SEED PRODUCTION AND SEED

TESTING

SEED
Any plant part used for raising the crop is seed. Seed includes true seed seedling
cutting, rhizome, grafts, roots etc used for propagation. Botanically seed is matured
integument mega sporangium. Seed is also defined as matured ovule consisting or
embryonic together with store of food surrounded by protective coat.

IMPORTANCE OF SEED IN AGRICULTURE

 Perpetuation: -It is a method of reproducing the plant over and over again through
generations.
 Breeding: -when manipulated in crop improvement programmes to obtain
superior quality crops/products.
 Dispersal: -convenient method to disperse the crop/transport over long distances
and across regions
 Only method of propagation in some crops e.g. maize
 Survival: -it is a method of survival during harsh conditions (overwintering)
 It may be turned into food if there is shortage/famine

Parts of a typical dicotyledonous seed:

(i) Seed coats: seed coats consist of two layers of integument, united or free, the outer
being called tests and the inner is called tegmen. The seed coats are provided with
hilum which represents the point of attachment with the stalk, micropyle, minute
pore above the hilum and raphe (a ridge formed by the funicle or stalk in many
seeds.
(ii) Embryo: Embryos lying within the seeds is consisted of an axis and two cotyledons.
The pointed end of the axis is the radicle and the feathery leaf end is called plumule.
As the seed germinates the radicle gives rise to the root and plumule to the shoot.
(iii) Endosperm: Endosperm is the fleshy food storage tissue. In some seeds endosperm
is present until maturity. Such seeds are called endospermic or albuminous seeds. In
some seeds it is consumed in the young stage by the developing cotyledons and such
seeds do not possess endosperm at maturity. Such seeds are called non endospermic
or Ex albuminous seeds.

Parts of a typical monocotyledonous seed:

(i) Seed coat: Seed coat is the brownish membranous layer adherent to the grain. This
layer is made up of the seed coat and the wall of the fruit fused together.
(ii) Endosperm: It forms the main bulk of the grain and is the food storage tissue of it,
being laden with reserve food material, particularly starch. In a longitudinal section
of a grain, it is seen to be distinctly separated from the embryo by a definite layer
known as the epithelium.
(iii) Embryo: It is very small and lies in a groove at one end of the endosperm. It consists
of only (a) one shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum (b) a short axis with the
plumule and the radicle. The radicle is protected by a root cap. The plumule as a
whole (growing point and foliage leaves) is surrounded by a protective sheath called
coleoptile; similarly, the radicle is surrounded and protected by a sheath called
coleorhizae. The surface layer of the scutellum lying in contact with the endosperm
is the epithelium, its function is to digest and absorb the food material stored in the
endosperm.
 In cereals (e.g. rice, wheat, maize, barley and oat), millets and other plants of the
grass family the cotyledon is known as scutellum. It supplies the growing embryo
with food material absorbed from the endosperm with the help of epithelium.

Difference between seed and grain

Sl. No Seed Grain

1 Any plant part used for propagation is It is final produce of grain crops used
seed. It includes seeds category, rhizome, for consumption.
grafts etc.
2 It should be a viable and vigorous one Grains need not be viable
3 It should be physically and genetically Genetic purity is ignored in case of
pure grains
4 Should satisfy minimum seed certification No such requirements
standards
5 It can be treated with pesticide /fungicide It should never be treated with any
to protect seed against storage pests and chemicals, since used for consumption
fungi
6 Should be compulsorily certified No such condition in grain production

7 Dormancy plays important role in quality Dormancy has no role grain quality
of seed
8 Physiological maturity considered for Physiological maturity has no
quality seed production importance in grains
9 It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered
10 Seed can be utilized as grain provided if it Grain never can be converted into seed.
is not treated with poisonous chemicals
11 Comes under preview of seed acts. Comes under preview of food acts.

SEED DEVELOPMENT
Following pollination and fertilization, two major developmental steps occur in
the life cycle of seed plants which do not occur in the mosses or ferns. One is the
development of the seed and the other is the development of the fruit. The seed
development consists of a conversion of the integument of the ovule into a resistant seed
coat, the development of the endosperm, and the development of the embryo. All these
events take place within the original ovary. After fertilization, the zygote divides
mitotically. The product of this repeated nuclear division and cell multiplication is an
embryo.
A section through a nearly mature seed will reveal an embryo consisting of two
large cotyledons with a small epicotyl between them attached the hypocotyl. Most or all
of the endosperm has been absorbed by the cotyledons and the integuments of the ovule
have grown into a seed coat. The basal portion of the embryo is termed the radicle. The
epicotyl develops into the above ground structures of the plant (stem, leaves, flowers).
The radicle develops into the true root system while the hypocotyl develops into the
transition zone between root and stem.

Criteria of Quality Seed:

a) It should meet minimum genetic purity.
b) It should have good germination.
c) It should be free from infection of seed borne disease and stored grain pests.
d) It should not contain impurities like other crop seed, trash material beyond
permissible limits.
e) Able to withstand the adverse conditions.

Significance of a good quality seed:

(i)good quality seeds of improved varieties ensure higher yield
(ii)ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops
(iii) gives desired plant population.
(iv) able to withstand the adverse conditions.
(v) will be free from pest and diseases.
(vi) seedlings will be more vigorous, fast growing and can resist pest and
disease incidence to certain extent.
(vii) ensures uniform growth and maturity
(viii) development of root system will be more efficient that aids absorption of nutrients
efficiently and result in higher yield.
(ix) it will respond well to added fertilizer and other inputs.

SEED QUALITY
Thompson (1979) defined seed quality as a multiple concept comprising several
components and their relative importance in different circumstances and laid much
emphasis on analytical purity or physical purity, species purity or genetic purity, freedom
from weeds, germination percentage, seed vigour and health, seed moisture content and
seed size, weight and specific gravity.

Seed quality characters: A good seed should have the following quality characters.
1. Improved variety: It should be superior to the existing variety i.e. the yield should
be higher by 20-25% than the existing variety or it should have some desirable
attributes like disease resistance, drought resistance, salt tolerance etc., with good
yield potential.
2. Genetic Purity: The seed should be true to type. The seed should possess all the
genetic qualities / characters, which the breeder has placed in the variety, genetic
purity has direct effect on the yields. If there is any deterioration, there would be
proportionate decrease in the yield or performance.
3. Physical Purity: Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of
the seed lots. A seed lot is composed of pure seed, inert mater, broken seeds,
undersized seeds, soil and dust particles weed seeds, other crop seeds etc. Higher the
content of pure seed better would be the seed quality. Pure seed together with
germination gives the planting value of the seed lot.
4. Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed when
planted under normal sowing conditions to give rise to a normal seedling. Seed
vigour
 refers to the sum total of all seed attributes that give effective plant stand in the field.
Higher germination percentage and vigour gives adequate plant population and
uniform growth, which have profound effect on, yield and determine the planting
value of the seed.
5. Freedom from weeds and other crop seeds: This is an extension of physical purity
described earlier. There are certain weed species, which are very harmful to the crop
and once established they are difficult to eradicate. An absolute freedom from seed of
such species is highly desirable and is one of the important criteria for determining
the planning quality of seeds.
6. Seed health: Seed health refers to the presence or absence of disease organisms or
insect pests on the seed. The quality of a seed lot depends on its health; hence the
seed should be free from seed borne disease and insect pests.
7. Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the most important factor in determining the
seed germination and viability during storage. At high seed moisture content there is
high incidence of pest attack and at moisture content above16% seed get heated and
the viability is lost. Hence the seed should be stored at safe moisture levels of 11-
13%.
8. Seed size, weight and specific gravity: Seed size, weight and specific gravity has
been found to have positive correlation with seed germination and vigour in many
crops. Therefore, the seed should be bold with high specific gravity.
9. Seed Colour: The colour of the seed often reflects the condition during seed
maturation. The farmers from ancient times have regarded good normal shine as
invariable quality guides. The colour and shine deteriorates only when the weather
conditions are adverse during maturation or when insects infest the crop or when it is
handled badly. The seed lots having high genetic purity, high germination and with a
minimum amount of inert matter, weed seeds and other crop seeds and are free from
diseases is said to be of high quality and if it is lacking of these it is said to be of low
quality.

Classes or Types of Seed

(i) Nucleus seed: is the handful of original seed obtained from selected individual plants
of a particular variety for maintenance and purification by the originating breeder. It
is further multiplied and maintained under the supervision of qualified plant breeder
to provide breeder seed. This forms the basis for all further seed production. It has the
highest genetic purity and physical purity.
(ii) Breeder’s seed: This is the progeny of the nucleus seed multiplied in large area
under the supervision of plant breeder and monitored by a committee. It provides cent
per cent physical and genetic pure seed for production of foundation class. Golden
yellow coloured certificate is issued for this category by the producing agency.
(iii) Foundation seed: The foundation seed is the progeny of the breeder seed.
Sometimes, it may be produced from the foundation seed which could be clearly
traced to the breeder seed. The production of foundation seed shall be supervised and
approved by the Certification Agency and should be so handled asto maintain specific
genetic identity and genetic purity and shall be required to conform to the
certification standards specified for the crop that is being certified. Seed Certification
agency issues a white colour certification for foundation class seed.
(iv) Certified seed: It is the progeny of foundation seed and produced by registered seed
growers under the supervision of Seed Certification Agency by maintaining the seed
quality as per minimum seed certification standards.However, certified seed can also
be produced from certified seed to maintain adequate seed supplies under the
discretion of the Certification Agency (Section 14(2) of Seed Rules, 1968). Seed
Certification Agency issues an azure blue colour (Shade ISI No. 104) certificate.

SEED VIABILITY
Seed viability is defined as the capacity of the seed to remain capable of
germination for some specific period of time. Viability of different seeds may differ to a
great extent. Some seeds loose viability even after a few weeks, whereas some seeds can
remain viable for several years.
Life span of seeds
On the basis of longevity of seeds, the seeds are classified into three groups as follows:
(i) Macrobiotic seeds: These are also known as long lived seeds. The lifespan of these
seed’s ranges from 15 to more than 100 years. Examples: Lupine seeds
(ii) Mesobiotic seeds: These seeds are also known as intermediate lived seeds. The life
span of these seeds varies from 3 to 15 years. Examples: Barley, Flax, Tall fescue and
Carrot seeds.
(iii) Microbiotic seeds: These seeds are also known as short lived seeds. The life span of
these seeds does not exceed 3 years. Examples: Soybean, Onion, River Maple and
wild rice

Orthodox and Recalcitrant seeds

All the seeds may be divided into two broad groups depending on the maintenance of
viability under normal and specific environ mental conditions.
(i) Orthodox seeds: Seeds belonging to this group maintain viability for longer period
when stored at low moisture level. The examples of this group of seeds include rice,
wheat, maize, groundnut and tomato etc. For storage of orthodox seeds for longer
period seeds are dried to low moisture level. For vegetable seeds the safe limit of
moisture content is around 5%, for field crops is around 8%. Orthodox seeds may be
stored in moisture impervious and aseptic condition to avoid seed infection and
infestation.
(ii) Recalcitrant seeds: Seeds belonging to this group maintain viability for longer
period, when stored at higher moisture level. e.g. lemon, grapes, apple, jack fruit,
litchi etc.

Factors affecting longevity or period of viability of seeds:

1. Biotic factors
(a) Factors related to seed
(i) Genetic makeup of the seed: The longevity is influenced by the genetic constitution
of the seed. Some seeds are naturally short lived e.g. onion, soybeans, ground nut
etc. whereas some are naturally long lived e.g. Indian lotus, silk tree etc.
(ii) Initial seed quality: Barton (1941) found that the seeds of high initial viability are
much more resistant to unfavourable storage environment conditions than low viable
seed. Once seed start to deteriorate it proceeds rapidly. The mechanically injured
seed suffered a lot and loses viability very quickly. Generally small seeds escape
injury whereas large seeds are more likely to be extensively damaged e.g. bean, lima
bean and soybean. Spherical seeds usually give more protection than flat or
irregularly shaped seeds.
(iii) Effect of provenance: The place where the seed crop was produced greatly
influences the longevity or storability e.g. the red clover seeds grown in Canada
stored for four years with 80% germination whereas seeds grown in England and
New Zealand stored only for 3 years with 80% germination. This is due to different
climatic conditions and soil types prevailing in different places.
(iv) Seed moisture content: The moisture content of the seeds is the most important
factor influencing longevity or viability. With increase in seed moisture content, the
storage life decreases. If the seeds are kept at high moisture content, the loss of
viability becomes very rapid due to mould growth and if the seeds are stored at very
low moisture content below 4%, the seed is damaged due to extreme desiccation or
occurrence of hard seeded ness in some crops. Before storage the seeds should be
dried to the safe limits for storability suitable for the crop. The seed moisture
content however depends on storage length, type of storage structure, kind or variety
of seed, type of packing material used. For cereals in ordinary storage conditions for
12-18 months, seed drying up to 10% moisture content appears quite satisfactory.
 However, for storage in sealed containers, drying upto 5-8% moisture content
depending upon particular kind may be necessary.
(v) Micro flora, Insects and Mites: The activity of all these organisms can lead to
damage resulting in loss of viability. The micro flora activity is controlled by relative
humidity, temperature and moisture content of seeds. Treated seeds with fungicides
can be stored for longer periods. Fumigation to control insects will also help in
longer period storage. Fumigants like methyl bromide, hydrogen cyanide, ethylene
dichloride, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and naphthalene and aluminium
phosphine.
2. Abiotic factors:
(i) Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the amount of water present in the air at a
given temperature in proportion to its maximum water holding capacity. Relative
humidity and temperature are the most important factors determining the longevity
of seeds during storage. Seed attain specific and characteristic moisture content
when subjected to given levels of atmospheric humidity. This characteristic
moisture content is called equilibrium moisture content. Equilibrium moisture
content for a particular seed at a given relative humidity tends to increase as
temperature decreases. Thus the maintenance of seed moisture content during
storage is a function of relative humidity and to a lesser extent of temperature. At
equilibrium moisture content there is no net gain or loss in seed moisture content.
(ii) Interaction between moisture and temperature: The temperature also plays an
important role in life of seed. Insects and moulds increase as temperature increases.
The higher the moisture content of the seeds, the more they are adversely affected
by temperature. Decreasing temperature and seed moisture is an effective means of
maintaining seed quality in storage.
(iii) Gas during storage: Increase in oxygen pressure decreases the period of viability,
whereas N2 and CO2 atmosphere helps in increasing the storage life of seeds.

SEED DORMANCY
A physical or physiological condition of viable seed, which prevents germination even in
the presence of favorable conditions.
Cause of seed dormancy:
(a) Seed coat impermeable to water i.e.water does not entered into seed coat: The seeds
of some plants especially those belonging to the families of Fabaceae, Malvaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceaea and Solanaceae have very hard seed coats
whichare impermeable to water. The seeds remain dormant in the soil until the
impermeable layer of testas decayed by the action of soil micro-organisms.
(b) Seed coat impermeable to oxygen (O 2 is not entering through seed coat): These
seeds do not germinate because oxygen cannot enter inside the seed to facilitate
respiration. Non availability of oxygen and increased concentration of CO 2 in the
seed interior retards the respiration and hence germination. In many plants like
cocklebur (Xanthium), apple, many grasses and some members of the compositae
family dormancy is due to impermeability of seed coat to oxygen.
(c) Mechanically resistant seed coat: The seed coats of certain weeds like pigweed
(Amaranthus), shepherds purse (Capsella), water plantain (Alisma) provide
mechanical resistance to expansion and growth of embryo.
(d) Immaturity of embryo: In some plants like orchids, Ginkgo biloba, Anemone
nemorosa, Fraxinus excelsior etc. the dormancy is due to immaturity of embryo. In
this case the embryos of the seeds are not fully developed when the seeds are shed.
The seeds of these plants can germinate after a period of rest during which the
development of embryo is completed.
(e) Seeds needing after ripening: The seeds of barley, oat, wheat etc. though contain
fully developed embryo, but they do not germinate immediately after harvesting.
There is no requirement of any special treatments to overcome this dormancy. These
seeds can only germinate if kept under dry storage condition at normal temperatures
for about a few weeks to several months. During this period probably due to certain
physiological changes in the embryo, the seeds develop the capacity to germinate
which is called as after ripening.
(f) Presence of germination Inhibitors in seeds i.e. presence of inhibitors or release of
inhibitors: Sometimes dormancy is caused due to the presence of some germination
inhibitors in different parts of seed like tests, endosperm, and embryo or in structures
surrounding them like juice or pulp of fruits like tomato and glumes like oats.
(g) Chilling or low temperature requirement: In certain plants such as apple, rose, peach
etc., the seeds remain dormant harvest in autumn because they have a low
temperature or chilling requirement for germination. The chilling requirement is met
under natural conditions in winter season.
(h) Light sensitive seeds: The seeds of some plants like lettuce (Lactuca sativa), tobacco
(Nicotiana tobaccum), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and Shepherd’s purse
(Capsella bursa pastoris) require exposure to light to initiate germination. The light
sensitive seeds are called photoblastic seeds.
(i) Seeds requiring high CO2 concentration: The seeds of subterranean clover
(Trifolium subterraneum) is known to germinate under higher concentration of CO 2,
but remains dormant under ambient CO2 concentration.
(j) High osmotic concentration: The seeds of the Artiplex sp. are known to have higher
osmotic concentration, which prevents their germination. The seeds germinate only
when the solutes are washed away by rainfall.
Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy
Various methods have been used by seed scientist and technologists to break the
dormancy of seed.Simple and widely used methods are

(a) Scarification:
Any treatment that weakness the seed coat is known as scarification.Scarification method
is applied, when dormancy is imposed by hard seen coat as in legumes or by
impermeability of seed coats to water and oxygen or due to presence of growth inhibitors
or mechanical resistance.
In this method there are various ways to break hard seed coat such as:
(i) Seeds are either rubbed on a sand paper manually. At the time of rubbing care
should be taken that not to damage the axis of the seed e.g. Green gram and
subabool.
(ii) When seed coat is too hard i.e. of woody nature, the seed coat has to be removing
completely by breaking it. E.g. Rubber (Havea app) seed India teak wood seed.
(iii) Soaking hard seed coat in concentrated or diluted solution of sulphuric acid for 1
to 60 minutes can remove seed coat impermeability. e. g. cotton seeds, India teak
wood seeds etc.

(b) Temperature Treatments:

(i) The seeds requiring exposure to chilling temperature for germination can be made
to germinate by artificially providing low temperature(5-10oC) in a moist medium
for a few weeks. The dormancy of the seeds of apple, peach, plum, cherry and
apricot can be broken through this method. The agricultural practices involving
the placing of seeds in alternate layers of soil, sand or other suitable materials and
keeping them in low temperature is called stratification.
(ii) Some seeds required a brief period of incubation (from a few hours to one to five
days) at 40 to 50oC before germinating at required temperature. (in this method
care should be taken that moisture content of the seed is not more than 15% e.g.
paddy (Oryza sativa).
(iii) Hot water treatment is also an effective method of breaking hard seed coat in
legumes. In this method the seeds are soaked in water at 80 oC temperature for 1-5
minutes (depending up on the type of seed) before putting for germination.

(c) Light Treatments:

Exposure to red light helps in breaking the dormancy of the photoblastic seeds
like lettuce (Lactuca sativa).

(d) Treatments with growth regulators and other chemicals:

Endogenous dormancy may be due to presence of germination inhibitors.
Application of low level of growth regulators like Gibberellins, Cytokinins and Ethylene
etc may break the seed dormancy.Most widely used growth regulators are gibberellins
and kinetics e.g. presoaking the seeds of sorghum with 100 ppm GA3helps breaking seed
dormancy. Among other chemicals potassium nitrate (0.2%) and thiourea (0.5 to 3%) are
widely used for breaking seed dormancy in oat (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum
vulgare), and tomato (Lycopersicon spp).

SEED GERMINATION
ISTA (1985) defined germination as emergence and development from the seed
embryo of those essential structures which, for the kind of seed in question, indicates its
ability to produce a normal plant under favourable conditions.

Types of seed germination:

1. Epigeal germination: Cotyledons emerges above the soil surface by elongation of
hypocotylse.g. castor, tamarind, cucumber, cotton, gourd etc.
2. Hypogeal germination: (Hypo: bellow, ge: earth) In some seeds such as gram, pea,
mango, litchi, broad-bean, groundnut etc. the cotyledons are seen to remain in the soil
or just on its surface. Here the cotyledon do not emerge above the soil, epicotyl grow
first.
3. Viviparous germination: Many mangrove plants (plants growing in salt lakes and sea
coasts) show a special type of germination of their seeds known as vivipary.The
germinates inside the fruit while still attached to the parent tree and nourished by it.
The radicle elongates, swells in the lower part and gets stouter. Ultimately the
seedling separates from the parent plant due to its increasing weight, and falling
vertically becomes embedded in the soft mud bellow. The radicle presses into the
soil, and quickly lateral roots are formed for proper anchorage e.g. Rhizophora sp.,
Heritiera sp., Sonneratia sp. In this type of germination, the generation from
development of embryo to young seedling is continuous, without any period of rest.

Physiology of seed germination:

1. Imbibition:
2. Hydration and activation:
3. Cell division and cell expansion:
4. Establishment of primary seedling:

Phase I: Imbibition
Imbibition is a precondition for the metabolic process that ultimately lead to
completion of the germination process. However, imbibition is a purely physical process
which occurs whether the seed is dormant or non-dormant (except physical dormancy),
viable or non-viable (Bewley and Black 1994, Mayer and Poljakoff-Mayber, 1982).
Hence, dormant or dead seed may imbibe normally without leading to germination.
Physically dormant seed will not imbibe unless their seed-coat has been made permeable
by pretreatment or natural processes. Even where viable seeds have imbibed, germination
may be impeded or delayed by the presence of other types of dormancy or by absence of
appropriate germination temperature. Seeds in soil seed banks are often fully imbibed
unless physically dormant.

Phase II: Hydration and activation

The water uptake is very low during the lag phase which follows the imbibition.
During this phase metabolic activity commences and the seed mobilizes stored food
reserves such as protein and starch and metabolic enzymes become active. When the
seeds absorb water the organelles and macro-molecules present in the seeds are hydrated.
Due to hydrolysis of different organelles both aerobic and anaerobic process are
initiated. The anabolic process includes synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins,lipids,nucleic
acid etc.The enzyme required for catabolic and anabolic process may either be
synthesized or released from zymozen state(enzyme precursor).Aperticular enzyme is
responsible for a particular biochemical process.The most conspicuous change during
hydration is rise in the rate of respiration. The respiration pathways operating in the seeds
are glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway and citric acid cycle.The rate of respiration
increases during the initiation of germination.During this period the rate of absorption of
oxygen also increases. Initially there may be aerobic respiration but it is soon replaced
byaerobic one due to availability of oxygen. Mobilization of reserve food material occurs
during this phase by the activity of hydrolytic enzymes like amylase, protease, lipase,
nuclease etc. Carbohydrates are hydrolyzed into simple sugars like glucose and sucrose.
Proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids.Lipids are hydrolyzed into fatty acids. Nucleic
acids are hydrolyzed into nucleotides and nitrogenous bases. However new DNA and
RNAs are synthesized from the existing nitrogen bases by the help of the enzymes like
DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase. Growth regulators like Auxin, gibberellins and
cytokinins present in conjugated states are released during hydration process. Due to the
activity of growth regulating substances the germination process is initiated.

Phase III: Cell elongation and mitosis

Cell division is facilitated by growth hormone cytokinin. The cell in the
embryonic axis which are in the meristematic state start dividing when they are hydrated
and properly conditioned through hydration of organelles, macromolecules and other
component leading to various catabolic and anabolic activities. The meristematic tissue
when divides prepare food materials or metabolites for completion of cell growth. These
food materials are provided from stored food material in the cotyledon, endosperm and
perisperm. Initially all the cells in the embryonic axis starts dividing but in the later stage
they are differentiated. Cells stop mitotic division.The cells which are in the meristematic
stage divide and redivide.The cell division is immediately followed by cell
expansion.The cell expansion process is augmented by cell vacoulation. The cell
expansion and vacoulation process is accelerated by the activity of phytohormone, Indole
acetic acid. When the cells are expanded the radicle and the plumule come out of the seed
coat by bursting the seed coat. No mechanical hindrance is created in coming out of the
radicle and plumule. In case of dicots, the whole cotyledon comes out from the seed coat.
The process of cell division and cell expansion ultimately results in the growth of young
seedling. Following the lag phase seeds enter into a phase of cell elongation and mitosis
resulting initially in protrusion of the radicle, later by the appearance of epicotyl,
hypocotyls and cotyledons. Physiologically, seed germination is considered completed on
protrusion of the radicle. In seed testing, germination is considered concluded only once a
seed-ling has developed; in the hydrogen peroxide test germinant are evaluated after
protrusion of the radicle, but this is considered a viability test, not a germination test.
Phase IV: Establishment of the primary seedling
During the process of imbibition the seeds swell and some space is created in soil
for accommodation of embroyonic root,the radicle.The plumule(in case of monocots) and
cotyledons (in case of dicots) come out of the soil and grow towards the sunlight.The
seedling in the initial stage is told to be in the hypertrophic stage because its initial
growth and development depends upon the food materials stored in the
cotyledons,endosperm and perisperm.However when the chlorophyll is synthesized either
in the cotyledons or in the young leaves,the young plant starts photosynthesizing.Through
the process of photosynthesis the young seedling manufactures food material for its
growth.The radicle to a full root and absorbs water and minerals from the soil.The
seedling enters into the autotrophic phase of growth. Germination is the beginning of
growth of a seed. The seed must have the right level of warmth and moisture to begin to
germinate. First, the seed leaves absorb moisture which allows the food reserves to
become available to the new plant. It can then produce a root so that it can find its own
water, followed by a shoot which develops from the plumule, which will allow it to
absorb light. The plant needs both water and light to grow.

Factors influencing germination:

(i) Moisture: For germination of a seed, protoplasm must be saturated with water. In
air dried seeds, the water content is usually 10-15%. No vital activity is possible
at this low water content. Water is thus necessary to bring about the vital activity
of the dormant embryo; to dissolve the various salts and to hydrolyse many
organic substances stored in cotyledons or in the endosperm; to facilitate
necessary chemical changes and to help the embryo to come out easily by
softening the seed coat.
(ii) Temperature: A suitable temperature is necessary for germination of a seed.
Protoplasm functions normally within a certain range of temperature. Within
limits which vary accordingly to the nature of the seed, the higher the temperature
the more rapid is the germination.
(iii) Air: Oxygen is necessary for respiration of a germinating seed. By this process
a considerable amount of energy stored in the food material is liberated and made
use of by the protoplasm. Respiration in the germinating seed is very vigorous as
the active protoplasm requires a constant supply of oxygen, and hence the seed
sown deeply in the soil shows very little or no sign of germination.
(iv)Light: Light is not essential for germination. Generally seeds germinate better in
dark. However, some seeds like that of lettuce do not germinate in dark and light
is indispensable for their germination.

SEED TESTING
Seed testing is carried out to evaluate the planting value of seed. Different
techniques are used to assess genetic purity, germination, viability, storability and field
emergence of seed. In recent times, new seed technology applications are finding
increasing use to deliver a complete value-added package to farmers. Seed testing
technologies are mentioned below.

Seed sampling
Seed lot is a specific physically identifiable quantity of seed in respect of which a
seed test certificate can be issued. Samples are obtained from the seed lot by taking small
portions at random from different positions of the lot and combining them. From this
composite sample, small samples are obtained in one or more stages. At each stage,
thorough mixing is followed by progressive subdivision. Besides hand sampling,
sampling can also be done with the help of samplers or trier, available for this purpose.
The samples may be of the following kinds.
Primary Sample: it is a small portion taken from one point from the seed lot.
Composite sample: It is formed by combining and mixing all primary samples taken
from the lot
Submitted sample: It is the sample submitted to seed testing laboratory. The size of the
submitted sample is specified in Seed Testing Rules.
Working sample: It is a sample taken from submitted sample in the laboratory, on which
one of the quality tests is made.
The sampling intensity depends upon the lot size-based on which the number of primary
samples is prescribed. Sampling is carried out only by qualified, trained and experienced
persons.

Physical purity analysis

The physical purity analysis of a seed sample refers to the determination of the
different components of the physical purity viz., pure seed, other crop seeds,
weed seeds and the inert matter by weight of sample on percent basis. All species of the
seeds and each kind of inert matter are identified. Weight of the working sample for
purity analysis depends on the crop or seed size and, for example, is 700g for French
bean, 7g for tomato etc.
Seed germination testing
Germination testing is considered as the most important quality test in evaluating
the planting value of a seed lot. Germination test is made on pure seed fraction of a
physical purity test. Tests are made under controlled conditions of temperature and
relative humidity. Examination of seedlings and also hard, fresh or dead seeds is done
after a prescribed period. General requirements of seed germination are a suitable
substratum, adequate moisture, and favourable temperature and light. Crop wise media or
substrata, temperature and duration of testing have been prescribed.

Germination testing is done as follows:

Paper: Seeds may be tested for germination by placing them on (i) top of paper. (ii),
between paper, and (iii) in pleated strips of paper. This is generally used for small and
medium-sized seeds.
Sand: It is used as a substratum and seeds are tested for germination by placing them on
the top of sand or in sand. This is generally used for large sized seeds.
Soil: Germination can be tested using soil also but it is, generally difficult to obtain
consistent results in soil or artificial compost. For this reason, soil is not recommended as
a primary substratum. However, this substratum is used to confirm the evaluation made
by other methods or in doubtful cases.
The methods of germination testing should be based on Rules and Guidelines laid down
by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA).
Rapid methods of testing seed viability
It is often needed to ascertain viability of seeds in a short time. The following
methods are generally used for this purpose.

Topographical tetrazolium test:

In this test, the living cells of the viable seed turn red by reacting with tetrazolium
solution. The indicator dye used is Tetrazolium salt (2, 3, 5 triphenyl tetrazolium
chloride). The method of tetrazolium test (TZ) was developed by the German scientist
Lakon 1942. By the hydrogenation of 2, 3, 5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, a red, stable

and non-diffusible substance, triphenyl formazan is produced in living tissue or cells. The
live parts of viable seeds are stained red, when incubated in the solution of this chemical,
whereas dead ones are colourless. The colourless seed tissues become coloured due to
reduction of tetrazolium by dehydrogenase enzyme activity in the living tissue of the
seed.Besides completely stained viable seed, unstained non-viable seeds and partially
stained seeds are also obtained. Varying proportions of necrotic tissues found in different
zones of partially stained seeds. The position and the size of necrotic areas is then
determined whether such seeds are viable or non-viable. For these reasons, the test is
designated as the Topographical Tetrazolium Test.

Advantages of TZ-Test:
1. Through this test, the viability of the seed can be quickly and easily be
estimated (within 12-20 hours)
2. For the dormant and slow germinating seeds, this test is highly useful to assess their
viability, because these seeds will take longer time to produce results under germination
3. The chemical does not damage the seeds. Hence, they can also be used for germination
purpose after the test is over.

Disadvantages
1. In this test, it is difficult to distinguish between normal and abnormal
2. It is also not possible to distinguish between dormant and non-dormant seeds, since
the test does not involve the germination of seeds
3. Microorganisms affecting the germination are not detected in this test.

Embryo-excision method: In this method the embryos are excised from the soaked seeds
and are incubated under normal conditions of light and moisture, generally at a constant
temperature of 20°C for up to 14 days. Germinating embryos, those with one or more
cotyledons showing growth or greening, and embryos remaining firm and slightly
enlarged, are generally considered viable.
Ferric chloride test for mechanical damage
Mechanical injured areas of most of the legume seeds turn black when placed in a
solution of ferric chloride. This practical method can be used for rapid assessment of
mechanical damage.

Seed vigor testing

Seed vigor is the sum total of those properties of the seed which determine the
level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling
emergence. Seed lots with similar germination may give varying results with regard to
field emergence, seedling performance and field stand. Several tests, commonly known
as vigour tests are capable of reliably predicting field-stand potential of the seeds. A
vigorous seed lot is likely to succeed under a wide variety of field conditions.
Nevertheless, a vigour test is nor a test for field emergence and field response per se. It
may be direct test, viz. brick gravel test (The Hiltner Test), paper piercing test,
conductivity test, accelerated aging test, the cold test for com etc. It may be indirect test

also, comprising measurements of seedling growth rate, dry weight of seedlings, speed of
germination etc.
An accelerated ageing test was developed in early seventies. In this test, seeds are
held at a high relative humidity (usually near 100%), with the result that their moisture
content increase, and at 40o-45o C for varying lengths of time depending on the type of
seed. This period of rapid ageing is followed by it germination lest. This test was initially
developed as test of seed storage potential and is subsequently used as a vigour test as
well.

Seed health tests

Seeds are the carriers of different microorganisms. Several micro-organisms like
fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes are carried through seeds. For example, loose smut
of barley and wheat are predominantly seed-borne. Detection and management of seed-
borne pathogens is therefore an important aspect of seed technology.
Seed health tests may be done through (i) visual examination of dry seed, (ii) washing
tests, (iii) seed soak method, (iv) examination after incubation using blotter, sand or
compost or agar plate method, (v) examination of growing plants, (vi) other crop and
disease-specific techniques, (vii) bioassay test, and (viii) other advanced tests including
those using modem molecular techniques.
For a particular crop-specific disease, specific tests are available. For example, for
Karnal bunt of wheat, the following specific test could be feasibly used.
Sodium hydroxide seed soak method Karnal bunt of wheat. Seeds, preferably 2000 in two
replicates of 1000 each are soaked in a 0.2% sodium hydroxide solution (2 g NaOH/1,000
ml water) for 24 hr at 20o-30o C. Next day, the solution is decanted and seeds are spread
over ablotting paper and examined visually. The portion of the seed infected with Karnal
bunt (c.o. Neovossia indica fungus) infected exhibits a jet black shiny appearance
contrasting to pale-yellow healthy portions of the seed. The Karnal bunt infection is then
reported in percentage by number.The seed-soak method is also used to detect bunt of
rice.
Moisture tests
Seed moisture tests are very important tests for determination of seed quality. The
recommended method of moisture determination is based on oven drying, either for 1-4
hours at 130oC or for 17 hours at 103±2oC (the latter is for seeds having high volatile oils
in large proportion). However, there are alternative procedures, both destructive and non-
destructive, which may also be used. These are (i) drying without heat, (ii) lyophilisation
(freeze drying), (iii) reversibility method; and (iv) Karl Fisher titration method after
extracting water from the fine ground seed with methyl alcohol and determining the
moisture content by titration, air-oven method. The most commonly used moisture meter
for seed moisture tests in India is Universal-OSAW moisture meter.

Varietal purity tests

These can be carried out by (i) grow out test and verifying the presence of
distinguishing morphological and other characters. (ii) by using biochemical and
molecular markers, which are quite prevalent presently, or (iii) DNA finger printing, if
available and feasible.

Grow out test: The monitoring of genetic purity and freedom from seed-borne infection
of seed lots is very important which can be done by post season control-plot testing or
grow-out tests. In this test the plants are grown from the seeds to observe the varietal
purity and seed borne infections. The crop is monitored throughout the growing period,
and the off-type plants if any are tagged and counted at maturity to assess genetic purity.
Grow-out test helps in the elimination of the sub-standard seed lots.
Recently different methods of varietal purity tests like electrophoresis and PCR-
based technologies have been developed and standardized for different crops, but these
are very costly tools.
Routine Test:
In a seed testing laboratory, germination test, purity test, test for other seeds and
moisture test are known as Routine Test. Where the analysis for diseased seeds and other
variety seeds is also desired on routine basis (as in case of certified seed samples for
issuance of seed certification tags) these tests should also be included in the routine test.

Real value of seed:

The real value of the seed is the percentage of seed sample that would produce
seedlings of variety under certification. It is also known as the utility percentage of the
seeds and is a function of the purity and germination percent of the seed sample. The real
value of a seed lot is determined by the following formula.
 Real value of seed (%) =Purity (%) x Germination (%)
100

When two or more seed lots are compared, both their purity and germination should be taken
into account. This can be easily done by determining the real value of seed lots.
SEED TREATMENT
Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or both to the
seeds to disinfect and disinfest them from seed borne or soil borne pathogenic organisms
and storage insects. It also refers to subjecting the seed to solar energy exposure or
immersion in conditional water. Seed treatment is also involving seed priming.

Benefits of seed treatment:

(i) Prevention of spread of plant diseases both systemic and non-systemic. Seed
treatments is effective in controlling systemic diseases like smut of wheat,
Helminthosporium blight of barley, loose and covered smuts of oats etc. Non
systemic diseases that infect seed during harvest or storage period such as Fusarium
with blight of barley oats, rice, sorghum etc. can be effectively controlled by
appropriate seed treatment.
(ii) Seed treatment protects seed from seed rot and seedling blights. The protective
coating around the seed, acts as a barrier against seed borne and soil borne organisms.
(iii) Seed treatment improves the germination through the control of surface moulds and
flora, which are not pathogenic but may infect the seed during moist harvesting and
storage condition. In the germination test thus may kill or cover the seed before it has
germinated.
(iv) Provides protection from storage insects and pests

Types of seed treatment

(a) Seed disinfection: It refers to eradication of fungal spores present within the seed coat
or more deep-seated tissues. For effective control the fungicide must penetrate into
the seed to kill the fungus.
(b) Seed disinfestations: It refers to the destruction of surface borne organisms that
contaminated the seed surface but not infected the seed. Chemical dips, soaks,
fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquids have been found successful.
(c) Seed protection: To protect the seed and young seedling from organisms in the soil,
which might otherwise cause decay of the seed before germination.

Conditions under which seed must be treated:

(i) Injured seeds: Seeds suffer mechanical injury during threshing, drying or processing.
Any break in the seed coat offers an excellent opportunity for the fungi to enter the
seed and either kill it or weaken it.
(ii) Diseased seeds: Seed may be infected by disease organisms at the time of harvest or
during processing in storage.
(iii) Undesirable soil conditions: Seeds are sometimes planted under unfavourable soil
conditions such as cold and damp soils, which favours the growthand development
of certain spores enabling them to attack and damage the seeds.
(iv) Disease free seed: Seed treatment provides a good insurable against diseases, soil
borne organisms and thus protects weak seeds enabling them to germinate and
provide seedlings.
 GERMINATION SEED ENHANCEMENT

SEED PRIMING

 Seeds are fundamental to agricultural production, however, they are particularly vulnerable
to stresses encountered between sowing and seedling establishment.
 Germination, emergence and early seedling growth are the most critical periods for a crop
to establish a good stand. Losses in plant density during this period results in huge losses in
crop production. Seeds with more rapid germination are expected to achieve a high final
germination %.
 Seed germination is a highly dynamic stage of the plant’s life cycle, with many genetic and
metabolic processes undergoing transition from a developmental/storage mode to a
germinative/mobilization mode.
 High and rapid germination and emergence determine good stand establishment which
ensures early growth of seedlings and production of higher yields.
 Over the years, efforts have been made to improve seed germination and seedling
emergence under various stress conditions eg. salinity, drought, etc by employing
physiological treatments also known as seed enhancements.
 Seed enhancements are beneficial “value-added” techniques performed on the seed of a
given seed lot, after harvest but prior to sowing.
 These prost-harvest treatments that improve growth or facilitate delivery of seeds and other
materials required at the time of sowing are:
 Pre-sowing hydration treatments (priming)
 Coating technologies
 Seed conditioning
 The purpose of these treatments is to shorten the time between planting and emergence to
protect seeds from biotic and abiotic factors during the critical phase of seedling
establishment.
 This results in synchronized emergence which leads to uniform stand and increased yields.
Understanding the water status of seeds:

 It is necessary to understand the water relations with respect to seed storage and
germination.
 Terminologies:
 Water Potential (Ψ): Water potential is determined by the relative humidity of air at a
particular temperature. (Ref: Equation)
 Water activity: Refers to the availability of water in a material such as seeds.
 Moisture content (MC): Refers to the amount of water in seeds.
 Relative Humidity (RH): indicates how moist the air is. Defn: it is the ratio of water
vapour to the saturation water vapour density expressed as a percent.
RH = Actual vapor density / saturation vapor density X 100

 With time, the MC of seeds comes into equilibrium with the RH of air. The relationship
between seed moisture content and relative humidity at a particular temperature reveals a
negative sigmoidal curve and is known as the moisture isotherm. An example of a moisture
 isotherm for beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) reveals a typical negative sigmoidal curve with 3
distinct zones:
Zone I: occurs at low humidity (<20% RH)

Zone II: occurs at the range of 25 – 65% RH

Zone III: occurs at higher humidity > 70% RH

The hydration status of seeds:

 Imbibition and germination:

Water uptake in seeds is the first step towards germination. Water is essential to change
the status of seed development form quiescence to active growth.

Water uptake of seeds is characterized by 3 phases:

 Phase I: Imbibition Stage: Assuming there is no dormancy mechanisms present

(ie. impermeable seed coats), water movement into seed is rapid and this results
into a large increase in seed moisture content.
 Phase II: The Lag Phase of water uptake. This phase occurs before the onset of
visible germination (radical emergence).
 Phase III: Hydration Phase: During this phase, there is a large increase in water
uptake. This stage is associated with visible germination that marks the transition
from seed to seedling.
NB: Lag phase is the initial growth phase during which cell number remains relatively
constant prior to rapid growth.

 Dessication tolerance:
 The seed’s ability to withstand dessication (=drying-up) after hydration is related to the
hydration phase. Seeds are dessication-tolerant during phases I and II and become
dessication-intolerant upon entering phase III.

 Therefore, seed treatments that involve a short soaking period, partial hydration, or
hydration-arrest before the completion of visible germination may be re-dried without
injury.

 Hence seeds that have once been hydrated may be safely stored.

 Also, such seeds may be sown using a planter without adverse effects on germinability.
Seed priming:

This is a broad term in seed technology used to describe methods of physiological enhancement of
seed performance through pre-sowing controlled hydration methodologies.

Pre-sowing hydration treatments which regulate water availability to the seed and enhance seed
germination include:

1. Hydropriming
2. Osmopriming: seeds are soaked in aerated low water potential solution
3. Solid matrix priming: seeds imbibe in an inert medium held at a known matrix
potential
4. Seed hardening (also referred to as wetting and drying or hydration-dehydration)
5. Hormonal priming
6. Bioprimiming

1. Hydropriming (also known as steeping)

It involves the imbibitions of water for a short period of time.

Hydropriming is also used to infiltrate water soluble crop protection chemicals to
control seedborne diseases. These treatments usually immerse or percolate seeds
at up to 30oC for several hours followed by drying to near the original seed
moisture content.

Hydropriming or steeping has been employed as an agricultural practice over many centuries.
Overnight seed steeping without drying (‘chitting’) is still advocated in many parts of the world as
a low cost and low risk on-farm priming method for improved seedling establishment of many
crops.

Steeping can also be designed to remove water-soluble germination inhibitors from the seed coats
of crops such as parsley, celery and sugar beets.

Advantages:
It has the advantage of generating minimal waste materials compared to osmopriming and matrix
priming since water imbibitions occurs for a short time.

Disadvantages:

Seeds are sometimes not evenly hydrated which decreases the potential for uniform germination.
Commercial application: Drum priming techniques depend on slow imbibitions through
hydropriming.

2. Osmopriming:

Seed is placed in contact with aerated solutions of low water potential and are then rinsed off upon
completion of the priming step.
How this happens:

Various inorganic salts – KNO3, KCl, Ca(NO3)2 – have been used as osmotica, but their small
molecular size permits uptake and potential seed damage. High molecular weight polyethylene-
glycol (PEG 6,000 to 8,000) is a preferred osmoticum since its large molecular size prevents seed
uptake. Continuous aeration is important in any osmopriming system.

For small quantities of seeds, they are either placed on the surface of blotter paper
moistened with osmopriming solutions, or immersed in aerated columns of
solution.

A new variation – membrane priming – uses a rotating tube with an

outer jacket, where the seed is separated from the osmoticum by a selectively
permeable membrane.

3. Solid matrix priming:

Solid, or dry matrix priming: Seeds are mixed with water and insoluble matrix particles – such as
vermiculite, diatomaceous earth, clay beads –in predetermined proportions.

Seeds in matrix priming slowly imbibe water, reaching an equilibrium hydration level determined
by the reduced matrix water potential adsorbed on the particle surfaces.

After equilibrium is achieved, the moist matrix material is removed by screening, or can be
partially incorporated into the seed coating.

Solid particulate systems can be used to increase seed moisture in a wide range of
species and seed sizes, and are generally compatible with the addition of biological controls.
Matrix priming mimics the natural process of water uptake by seeds from soil particles or
components of greenhouse soilless mixes eg. vermiculite.

Matric potentials in this type of priming generally range from -0.4 to -1.5 MPa at 15-20ºC for 1 to
14 days.

This technique has been successfully used in the priming of species including carrot, celery,
fescue, lettuce, onion, pepper, tomato, purple coneflower, common bean, soybean, and sweet corn.

4. Seed hardening:

Drying following priming can be accomplished using forced air, ambient conditions, or controlled
atmospheres of specific relative humidity.

Drying methods and rates of drying are important to subsequent seed performance. Slow drying at
moderate temperatures is generally preferred.

Controlled seed moisture loss after priming can extend longevity by 10% or more in studies with
hydroprimed tomato seed lots.
 5. Hormonal priming:
Germination can be enhanced through use of plant growth regulators or hormones, especially
gibberellins and ethylene.

Seedling dwarfing: Seed treatments or priming with growth retardants such as paclobutrazol – a
GA inhibitor – can effectively dwarf the growth of bedding plant transplants, producing stocky,
high-quality seedlings.

Treated seedlings are also greener, more uniform with thicker stems and have a higher root:shoot
ratio compared to controls.

6. Biopriming:
Biopriming techniques involve the addition of beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms in the
priming process, either as a method for efficient delivery to the crop or to control pathogen
proliferation during priming itself.

Matrix priming, osmopriming, and hydropriming methods have all been employed to increase
beneficial microbial populations on the seed.

Compatibility of these microbes with chemical seed treatments, inoculants, and other additives can
vary.
Microbial formulations, quality control, delivery systems and costs of registration have slowed
commercial use of biopriming to date.

Biological control organisms continue to present, however, a unique approach for alternative
control of soil pathogens and managing soil borne diseases.

Advantages of seed priming:

Priming (pre-soaking) has been shown to:

 Increase germination rate, germination uniformity and total germination percentage

 Improve seedling establishment
 Stimulate vegetative growth and hence crop yield of some crops grown under
saline conditions eg tomato, barley and cotton
o Increased germination rate and uniformity are attributed to the following:
 Metabolic repair during imbibitions
 A buildup of germination enhancing metabolites
 Osmotic adjustment
 Reduction in lag time of imbibitions (for seeds that are not re-dried after
treatment)

On-farm seed priming:

Is a simple, low-cost, low-risk technology that hastens germination and seedling emergence and
promotes vigorous early growth so that resources such as soil moisture, nitrogen, etc. are captured
and utilised.
For maize, seed priming simply involves soaking seeds in water 'overnight', although optimum
duration is around 16 hours, then drying maize seeds for 1-2 hours before sowing them in the
normal fashion.

Maize grown from primed seeds generally emerges earlier and in greater numbers, grows more
vigorously, flowers and matures earlier and often yields better than that from non-primed seeds.

Benefits due to priming extend beyond immediate yield increases in some circumstances. For
instance, in western India where maize is often followed by another crop, earlier harvest of maize
as a consequence of seed priming can facilitate earlier sowing, and hence higher yield, of the
second crop.

Seed Certification in Kenya

 Seed certification in Kenya is governed by various laws and regulations to ensure the
supply of high-quality seeds to farmers. The legal framework for seed certification is
primarily guided by CAP 326 of the Laws of Kenya, also known as the Seeds and Plant
Varieties Act, and the regulatory role of the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service
(KEPHIS).
 Seed certification ensures that seeds sold in Kenya meet specific standards of quality,
genetic purity, and health, contributing to improved agricultural productivity.

Overview of CAP 326: The Seeds and Plant Varieties Act

 CAP 326 is the main legal instrument regulating the seed sector in Kenya. It was enacted
to:
o Regulate the production, certification, and sale of seeds and plant varieties.
o Protect breeders’ rights by providing legal frameworks for the registration of plant
varieties.
o Promote the use of certified seeds to increase agricultural productivity.
Key Provisions of CAP 326:
 Seed Certification: Ensures that seeds marketed in Kenya meet specific quality standards,
including genetic purity, physical purity, and health status.
 Seed Testing: Specifies testing methods to ensure seed quality. Laboratories, including
those run by KEPHIS, test seeds for germination rates, physical purity, and diseases.
 Seed Importation and Exportation: CAP 326 outlines the procedures for the importation
and exportation of seeds, ensuring that imported seeds meet Kenyan standards and that
Kenyan seeds meet international standards.
 Breeder’s Rights: CAP 326 includes provisions for the protection of breeders' rights,
giving plant breeders the exclusive right to produce, reproduce, and commercialize new
varieties.

Role of KEPHIS in Seed Certification

 KEPHIS (Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service) is the main regulatory body
responsible for overseeing the seed certification process in Kenya. Established in 1996
under the Agriculture Act, KEPHIS plays a pivotal role in ensuring the quality, safety, and
availability of certified seeds in Kenya.
 KEPHIS Mission: To assure the quality of agricultural inputs and produce, especially
 seeds, through regulatory services.
Functions of KEPHIS:
 Seed Certification: KEPHIS is responsible for conducting seed certification and ensuring
compliance with CAP 326.
o KEPHIS conducts field inspections, seed sampling, and testing to verify seed
quality.
 Seed Testing: The KEPHIS-run laboratories test seeds for:
 Germination rate
 Physical purity
 Moisture content
 Health status (free from pests and diseases)
 Variety Testing and Release: KEPHIS conducts tests to ensure that new varieties meet the
required standards before they are released to the market.
 Enforcement of Seed Laws: KEPHIS enforces seed laws by monitoring seed companies
and traders to ensure that only certified seeds are sold in the market. It has the authority to
fine or penalize those found selling substandard or counterfeit seeds.
 Accreditation of Seed Producers: KEPHIS accredits seed producers and monitors their
compliance with set regulations.

Seed Certification Process

 Application: Seed companies must apply to KEPHIS for certification, providing details of
the seed variety, source, and production area.
 Field Inspection: KEPHIS conducts field inspections during different stages of the crop's
growth to ensure proper isolation, rogueing of off-types, and maintenance of crop purity.
 Seed Sampling and Testing: After harvest, KEPHIS collects samples from the seed lots
and subjects them to testing for physical purity, germination, and health.
 Labelling: Certified seed is packaged with a KEPHIS label that includes vital information
such as variety name, lot number, and germination percentage.
 Monitoring and Compliance: KEPHIS monitors the movement, storage, and sales of
certified seeds to ensure continuous compliance with standards.

National Seed Certification Standards in Kenya

Seed certification standards in Kenya are set and enforced by KEPHIS to guarantee that seeds
meet quality benchmarks. These standards include:
a) Genetic Purity
Seeds must conform to the genetic makeup of the declared variety. KEPHIS conducts field
inspections to verify the genetic identity of the crop and monitor cross-contamination risks.
b) Physical Purity
Seed lots must be free from contaminants such as weed seeds, inert matter (stones, soil),
and seeds from other crops.
c) Seed Health
Seeds must be free from diseases and pests. KEPHIS tests seeds for the presence of
pathogens and pests that could reduce crop yields.
d) Moisture Content
Seeds must be stored with low moisture content to prevent fungal growth and maintain
viability during storage.
e) Germination Rate
Seeds must have a high germination percentage, as tested by KEPHIS, to ensure successful
crop establishment.
 International Seed Certification Schemes
Kenya’s seed certification also aligns with international standards to facilitate trade and
promote seed exports. KEPHIS works closely with international bodies to ensure Kenya’s
seed certification processes meet global benchmarks.
a) OECD Seed Schemes
Kenya is a participant in the OECD Seed Schemes, which establish rules for the
certification of seeds moving in international trade. This facilitates Kenya’s access to
global markets.
b ISTA (International Seed Testing Association)
KEPHIS laboratories are accredited by ISTA, ensuring that seed tests conducted in Kenya
are internationally recognized.
c) UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants)
Kenya is a member of UPOV, which provides a legal framework for the protection of new
plant varieties. This encourages innovation in plant breeding and ensures that new, high-
performing varieties can be certified and protected.

Role of Regulatory Bodies in Seed Certification in Kenya

a) KEPHIS (Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service)
KEPHIS is the primary regulatory body responsible for overseeing seed certification, seed
law enforcement, and seed quality control in Kenya.
It accredits seed producers, conducts field inspections, tests seeds, and enforces CAP 326.
b) KEBS (Kenya Bureau of Standards)
KEBS sets standards for packaging and labelling of seeds to ensure they are compliant
with market standards.
c) National Biosafety Authority (NBA)
NBA regulates genetically modified seeds in Kenya, ensuring their safe use and
compliance with biosafety standards.

Challenges in Seed Certification

 Counterfeit Seeds: The presence of fake seeds in the market continues to be a major
challenge. KEPHIS works to curb this through rigorous monitoring and enforcement.
 Climate Variability: Changing weather patterns impact seed production and the ability to
meet certification standards.
 Farmer Awareness: Many small-scale farmers lack awareness of the benefits of using
certified seeds, leading to low adoption rates.