Computer Fundamentals: History & Evolution of Computers

1. History of Computers
● First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum tubes were used for circuitry and magnetic drums
for memory. Examples include ENIAC and UNIVAC.
● Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, leading to
smaller, faster, and more reliable computers. Examples include IBM 1401.
● Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs) replaced transistors, further
reducing size and cost. Examples include IBM System/360.
● Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors were introduced, leading to
personal computers. Examples include IBM PC and Apple Macintosh.
● Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Focus on artificial intelligence and quantum
computing.

2. Characteristics of Computers:
● Speed: Computers can process data at incredible speeds.
● Accuracy: High precision in calculations and data processing.
● Automation: Ability to perform tasks automatically without human intervention.
● Storage: Large amounts of data can be stored and retrieved easily.
● Versatility: Can perform a wide variety of tasks.
● Diligence: Consistent performance without fatigue.

3. Types of Computers:
● Microcomputers: Personal computers for individual use (e.g., desktops, laptops).
● Minicomputers: Mid-sized computers for small to medium-sized businesses.
● Mainframe Computers: Powerful systems used by large organizations for bulk data
processing.
● Supercomputers: Extremely fast computers used for complex scientific calculations.

System Logical Organization: Von Neumann Concept of Computer

The Von Neumann architecture is a model that describes a computer's structure, consisting of:
● Central Processing Unit (CPU): Executes instructions and processes data.
● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
● Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor and coordinates the activities of
all components.
● Main Memory: Stores data and instructions for the CPU.
● Input Devices: Allow users to enter data (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
● Output Devices: Display results (e.g., monitor, printer).

Block Diagram of Von Neumann Architecture

Components of Computer and Their Functions

1. Input Devices:
● Function: Accept data from the outside world and convert it into a format that the
computer can process.
 Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone.
2. Output Devices:
● Function: Display or output the results of the computer's processing in a human-readable
form.
Examples: Monitor, printer, speakers.
3. Storage Devices:
● Function: Store data and programs for long-term use.
Examples: Hard drives, SSDs, USB flash drives.
4. Processor (CPU):
● Function: Executes instructions and processes data.
● Components
● ALU: Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
● CU: Manages the execution of instructions and coordinates the activities of the
computer.
5. Main Memory:
● Function: Temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs while executing
programs.

Architecture of Processor and Main Memory

● Processor Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU that hold data
temporarily during processing.
● Main Memory Organization: Divided into addressable units (bytes), where each unit has
a unique address.
● Main Memory Capacity: Refers to the total amount of data that can be stored in the main
memory, typically measured in bytes (KB, MB, GB).

Types of Memory
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for temporary storage while a
computer is running.
2. ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that contains permanent data and
instructions.
3. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be programmed once after manufacturing.
4. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be erased and reprogrammed
using UV light.
5. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be erased and
reprogrammed electrically.
6. Cache Memory: A small-sized type of volatile memory that provides high-speed data access
to the CPU, storing frequently accessed data and instructions.

Computer Software
1. Types of Software:
● System Software: Manages hardware and provides a platform for application software
(e.g., operating systems).
 ● Application Software: Designed to perform specific tasks for users (e.g., word
processors, spreadsheets).
2. Translators:
● Compiler: Translates high-level programming code into machine code before execution.
● Interpreter: Translates high-level code into machine code line-by-line during execution.
● Linker: Combines multiple object files into a single executable program.
● Loader: Loads the executable program into memory for execution.
● Editor: A tool for writing and editing source code.

Computer Languages
1. Machine Level:
● Description: The lowest level of programming language, consisting of binary code.
● Merits: Fast execution, direct hardware control.
● Demerits: Difficult to program and understand.

2. Assembly Level:
● Description: A low-level language that uses symbolic representations of machine code.
● Merits: Easier to understand than machine code, allows for hardware control.
● Demerits: Still complex and not portable across different hardware.

3. High Level:
● Description: Programming languages that are closer to human languages (e.g., Python,
Java).
● Merits: Easier to write, read, and maintain; portable across different systems.
● Demerits: Slower execution compared to low-level languages.

Planning a Computer Program

1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.

2. Flowchart: A visual representation of the sequence of steps in an algorithm, using symbols to
denote different types of actions.
3. Pseudo Code: A high-level description of an algorithm that uses the structure of programming
languages but is written in plain language.