
o Examples: Wastewater, sewage, chemical solvents, and oil.
3. Gaseous Waste:
o Waste in the form of gases, typically released into the atmosphere.
o Examples: Carbon dioxide, methane, sulfur dioxide, and other emissions from
factories or vehicles.
4. Hazardous Waste:
o Waste that poses significant risks to human health or the environment due to
its chemical or biological properties.
o Examples: Batteries, pesticides, medical waste, and radioactive materials.
5. Biodegradable Waste:
o Organic waste that can be broken down by microorganisms into simpler
substances.
o Examples: Food waste, garden waste, and paper.
6. Non-Biodegradable Waste:
o Waste that cannot be broken down by natural processes and persists in the
environment.
o Examples: Plastics, synthetic rubber, and certain metals.
7. E-Waste (Electronic Waste):
o Discarded electronic devices and equipment.
o Examples: Computers, mobile phones, televisions, and batteries.
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE:
Waste can be classified based on its source, composition, and potential impact:
1. Based on Source:
o Municipal Waste: Generated from households, schools, and offices (e.g., food
waste, paper, plastics).
o Industrial Waste: Produced by manufacturing and industrial processes (e.g.,
chemicals, scrap metal).
o Agricultural Waste: Generated from farming activities (e.g., crop residues,
animal manure).
o Commercial Waste: Produced by businesses and commercial establishments
(e.g., packaging, office supplies).
o Construction and Demolition Waste: Generated from building and
infrastructure projects (e.g., concrete, wood, bricks).
2. Based on Composition:
o Organic Waste: Derived from living organisms (e.g., food waste, garden
waste).
o Inorganic Waste: Non-living materials (e.g., plastics, metals, glass).
3. Based on Hazard Potential:
o Hazardous Waste: Toxic, flammable, corrosive, or reactive waste (e.g.,
chemicals, medical waste).
o Non-Hazardous Waste: Waste that does not pose immediate threats to health
or the environment (e.g., household garbage).
4. Based on Degradability:
o Biodegradable Waste: Can be decomposed naturally (e.g., food, paper).
o Non-Biodegradable Waste: Cannot be decomposed naturally (e.g., plastics,
metals).
5. Based on Physical State:
o Solid Waste (e.g., trash, debris).
o Liquid Waste (e.g., sewage, industrial effluents).
o Gaseous Waste (e.g., emissions, fumes).
PRINCIPLES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT (5R approach):
The 5R approach is a set of principles designed to promote sustainable waste management
by minimizing waste generation and maximizing resource efficiency. These principles guide
individuals, businesses, and governments in reducing the environmental impact of waste. The
5Rs are:
1. Refuse
 Definition: Avoid accepting or using items that are unnecessary or harmful to the
environment.
 Purpose: Prevents waste generation at the source.
 Examples:
o Say no to single-use plastics (e.g., straws, bags, cutlery).
o Refuse unnecessary packaging or promotional materials.
o Avoid products with excessive or non-recyclable packaging.

2. Reduce
 Definition: Minimize the amount of waste produced by using fewer resources and
making conscious consumption choices.
 Purpose: Reduces the overall volume of waste entering the waste stream.
 Examples:
o Buy only what you need to avoid excess.
o Use digital tools to reduce paper waste (e.g., e-tickets, e-bills).
o Choose durable, long-lasting products over disposable ones.

3. Reuse
 Definition: Extend the life of products or materials by using them multiple times
instead of discarding them after a single use.
 Purpose: Reduces the demand for new resources and minimizes waste.
 Examples:
o Use reusable containers, bags, and bottles.
 o Repair broken items instead of throwing them away.
o Donate or sell items you no longer need (e.g., clothes, furniture).

4. Repurpose (or Recycle)

 Definition: Convert waste materials into new products or find alternative uses for
them.
 Purpose: Diverts waste from landfills and conserves resources.
 Examples:
o Repurpose glass jars as storage containers.
o Turn old clothes into cleaning rags.
o Use food scraps for composting.

5. Recycle
 Definition: Process used materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially
useful resources.
 Purpose: Reduces the need for raw materials and decreases energy consumption.
 Examples:
o Separate recyclable materials like paper, plastic, glass, and metal.
o Participate in community recycling programs.
o Purchase products made from recycled materials.

COMMERCIAL WASTE:
 Definition: Waste generated by businesses, offices, shops, restaurants, and other
commercial establishments.
 Examples:
o Paper, cardboard, packaging materials.
o Food waste from restaurants and cafes.
o Office supplies, electronics, and furniture.
o Construction debris from commercial renovations.
 Characteristics:
o Often includes recyclable materials like paper, plastics, and metals.
 o May contain hazardous materials (e.g., cleaning chemicals, batteries).

PLASTIC WASTE:
 Definition: Waste consisting of plastic materials that are discarded after use.
 Examples:
o Single-use plastics (e.g., bags, bottles, straws, cutlery).
o Packaging materials (e.g., wrappers, containers).
o Industrial plastics (e.g., pipes, sheets).
 Characteristics:
o Non-biodegradable and persists in the environment for hundreds of years.
o Can release toxic chemicals when incinerated or degraded.

Domestic Waste (Household Waste)

 Definition: Waste generated from households, including everyday items discarded by

individuals and families.
 Examples:
o Food waste, paper, plastics, glass, and metals.
o Garden waste, textiles, and old furniture.
o Small amounts of hazardous waste (e.g., batteries, cleaning products).
 Characteristics:
o Mostly organic and recyclable materials.
o Can contribute to landfill pollution if not managed properly.

E-WASTE- (Electronic waste)

 Definition: Discarded electronic devices and equipment that are no longer in use.
 Examples:
o Computers, laptops, mobile phones, televisions.
o Batteries, printers, and household appliances.
o Industrial electronics and medical devices.
 Characteristics:
o Contains hazardous materials like lead, mercury, and cadmium.
o Valuable materials like gold, silver, and copper can be recovered.

BIOMEDICAL WASTE
 Definition: Waste generated during healthcare activities, including diagnosis,
treatment, and research.
 Examples:
o Used needles, syringes, and surgical instruments.
 o Contaminated gloves, bandages, and dressings.
o Expired or unused medications.
o Human tissues, organs, and fluids.
 Characteristics:
o Highly infectious and hazardous to human health and the environment.
o Requires specialized handling and disposal methods.

RISK MANAGEMENT:

Risk Management involves a systematic approach to handling waste to minimize its impact
on human health and the environment. The key steps in this process
include collection, segregation, treatment, and disposal. Below is a detailed explanation of
each step and the methods involved:

1. Collection

 Definition: The process of gathering waste from various sources and transporting it to
treatment or disposal facilities.
 Methods:
o Door-to-Door Collection: Waste is collected directly from households,
businesses, and institutions.
o Community Bins: Centralized bins are placed in neighborhoods for waste
disposal, which are later collected by waste management teams.
o Scheduled Pickups: Regular collection schedules are established for different
types of waste (e.g., recyclables, organic waste).
o Special Collection: Hazardous or bulky waste (e.g., e-waste, construction
debris) is collected separately.
 Risk Management:
o Use covered and labeled vehicles to prevent spillage and odor.
o Train collection staff on safe handling practices.
o Ensure timely collection to prevent waste accumulation and pest breeding.

2. Segregation

 Definition: The process of separating waste into different categories based on its type,
composition, and potential for recycling or reuse.
 Methods:
o Source Segregation: Waste is separated at the point of generation (e.g.,
homes, offices) into categories like organic, recyclable, and hazardous waste.
o Color-Coded Bins: Different colored bins are used for different types of
waste (e.g., green for organic, blue for recyclables, red for hazardous).
o Manual or Automated Sorting: Waste is further sorted at treatment facilities
using manual labor or machines.
 Risk Management:
o Educate the public and workers on proper segregation practices.
o Provide clear labeling and instructions for waste bins.
o Use protective gear (e.g., gloves, masks) during manual sorting to prevent
exposure to hazardous materials.
3. Treatment

 Definition: The process of converting waste into less harmful or reusable forms
through physical, chemical, or biological methods.
 Methods:
o Organic Waste:
 Composting: Decomposing organic waste into nutrient-rich compost.
 Anaerobic Digestion: Breaking down organic waste in the absence of
oxygen to produce biogas.
o Recyclable Waste:
 Recycling: Processing materials like paper, plastics, glass, and metals
into new products.
o Hazardous Waste:
 Incineration: Burning waste at high temperatures to reduce volume
and neutralize toxins.
 Chemical Treatment: Using chemicals to neutralize hazardous
components.
 Autoclaving: Sterilizing biomedical waste using steam and pressure.
o E-Waste:
 Dismantling and Recovery: Extracting valuable materials like metals
and safely disposing of hazardous components.
 Risk Management:
o Use advanced technologies to ensure efficient and safe treatment.
o Monitor emissions and by-products to prevent environmental contamination.
o Regularly maintain treatment facilities to avoid accidents.

4. Disposal

 Definition: The final step of waste management, where treated or untreated waste is
permanently disposed of in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.
 Methods:
o Landfilling:
 Waste is buried in engineered landfills designed to prevent leaching
and contamination of soil and groundwater.
 Modern landfills include liners, leachate collection systems, and gas
recovery systems.
o Incineration:
 Waste is burned to reduce volume and generate energy, with proper
emission controls to minimize air pollution.
o Sanitary Landfills:
 Designed for safe disposal of non-recyclable and non-hazardous waste.
o Ocean Dumping:
 Rarely used and highly regulated due to environmental concerns.
o Deep Well Injection:
  Liquid waste is injected deep underground into porous rock
formations.

 Risk Management:
o Ensure landfills are located away from residential areas and water sources.
o Regularly monitor landfill sites for leaks and gas emissions.
o Follow strict regulations for hazardous waste disposal to prevent
contamination.

Waste Water Treatment

Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be properly treated before they are drained
into the mainstream water. The following are the various steps involved.

Primary treatment:

It involves physical processing of sedimentation, flotation and filtration where sewage water
is passed through screens to remove larger particles and then through a grinding mechanism
to reduce the larger particles to smaller size. The sewage is finally passed through settling
tanks to remove suspended impurities.

Secondary treatment:

Sewage obtained after primary treatment is sent to aeration tank where it is mixed with air
and sludge laden with bacteria and algae. The algae provide oxygen to the bacteria and
decompose organic matter into simple compounds (aerobic biological treatment processes).
Most commonly employed method is activated sludge process.

Activated Sludge process

Primary effluent is mixed with return activated sludge to form mixed liquor. This is aerated
for a specified length of time. During the aeration the activated sludge organisms use the
available organic matter as food producing stable solids and more organisms. The suspended
solids produced by the process and the additional organisms become part of the activated
sludge. The solids are then separated from the wastewater in the settling tank. The solids are
returned to the influent of the aeration tank (return activated sludge). Periodically the excess
solids and organisms are removed from the system (waste activated sludge).
Tertiary treatment:

Removal from wastewater of traces or organic chemicals and dissolved solids that remain

after primary treatment and secondary treatment

 UNIT V
SUSTAINABILITY AND ITS PRACTICES

SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability is defined as "meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs".
Need of sustainability
 Sustainability is a key to preserve our planet.
 Sustainability helps to reduce pollution and conserve resources.
 Sustainability creates jobs and stimulates the economy.
 Sustainability improves public health.
 It protects biodiversity.
 It protects the natural environment.
 It is the choice of non-toxic materials.
 It reduces and reuses the resources.
 It minimizes waste.
 It is used for life-cycle analysis.

Concept (or) Approaches (or) Significance of Sustainability

To build up the sustainability development, the following approaches (or) methods are
proposed.
1. Developing appropriate technology: Technology which is locally adaptable, eco-
friendly, resource-efficient culturally suitable. It uses local labours, less resources, and
produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3-R) approach: It insists optimum use of natural resources, using
it again and again instead of throwing it on the waste land (or) water and recycling the material
into further products. It reduces pressure on our natural resources and reduces waste generation
and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness: By providing environmental
education and awareness, the thinking attitude of people towards our earth and the environment
can be changed.
4. Consumption of Renewable Resources: In order to attain sustainability, it is very
important to consume the natural resources in such a way that the consumption should not
exceed regeneration capacity.
5. Conservation of Non-renewable resources: Non-renewable resources should be
conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. Population Control: By controlling growing population we can bring in sustainable
development.
Economic and Social Challenges of Sustainability
Economic sustainability
It refers to the organisation's ability to manage its resources and responsibly generate profits
in the long term.
Examples
1. A company uniliver
It has followed a strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability and the company's
economic performance. So, it implemented several measures like increasing package recycling,
promoting the use of recycled materials and responsible consumption awareness campaigns.
2. A company suez
It has reduced its emissions, related to electricity consumption, by 95% by using renewable
energy and conservation of natural habitats.
Economic challenges
 High rates of unemployment (or) under employment.
 High rates of poverty and low growth.
 Increasing inequality, with many not being included in the growth process.
 Disruption of major economic activities due to pandemic situation like tourism.
 Volatile growth dependent on one source.
 Low productivity due to poor human capital development.
 Mismatch between the skills a person have and the jobs he want to create.
 Lack of quality jobs
 Macro economic instability and recurrent balance of payments shocks.

Social sustainability
It refers to strengthening the cohesion and stability of specific social groups.
Examples
1. Company CEMEX: It is working to contribute to the social development of communities.
Thus, it offers decent housing through self-building programmes and loans with favourable
access conditions.
2. A Gigante group: It contributes funds and resources to a range of social causes like issue of
school materials for collaborators and grants to visual health.

Social Challenges
Through social impact, social sustainability challenges, issues are not easily
measurable, they are easier to identify. Social sustainability performance challenges include
 Human rights.
 Fair labour practices.
 Living conditions.
 Health and safety.
 Wellness, diversity and equity.
 Work-life balance.
 Empowerment.
 Community engagement.
Aspects of sustainability
There are 4 aspects of sustainability, of which environmental sustainability is the fundamental
and important aspect.
1. Environmental aspect
Environmental aspect acknowledges the need to enhance and maintain the biophysical systems
 that sustain all the life on earth. It includes the structure and function of natural ecosystems and
the interactions between them and people and calls for guardianship (or) kaitiakitanga of our
environment.
2. Social aspect
Social aspect acknowledges the need for equity
 within and between generations, and
 within and between ethnic and social groups.
It is inclusive of people's mental and physical well-being and the cohesion of their
communities based on a fair distribution of resources.
3. Cultural aspect
Cultural aspect acknowledges the need to nourish and share attitudes and values that represent
diverse world views and the political need for all people to express their views freely and to
participate in decision making. Addressing these needs can build resilience for the future.
4. Economic aspect
Economic aspect acknowledges the interactions of human with the natural environment in using
resources to create goods and services which add value to their lives. It acknowledges the
resource use and waste disposal must occur within the capacity of our planet. It encourages a
fair trading system that equitably distributes benefits and costs. It further encourages innovation
and creativity in developments that lead to a sustainable future.
Relationship between these aspects

Fig. Strong sustainability aspects

This model shows how our economy is a subset of our society. It also shows that everything in
our economy and everything in our society entirely dependent on our environment.
This relationship means that any impact or change in our environment will impact on society
and economy. Therefore any sustainability related issues must be considered holistically and
recognize their interdependence.

FROM UNSUSTAINABILITY TO SUSTAINABILITY

Unsustainability
Our ancestors have left a lot of resources for us. They used resources sensibly without greed.
But we are exploiting limited resources. Instead of using it for our needs, we are exploiting it
with greed.
Characteristics of Unsustainability
  Unsustainability is where we forget the responsibility towards the environment.
 In unsustainability, we degrade the available resources.
 We do not care about the future generations.
 Unsystematic planning damages the natural as well as human-made resources.
 Unsustainability leads to extreme degradation of the environment as well as the living
organisms.
Causes for unsustainability
 The rate of increase of Nation level pollution is more in developed countries than
developing countries.
 Developing countries are also responsible for the degradation of environment.
 Growing population leads to unsustainability.
 People should look at environment not only as reserve of man but of all living
organism.
 While constructing roads, buildings and dams for luxurious life style human neglect
the needs of animals and destroy their habit.
 We extract a lot of material from the lithosphere than what we need.
 We synthesize lot of chemical and compounds which destroy the environment.
 We cut trees at faster rate than they can grow, which causes global warming.
 Purchasing and using polythene bags increases pollution.
Characteristics of Sustainability
 Sustainability reduces emission of greenhouse gases, which will reduce global
warming and helps in preserving the environment.
 Use of natural and biodegradable materials reduces the impact of environment
towards sustainability.
 It emphasis on using renewable energy sources such wind and solar energy.
 Sustainability follows non-polluting construction practices.
 Sustainability protects the natural habitats.
 It improves the quality of human life.
 It minimises the depletion of natural resources.
 It teaches us to respect and care for all the life forms.
 It helps the future generations to meet their own demands.

Differences between sustainability and Unsustainability

Sustainability Unsustainability
Preservation of natural resources Exploitation of natural resources is faster
than the planet can handle and replenish
Long-term economic growth without Not quantifying ecosystem services and
negatively impacting our environment or increased vulnerability to crisis
society.
 Lead to equality in society, diversity, social Labour laws, human rights, gender inequality
cohesion and democracy and poor treatment of indigenous people
promotes unsustainability

ZERO WASTE
Zero waste is a set of principles, focused on waste prevention, that encourages redesigning
resource life cycles, so that all products are reused.
Goal
 The material should be reused until the optimum level of consumption is reached.
 It provides guidelines for continually working towards eliminating waste.
 To avoid sending trash to landfills, incinerators (or) the ocean.
Concept
The conservation of all the resources by means of responsible production, consumption,
reuse and recovery of products, packaging and using materials without burning and with no
discharges into land, water (or) air that threaten the environment (or) human health.

Fig. Logo for zero waste

Examples of zero waste
 One - way recyclable glass bottles.
 One - way milk bags.
 One - way aseptic cartons.
 One - way table - top paper board cartons.

Principles of zero waste

Refuse what we don't need: It prevents unwanted items from coming into our home.
Reduce what we do use: It is equal to less waste at the end.
Reuse whatever we can.
Recycle what we can't refuse (or) reduce.
Regulate of what's left over: Composting food scraps, paper pieces and wooden (or) bamboo
tooth brushes returns nutrients and fiber back to the earth.
 Fig Zero waste hirarchy
Steps to achieve zero waste
 Identify the high waste areas of our life-style.
 Know where to apply the principle of zero waste, if the waste cannot be removed (or)
reduced.
 Substitute single use plastic with eco-friendly zero waste options.
 Buy zero waste (or) eco-friendly products.
 Support eco-friendly businesses.
 Put all kitchen waste to good use (compositing).
 Reuse, up cycle and re-purpose.
Advantages (or) Benefits of zero waste
 Zero waste reduces our climate impact.
 It conserves resources and minimizes pollution.
 It promotes social equity and builds community.
 It supports a local circular economy and creates jobs.
 Zero waste needs businesses to play a key role.
Disadvantages (or) Problem of zero waste
Since zero wastes are solids, it is difficult to store
 It is more expensive.
 Zero waste procedures are time-consuming.
 It can cause anxiety.
 Zero waste concepts can be misleading.
 It can be difficult to manage large household
 Zero waste products are hard to find.

R CONCEPT (OR) 3R CONCEPT (REDUCE, REUSE AND RECYCLE)

The principle of reducing waste, reusing and recycling resources and products is often called
3Rs.
Reduce: Reducing means choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste
generated. If the usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
Reuse: Reusing involves the repeated use of items (or) parts items which still have usable
aspects.
 The refillable containers, which are discarded after use, can be reused.
 Rubber rings can be made from the discarded cycle tubes, which reduce the waste
generation during manufacturing of rubber bands.
Recycle: Recycling means the use of waste itself as the resources. It involves reprocessing of
the discarded materials into new useful products.
Examples
 Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles.
 Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.
 Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
 Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.
The above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and reduces pollution.

Concept of 3R
The concept of 3R refers to reduce, reuse and recycle, particularly in the topic of production
and consumption. It forces for an increase in the ratio of recyclable materials, further reusing
of raw materials and manufacturing wastes and overall reduction in resources and energy used.
Fig 3R Concept

Principle
3R is the order of priority of actions to be taken by the amount of waste generated and to
improve waste management processes and programs,
Importance of 3 Rs
 The most effective way to reduce the garbage is reducing the amount of solid waste
produced,
 By reducing waste at the source, the resources like water and energy can be saved.
 Like reducing, reusing avoids creating waste rather than trying to recycle it once it's
already there.
 Operating a well-run recycling program costs less than waste collection and land
filling.
 Recycling helps families save money because they pay for less disposal costs.
 Recycling produces less air and water pollution than manufacturing with new
materials.
 By recycling fewer materials are sent to landfills, which will keep them for future use.
 Proper disposal and recycling will prevent water and soil contamination.
Advantages (or) Benefits of 3 Rs
 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 Saves energy.
 Helps sustain the environment for future generations.
 Reduces the amount of waste that will need to be recycled (or) sent to landfills and
incinerators.
 Saves money.
 Prevents pollution

Disadvantages of 3 Rs
 High upfront capital cost
 Recycling sites are always unhygienic, unsafe and unsightly.
 Products from recycled waste may not be durable
 Recycling might not be inexpensive.
  3R is more energy consuming and leads to pollution.
 3R generates pollutants.
 Processing cost is high.
 Quality of resultant product is low.

CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Circular economy is a new production and consumption model that ensures sustainable growth
over time. It reduces the consumption of raw materials and recover wastes by recycling (or)
giving it a second life as a new product.
Aim (or) Purpose
Aim of the circular economy is to make the most of the material resources available to us by
applying three basic principles reduce, reuse and recycle.
In this way the life cycle of products is extended, waste is used and a more efficient and
sustainable production model is established over time.

Fig. Circular Economy

Benefits of circular economy

 It protects the environment.
 Circular economy benefits the local economy.
 It drives employment growth.
 It promotes resource independence.

Necessary steps (7Rs) to achieve a circular economy

1. Redesign: Redesigning process consumes fewer raw materials, extends their life
cycle and generates less waste.
2. Reduce: If we reduce consumption, waste generation and use of raw materials,
impact on the environment gets reduced.
3. Reuse: Reusing the products extends their life cycle.
4. Repair: Repairing avoid the use of new raw materials, saves energy and does no
generate environmental waste.
5. Renovate: Update old objects, so that they can be reused
 6. Recycle: Waste product can be used as raw material to manufacture new products
7. Recover: The products that are going to be discarded, can be used for new uses.
Example for Circular Economy
 Manufacturers design products to be reusable.
 Electrical devices are designed in such a way that they are easier to repair. Products
and raw materials are also reused as much as possible.

SUSTAINABLE HABITAT
Sustainable habitat means the maintenance of our natural home.
A sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms
without resource depletion ie ., no external waste is produced.
Features (or) Characteristics of sustainable habitat
 Proper waste management.
 Affordable housing.
 Waste water treatment and facility of recycling waste water.
 Green transportation using green fuel like biodiesel
Objectives of national mission on sustainable habitat
 To reduce energy demand by promoting alternative technologies and energy
conservation practices in both residential and commercial areas.
 Better urban planning like
 using better disaster management
 lesser use of private transport
 more usage of public transport
 Encourage community involvement and participation of stake holders.
 Conservation of natural resources such as clean air, water, flora and fauna.
 Facilitate the growth of small and medium cities.
 To create sustainable habitats, engineers and architects should not consider any
element as a waste product.
How to maintain sustainable habitat
For maintaining in sustainable habitat, we should
 Promote energy efficiency.
 Promote the use of eco-friendly fuels.
 Better manage municipal solid waste.
 Promote to public transport.
GREEN BUILDINGS
Green building is an efficient method of construction that produces healthier buildings, which
have less impact on the environment and climate. It requires less cost to maintain.
Green buildings preserve previous natural resources and improve our quality of life.
Criteria for green building
 Green builders are encouraged to build on previously developed land rather than
developing new land.
 It is also important to build near existing infrastructure like bus routes, market,
libraries.
  The building site should be smaller because there is less environmental foot print.
 Sites must be sustainable landscaped and don't suffer from soil erosion (or) light
pollution.
 Water reduction is built in by design using low-flow toilets, grey water systems.
 Green buildings are constructed using clean energy like geothermal, solar, wind
energies.
 Green builders reduce material usage wherever possible. Mainly they use natural,
renewable sources.
 Selecting low emitting materials and products not only improves human health but
also protect the overall environment.
Features of green building
 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources
 Use of renewable energy such as solar energy.
 Pollution and waste reduction measures le ., reuse and recycling.
 Good indoor environmental air quality.
 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable.
 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment.
 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation.
 Construction of the environment in design, construction and operation.
Thus, any building can be a green building whether it is a home, an office, a school, a
hospital, a community centre provided it includes features listed above.

Principles of green building

The five principles of green building are
1. Livable communities.
2. Energy efficiency.
3. Indoor air quality.
4. Resource conservation.
5. Water conservation.
Components of green buildings
 Aluminium weather resistant insulated access panel. It helps regulate indoor
temperature and prevent moisture and pest in from entering
 Energy efficient windows.
 Green roof
 Solar power.
 Water conservation.
 Recycling
 Landscaping
Advantages of green building
 Green buildings are energy efficient.
 Higher fraction of eco-friendly materials.
 Water - efficient devices.
  Reduction in waste.
 Less air pollution.
 Reduction in green house gas emissions.
 Protection of our natural resources.
 Indoor air quality is improved.
 Use of recycled metal and other construction materials
 Emphasis on renewable energies.
 Day light is utilized as best as possible.
 Use of renewable materials.
 Higher market value.
 Rainwater collection and use of compost bins.
 Overall health improvement practices.
Disadvantages of green building
 High initial costs.
 Energy supply may depend on weather conditions.
 Technology problems are more.
 Maintenance may be difficult.
 Indoor air temperature may greatly vary over time.
 Experienced green construction workers may be rare.
 Green construction is not suitable for all locations.
 Availability of green construction materials.
 Funding problems for green buildings.

GREEN MATERIALS
Green materials also called eco-friendly materials, building construction materials that have
low impact on the environment. Due to the properties of non-toxic organic and recycling, green
materials are widely used in various industrial applications.
Eg. Naturally occurring materials like wood, ceramics, glass, clay, sand, stone.

Criteria for green materials

Following criteria can be used to identify the green materials.
 Local availability of materials.
 Embodied energy of materials.
 % of recycled (or) waste materials used.
 Rapidly renewable materials.
 Contribution in energy efficiency of building.
 Recyclability of materials.
 Durability.
 Environmental impact.
Characteristics of green materials
Common characteristics of green materials are
 Green materials are energy efficient products; it uses less energy to do the same task.
  It lowers energy cost and reduces pollution.
 Green materials are mostly renewable, can be regenerated again and again.
Example Bamboo grows quickly while pine grows more slowly, but both are renewable.
 Green materials are recyclable (or) made from recycled material. So, they save energy
and reduce waste.
 Green materials are non-toxic, they do not emit odors, irritants (or) hazardous
compounds that affect human health.
 They are durable and no need to upgrade (or) repair. They preserve resources and
energy.
 They are cost-effective.
 They can be locally sourced, so transportation cost can be reduced.

Important green building materials

Green building construction that primarily uses natural materials and renewable resources
These structures look cool.
Stone: It has low maintenance and durable.
Cob: (mud mixture of natural ingredients like soil, sand, straw and lime).It is cheap and
energy efficient.
Bamboo: It is durable and light weight.
Cork: (Cork canes from oak trees).
It is a very good thermal insulator and mold resistant
Adobe brick: (brick made of clay and straw).
Natural noise protection and possess unique design (can be easily cut and transformed).
Straw bale: Easily renewable and cheap.
Cord wood: Affordable (cheap and easy construction), thermal efficiency.
Earth bags (or) sand bags: Locally sourced and provide natural insulation.
Mycelium (or) mushroom roots: Strong and light weight.
Examples of green materials
 Bamboo floorings.
 LED lightings.
 Reclaimed wood.
 Energy efficient appliances.
 High-efficiency glass windows
 Solar panels.
 Recycled steel.
 Cork.
 Precast concrete slabs.
 Low VOC paint.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy efficiency is the use of less energy to perform the same task (or) produce the same
result.
Energy efficient home and buildings use less energy to heat, cool, and run appliances and
electronics.

Fig. Energy efficiency log

Methods of achieving energy efficiency
Energy efficiency can be achieved by the following methods.
Alternative waste treatment
 Avoid emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill for process engineered fuel
manufacture.
 Avoid emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill through composting
alternative waste technology.
 Capture and combustion of landfill gas.
Calculation of energy efficiency
Energy efficiency can be calculated using the following relation

Advantages (or) Benefits of energy

 Using energy more efficiently is one of the fastest, most cost - effective ways to save
money.
 Increased energy efficiency can lower greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants.
 Energy efficiency also decreases water use.
 It can lower individual utility bills, create jobs and help stabilize electricity prices.
 It provides long-term benefits by lowering overall electricity demand, thus reducing the
need to invest in new electricity generation and transmission infrastructure.
 Energy efficient construction is environmentally friendly as it does not emit harmful
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Example: Energy efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same amount of light as incandescent
light bulbs using 75- 80% less electricity.
Disadvantages (or) Limitations of energy efficiency
 Energy efficient construction is the high cost of enforcing ie., addition cost is required
to build and plan such buildings.
 Building materials are not always available.
 Although energy efficient construction is environmentally friendly, it produces less
carbon emissions and has slight unfavourable effects on the human health.
  Indoor air is 3 to 7 times more polluted than outdoor air.

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
Sustainable transport refers to any means of transportation that is "green" and has low impact
on the environment.
Examples: walking, cycling, transit, carpooling, car sharing green vehicles.
Sustainable transport can carry people more efficiently than cars. Electric cars pollute less
and reduce individual carbon foot print.

Fig. Sustainable transport

Importance of sustainable transport

Sustainable transport reduces the damaging CO2 emission and therefore reduces atmospheric
pollution and improves air quality in cities.
The aim of this type of transport is to reduce the negative impacts on the environment.

Key elements of sustainable transport

1. Fuel economy
The better the fuel economy the lower is the emissions. By improving fuel economy we can
get the same mileage with generation of fewer emissions.
It is achieved by
 Making engines more efficient.
 Vehicles lighter and bodies more aerodynamic.
Occupancy: The cheapest and simplest way to lower the carbon intensity of a vehicle is to
stick more people in the vehicle.
Example Local bus has emissions 7 times higher than the school bus. The main difference is
school bus have very high occupancy.
Electrification: Electrification is the most important pathway to low carbon transport.
Pedal power: Bicycles reduces the carbon emissions.
Urbanization: It is a huge opportunity for lowering both distance travelled per person and
the carbon intensity of that travel.

How to promote sustainable transport

Followings are steps for promoting sustainable
 Enhancing public transportation: It is not only less polluting means of
transportation, but also promoting HSE (Health, safety and environment) policy.
 Encouraging car pooling: It reduces the volume of CO2, emitted per inhabitant.
  Encouraging bicycle use: It is reliable and non-polluting means of transportation.
 Teleworking: It reduces employee travel and therefore their carbon food print.
 Improving the parking experience: It can be done effectively with the help of
parking management software.
 Advantages (or) benefits of sustainable transport
 It creates job.
 Provides safer transportation.
 Emits less pollution.
 Promotes health (sustainable transit reduces emissions and air pollution)
 It saves energy.
 Saves money.
 Decreases congestion: When people choose sustainable transportation, over driving
themselves, congestion also decreases.
 It conserves land. It encourages compact development, fewer roadways in country
areas results in less runoff, thereby protecting the land and the biodiversity.

Disadvantages (or) Limitations of sustainable transport

 Modifications to handling and transport facilities.
 The initial purchase of reusable containers.
 Additional costs of the tracking system e.g. ., software packages, reading equipments,
electronic chips, barcode labelling, detector's etc.,

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Sustainable energy is the energy which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of generations to meet their own needs.
It should be encouraged as it does not cause any harm to the environment and is available
widely at free cost.
Sources of sustainable energy
Followings are the sustainable energy sources as they are stable and available in plenty.
Wind energy, Solar energy, Ocean energy, Hydro power, Geothermal energy.
Advantages (or) Benefits of sustainable energy
1. Improves public health
Burning of fossil fuels produces serious public health issues like neurological damage, cancer,
heart attacks breathing problems and premature death. However these problems can be
eliminated by using sustainable energy sources, which emit no air (or) water pollutants.
2. Creates local jobs
Most of the sustainable energy infrastructure is built locally or in the same country, it helps
creates jobs and improves the economy.
3. Decrease carbon footprint
Sustainable energy like wind and solar energy creates zero carbon emissions.
4. Cost saving
As it is easily available they are much more cost-effective than traditional energy resources,
such as power plants
5. Energy security
It helps to conserve the planet’s natural resources and reduce the pollution.
Disadvantages of sustainable energy
Sustainable energy sources are not available round the clock.
 The efficiency of sustainable energy technologies is low.
 The initial cost of sustainable energy is high.
 Sustainable energy sites require a lot of space.
 Sustainable energy devices need recycling.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES (OR) RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Non-conventional sources are natural resources which can be regenerated continuously and
are inexhaustible. They can be used again and again in an endless manner.
Examples Wood, hydropower, solar tidal energy, wind energy, etc
Merits of Non-conventional energy resources
 Unlimited supply.
 Provides energy security.
 Fits into sustainable development concept.
 Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
 Decentralized energy production.
Solar energy
The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy.
The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of energy in
the form of heat and light. Several techniques are available for collecting, converting and using
solar energy.
Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy
Some important solar energy harvesting devices are given below.

Fig Solar Cell

Solar cells consists of p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type
semiconductor (such as Si doped with P).They are in close contact with each other. When solar
rays falls on the top layer p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band get
promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor. There
by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons
(ie electric current).
Uses
Used in calculators, electronic watches, street lights, water pumps to run radios and TVs.
 Solar Battery
When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it form a solar battery. Solar battery
produces more electricity which is enough to run water pump, to run street light etc ., They are
used in remote areas where electricity supply is a problem.

Fig. Solar pump run by solar Battery

Solar heat collectors
Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones, bricks (or) materials like glass,
which can absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.
Uses
It is generally used in cold places, where houses are kept in hot condition using solar heat
collectors.
Solar water heater
It consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with black paint. It is also provided
with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil,
through which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets heated up and flow out into a storage
tank. From the storage tank water is supplied though pipes.

Fig Solar water Heater

Wind energy
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy.
The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed .The wind energy is harnessed by
making use of wind mills.
Wind mills
The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating continuously. The
rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water pump, flour mills and
electric generators.

Wind farms
When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite pattern it
forms a wind farm. The wind farms produce a large amount of electricity.
Condition
The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km / hr.
Advantages
 It does not cause any air pollution.
 It is very cheap.
Ocean energy
Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.
Tidal energy (or) Tidal power

a b
Fig a Water flow into reservoir from sea, Fig b Water flow out from reservoir from sea
Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of
energy. The 'high tide' and 'low tide' refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal
energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
 During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and
rotates the turbine, which in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators.
 During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir
is allowed flow into the sea and again rotates the turbine.
Ocean thermal energy (OTE)
There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper
level of the tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized to
generate electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature
of water is called ocean thermal energy. Condition
The temperature difference should be of 20oC (or) more is required between
surface water and deeper water.
Process
The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like
ammonia. The high vapour pressure of the liquid, formed by boiling, is then
used to turn the turbine of the generator and generates electricity. The cold water
from the deeper ocean is pumped to cool and condense the vapour into liquid.

Geo-thermal energy
Temperature of the earth increases at the rate of 20oC -75oc per km,when we
move down the earth surface. High temperature and high pressure stem fields
exist below the earths surfaces in many places, The energy harnessed from the
high temperature present inside the earth is called geo thermal energy.

Fig. Geo-thermal Energy

1. Natural geysers
In some places, the hot water (or) steam comes out of the ground through cracks
naturally in the form of natural geysers.
2. Artificial geysers
In some places, we can artificially drill a hole up to the hot region and by
sending a pipe in it, we can make the hot water (or) steam to rush out through
the pipe with very high pressure.
Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers
is allowed to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.