GBSSS, New Seemapuri

Delhi

Study Material
For

INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
(SUB. CODE - 802)

Part-B – SUBJECT
SPECIFIC SKILLS
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (SUB. CODE - 802)
Part-B – SUBJECT SPECIFIC SKILLS

Unit -1: Computer Organization

Chapter 1: Understand and appreciate fundamentals of Computer
and its characteristics
Chapter 2: Understand the components of computer
Chapter 3: Understand Operating System
Chapter 4: Troubleshooting in computer system
Chapter 5: Understand the Importance of Utilities

UNIT 2: NETWORKING AND INTERNET

Chapter 1: Understand Computer Networking
Chapter 2: To understand Internet and its terminology
Chapter 3: Understand cybercrime and the need of CyberSecurity

UNIT 3: OFFICE AUTOMATION TOOLS

Chapter 1: Word processor
Chapter 2: Spreadsheets
Chapter 3: PowerPoint

UNIT 4: RDBMS
Chapter 1: Understand Relational Database Management System
Chapter 2: Introduction to MYSQL
Chapter 3: DML
Chapter 4: Commands

UNIT 5: FUNDAMENTALS TO JAVA PROGRAMMING

Chapter 1: Understand Integrated Development Environment
(NETBEANS)
Chapter 2: JAVA Programming
Unit -1: Computer Organization

Chapter 1: Understand and appreciate fundamentals of

Computer and its characteristics

1.1Introduction to Fundamentals of Computer and its use

The word “computer” is derived from “compute,” which means to calculate.

User input is received by the computer, which then processes it and
displays output. It is a machine that follows a set of rules. It receives input
from the user, processes it in accordance with the given instructions, and
then outputs the result.

Using electronic signals, computers are electronic devices. The signals

for on and off stand for 1 and 0, respectively. The two digits 0 and 1 are
the basis for binary language, also known as machine language. Before,
only binary language was used by computer specialists to communicate
and train students. Many user-friendly programming languages, including
C, C++, Java, JavaScript, Python, and many others, have been created.
Translators are required to translate commands delivered in high-level
languages into binary language

1.2Characteristics of computer

Speed – The computer’s remarkable speed with which they can process
data and commands is one of their most impressive features. The typical
high-speed computer has a 3–4 mips (million instructions per second)
processing speed

Versatility – Computers can do multiple tasks at once. For example, you

can multitask while downloading movies, playing music, and creating
Word documents.

Accuracy – The machine not only completes a variety of tasks quickly but
also precisely and accurately. Be aware that any faults in a computer’s
output result from incorrect data entry or improperly supplied computation
instructions rather than from the machine itself. This behaviour is often
referred to as GIGO in computer terminology (Garbage In Garbage Out).
Diligence – A computer is free from tiredness. It can operate for several
hours without making any mistakes. A computer will complete every
calculation with the same accuracy even if millions of calculations need to
be made.

Memory – The main memory of the computer is volatile, meaning that it

gets erased when the computer is turned off. As a result, another type of
memory that does not degrade when a computer is turned off is supplied.
Floppy discs, pen drives, and portable hard discs are all examples of
secondary memory.

Storage – A computer can hold a vast amount of data and information for
later retrieval. A computer’s memory is unlimited and does not degrade
over time like a human’s does.

Intelligence – Although early computers had impressive features, one

major flaw was that they were just dumb devices that were programmed
to carry out certain tasks. We now have machines that can play chess
against the greatest players and drive a car without a human driver thanks
to the development of artificial intelligence technology.

1.3Components of computer

The computer is a combination of hardware and software. Hardware is the

physical components of a computer like a motherboard, memory devices,
monitor, keyboard etc. while the software is the set of programs or
instructions. Both hardware and software together make the computer
system function

Hardware Components of Computer

1) Input Devices
A piece of equipment/hardware that helps us enter data into a
computer is called an input device. Sometimes they are also used
to control computers. Some Input Devices are:
a. Keyboard
b. Mouse
c. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)
d. OCR (Optical Character Reader)
e. OMR (Optical Mark Reorganization)
f. Joystick
2) Output Devices
A piece of equipment/hardware that gives out the result of the
entered input, once it is processed (i.e. converts data from machine
language to a human-understandable language), is called an output
device. Some Output Devices are:
a. Monitors/VDU (Visual Display Unit)
b. Printer
c. Plotter (large printer used for printing large posters, and
advertisements)
d. Speakers

3) CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is the central component of the Computer System. Sometimes
it is called as microprocessor or processor. It is the brain of the
computer. All functions and processes that is done on a computer is
performed directly or indirectly by the processor.

Parts of CPU

a. CU (Control Unit)
Coordination between a computer’s various units is the
responsibility of the control unit. It controls the transfer of data,
input/output functions and coordinates all internal working of
the hardware. It functions as an manager.
 b. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The actual processing of data is done by the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU). It is the part of the computer processor (CPU) can
be used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. An
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) is further divided into two parts,
(AU) arithmetic unit and a (LU) logic unit.

4) Storage

There are basically two types of computer storage devices:

a. Primary Memory
Primary storage/memory, also known as main memory, is the
part of the computer that stores current data, programs, and
instructions. The CPU has direct access to information kept in
primary memory. When compared to secondary storage, this
storage is both more expensive and comparatively quick.

Primary memory is of two types:

i. RAM (Random Access Memory)

It is a primary volatile memory i.e. its data gets lost once
the power supply is stopped. RAM is of two types :
- DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 ii. ROM (Read Only Memory)
It is generally used in the startup operations of
computers. It is a non-volatile primary memory. Further,
it may be classified as :
- ROM (Read Only Memory)
- PROM (Programmable read-only memory)
- EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only
memory)
- EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable read-only memory)

-
b. Secondary Storage
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used
to store data and programs that can be accessed even after
the computer is turned off. Secondary memory is non-volatile
and can store data and programs for long time. Hard Disks,
CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, Memory Card etc, are
examples of secondary storage.
 5. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but

faster than the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more
quickly than the primary memory. It reduces the average access
time to data from the main memory and is comparatively expensive.

IPO Cycle ( Input – Process – Output Cycle)

Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle

(IPO cycle). It needs certain input, processes that input and produces the
desired output. The input unit takes the input, the central processing unit
does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output. The
memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.
Block diagram of a computer

Self-Assessment Exercises:

1. Define the following:

a. Computer
b. Input Device
c. Output Device
d. Processor

2. Expand the following:

a. ALU
b. CPU
c. CU
d. RAM
e. EEPROM
f. ROM
 g. DRAM
h. SDRAM

3. Answer the following

a. Explain the block diagram of the computer.
b. Describe the function of ALU and CU in short.
c. Differentiate between RAM and ROM.
d. Differentiate between input and output devices.
e. Explain the importance of Cache memory.
Chapter 2: Understand the components of computer

2.1 Identify various components of the computer

Inside the computer

There are various types of computers in the market these days,

Desktop personal computer– popularly known as PC, laptop (also
called notebook) – a small computer that can easily put on your lap,
tablet – a light computer of the size of a handbook, often used for
working on the Internet.
Various Components of Computer

1) Motherboard:
This is the main circuit board that holds together various
components like CPU, memory, connectors for the hard drive and
optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and audio, and
connections in the form of various ports (such as USB ports). It
provides a connection to every component of the computer.

2) Input–Output Devices

Input devices: devices that take input from the user. The input may
be in the form of text, image, sound, video etc. A wide range of input
devices have been devised for supporting varying types of input.
Following are examples of some of the input devices of the
computer:

a. Keyboard: this is a standard input device and takes data in

the form of text.
b. Mouse: it is a pointing input device.
c. Webcam: it takes data in the form of video/image
d. Scanner: it generally stores data in the form of
graphics/images.
e. Microphone: it is used for voice input/ audio input
 Output Devices: devices that are used to give output to the user.
Output may be in the form of visuals, text, audio, printout etc.
different types of output devices are there to support various types
of output. Following are some examples of output devices:

a. Monitor/ VDU ( Visual Display Unit) : it is the standard output

device and is similar to a television screen.
b. Speaker: it is an output device that gives output in the form of
audio/ voice.
c. Printer: It is also a very commonly known output device that
gives output in the form of print out also called as hard copy.
d. Plotter: It is a large printer-like devices that is used to take
print of large maps, and architectural designs.

e. Projector: It is an output device that gives an enlarged view

of the output on a large screen. It is generally used for giving
a view of the output to a large audience.

3) CPU: The motherboard houses the main processor or the CPU

(Central Processing Unit). CPU executes the user instructions and
coordinates amongst all other units of the computer. Thus, it is
primarily responsible for the performance of the machine.
Processors may be classified based on their speed, technology
(dual-core, quad-core, octa-core), and their manufacturers (Intel
and AMD to name just two).
 Speed of processors is usually measured in megahertz (MHz)
– millions of instructions per second; and gigahertz (GHz) –
billions of instructions per second, is indicative of its power.

4) Power Supply Unit: This component of the computer is the one that
converts the alternate current power supply being received by
homes or offices to the low voltage direct current required by the
machine.

5) Random Access Memory (RAM): This memory storage plays an

important role in the functioning of a computer system. Every time
you start up the computer, the operating system is loaded in the
RAM. The program that needs to be executed at any point of time
also needs to be brought in the RAM. These days the PCs have
 around 8-32 GB RAM. The more the RAM, the more will be the
space for the programs leading to faster execution. Of course,
everything in computers is subject to some limits.

6) Hard Disk (HD): All the data stored in c drive of a computer is

basically stored in Hard Disk.. It is a magnetic secondary storage
device for storing the data and is fixed in the box of a computer. The
program which is to be executed is first stored in the hard disk from
where it is transferred to RAM. On completion of work, the program
is again saved on the hard disk. These days external and portable
hard disks are also available in the market for large storage of data.

7) Pen drive/Flash drives : it is a small pen-like storage device of and

can be accessed by directly inserting in the USB(Universal Serial
Bus) Port. It is very popular these days because of its small size and
easy accessibility.

8) Optical Storage devices: Compact Disc (CD) and Digital Video

Disc(DVD) are examples of optical storage devices. The capacity of
a DVD is higher than that of a CD. Data in a Cd/DVD may be
accessed by inserting the disc in a Disc Drive.
2.2 Various memory units of storage

Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Explain the storage devices of a computer.

2. Describe the secondary and primary storage devices of a computer
3. Write a short note on Optical storage devices
4. Explain the role of the Power Supply Unit.
5. Explain various units to measure the storage capacity of a device.
Give the smallest unit.
6. Do the following conversions:
a. 2 GB = ___________KB
b. 2 MB = _ _________Bytes
Chapter 3: Understand Operating System
3.2 Introduction to Operating System and its Need

Operating system is software that acts as an interface between computer

hardware and users. An operating system is a piece of software that
manages files, manages memory, manages processes, handles input and
output, and controls peripheral devices like disk drives and printers,
among other things. Popular operating systems include, for example,
Windows, Linux, Unix, MS-DOS, SOLARIS, MAC OS.

Every computer system whether it is an independent system like a

desktop or a cell phone must have an operating system for performing the
core functionalities like accepting input from various input devices,
directing the output to the display, managing the files and directories,
communicating with hardware, and installing /uninstalling of peripheral
devices
.
3.3 Functions of the operating system

1) Communication Manager: OS Manages the communication needs

of the system, be it communicating with the peripheral devices or
the internet. The operating system uses special programs called
drivers to communicate with peripheral devices like printers,
cameras etc.

2) Resource Management: OS manages the resources like the

memory of the computer, the CPU time, files, secondary storage,
input/output devices, etc. The operating system handles the
allocation of all such resources, the priority in which these are
allotted to the various processes.

3) Process Management: A process is a program currently executing

in the memory or waiting for the CPU. In a computer, there are
multiple processes in the system. The OS manages, controls, and
schedules all the processes being executed on the computer. It
decides which process gets the processor and for how long.

4) Memory Management: For a process to be executed, it has to be

loaded in the working memory that is the RAM (Random Access
Memory). The memory management component of an operating
system allocates memory to the processes in a dynamic manner
that is allocated on demand and released when not needed.

5) File Management: The operating system takes care of all the files
and folders maintained on the computer disk. The basic tasks that a
user needs to perform on files are the creation, renaming, deletion,
copying, or moving of a file or folder.
File System - Details of files in a computer are stored and
traced using a file system called FAT. FAT is used by the operating
system to keep track of files on the hard disk. Various FAT systems
are named based on the number of bits used to store the data of
FAT. For example, FAT 16 uses 16 bits to store data, and FAT 32
uses 32 bits. Another system is NTFS (New Technology File
System).
3.2 Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be classified in different ways; depending on

various parameters.

1) Single-tasking and multi-tasking

Single Task Operating System: such operating systems allow
execution of only a single program at any given instant.
Multi-Tasking operating systems: can execute more than one
program simultaneously. The processor time, in this case, is divided
among various processes.

2) Single-user and Multi-user

Single-user operating systems allow only one user to use the
system. The desktop systems can be classified as typical single-
user systems
Multi-user operating systems allow many users to access the
system by maintaining an account of all the registered users.

3) Real-Time Operating System

Operating systems that ensure that the response time is fixed are
categorized as real-time operating systems. They are intended for
applications where data needs to be processed quickly, without any
significant delays. For example, an anti-aircraft missile system must
fire as soon as it receives a signal from the enemy aircraft.

4) Batch Processing Systems

In a batch processing system, similar jobs are clubbed together and
submitted as a block to the processor for execution. User
intervention is minimal in such systems. The jobs are picked up one
by one and executed.
Self-Assessment Exercises

Fill in the blanks

1. The unit used to measure the performance of a computer is
......................
2. Two main types of File systems are ..................... and
......................
3. ________________ is the software that acts as an interface
between the user and the hardware.

Short Answer Questions

1. List the various functions of an operating system.
2. Compare batch processing systems and multiprogramming
systems.
3. What is FAT? Give an example.
Chapter 4: Troubleshooting in computer system

4.1 Introduction to common troubleshooting/ problems

There could be many reasons/ causes for a problem on a computer. It

is sometimes difficult to judge if it is a hardware-related or software-
related problem. Troubleshooting is generally a trial-and-error process,
requiring persistence and patience. Starting with the simplest possible
cause, we use the process of elimination to diagnose the problem. One
needs to figure out the cause of the problem, i.e., identify the part of
the computer system that is not functioning well.

Always take a backup of your important files to another source, like a

pen drive or an external hard disk. In case the problem is not solved,
this ensures that a copy of your data is available.

4.2 Common troubleshooting steps

When you switch on the system, the power supply detects the CPU
and the peripherals (the other connected devices). The system boots,
and if all peripheral devices have been successfully detected, most
systems will produce a beep.

If any connected device (such as monitor, keyboard, mouse, and

printer) does not switch on, try the following:
1) Close running programs that are not being currently used.
2) Check the Cables: Check the cable of the specific computer
hardware which is not working. Ensure that all connections are tight,
correctly plugged in, and the Power button of these devices is ON.
For wireless devices, make sure it is turned on and the batteries are
charged.
3) For example, a laptop’s battery may not be charged. Plug the AC
adapter into the electric socket, wait a few minutes, and then try to
turn on the laptop.
4) Repeat the Steps to See if the Problem Recurs: Repeat the
sequence of steps that you performed before the problem occurred.
Observe if it causes the same response from your computer.
5) Use Help: Access the Help window by pressing the F1 key. This
window helps to find a solution to the problem.
 6) Record Error Messages: Record the full error message for future
reference.
7) Restart the Computer: Restart the peripheral device. If the device
still does not switch on, shut down the computer and start it again.

4.3 Troubleshooting hardware problems

The monitor is not Showing any Display/ The Screen is Blank

1) The System is in Sleep Mode: The computer may be in Sleep mode.

Click the mouse or press any key on the keyboard to wake it up.
2) Check All Connections: For a desktop, ensure a proper connection
of a cable connecting the monitor and a computer cabinet. Check
that the power cables of the monitor and cabinet are plugged into
the electric socket and the power is turned on.
3) Laptop’s Battery is Low: The laptop’s battery could be very low,
causing the laptop to switch off. Connect the charging cable to the
laptop and plug it into the electric socket. The laptop will start
charging, and in a few minutes, the laptop can be switched on.

Keyboard Troubleshooting

1) Check Connections: Check the connection of the keyboard to the

computer. If it is not connected, or the connection is loose, connect
it properly to the computer.
2) Check for any Damage: Inspect the keyboard cord for any damage.
If any damage is found, the keyboard may need to be repaired or
replaced.
3) Change Batteries: For a wireless keyboard, the batteries may have
discharged. You may need to change the batteries.
4) Keys are stuck: If one of the keys on your keyboard is stuck, you
need to clean the keyboard.
5) You will have to first turn off the computer. As the keyboard is stuck,
you may need to use a mouse if required. Remove dust with the help
of a brush, and wipe the keyboard clean with a damp cloth (water
should not be dripping from the cloth).
Mouse Troubleshooting

1) Check Connections: Make sure that the mouse is securely plugged

into the computer.
2) Check for any Damage: Inspect the mouse cord for any damage. If
the damage is noticed, the mouse may need to be replaced.
3) Check the Cordless Mouse: For a cordless mouse that is not
working, switch off, and then switch on the cordless mouse. This
should re-establish a connection with the system.
4) Clean the Mouse: Try cleaning the mouse with a damp cloth. Clean
the area around the button located on the underside of the mouse.

Troubleshooting Printer Problems

1) Printer is not responding ( Not Printing) : The Printer is Not

Connected Properly or Not Switched On: Ensure that the printer
cables are connected properly. If the printer is not switched on,
switch it on.
2) The Printer is Out Of Paper: If the printer does not have paper, put
paper in the paper tray and try printing again.
3) The Printer Paper Jam (Paper is caught in the Printer): Open the
printer and remove the paper caught in the printer. Close the printer
and try printing again.
4) The Ink Cartridge of Printer is Empty: Most printers give a warning
message when the ink levels are low (insufficient for printing).
Change the ink cartridge and try again.
5) Incorrect Printer Driver: The printer driver may be incorrect. You
would need to install a new printer driver. The latest driver can be
downloaded from the manufacturer’s website. Some printers, when
connected to the internet, give a message when driver updates are
available.
6) The Printer and Computer are not Communicating Properly: This
problem is more common when a wireless connection is being used
to connect a PC/ laptop to a printer. Check that the IP address
configured on your computer matches the Dynamic IP address
allocated to the printer (If the printer is connected through WI-FI (a
wireless network) the configured IP Address could be different from
the one stored on your PC).
7) Print Jobs are Being Sent to the Wrong Printer
 When there are multiple printers on a network, a possible problem
could be that a print job is being sent to a wrong printer. This is
because your system has set the default printer as Printer A, but you
had wanted the print job to go to Printer B. You could either change
the default printer to Printer B or choose Printer B for the current job.
8) Printer is Slow
The printing speed can be improved by reducing the printing quality
and using Fast Draft/ Fast Printing. This works well for everyday
printing. Change the default printer quality setting from Normal to
Fast Draft.

Sound Troubleshooting
When you are not getting sound from the speakers, troubleshoot
using the suggestions given below:
1) Check Speaker Volume
2) Check the volume level of the speakers
3) Check Audio Player Controls
Many audios and video players have their own separate audio
controls. Ensure that the sound is turned on and that the volume is
set large enough to be heard.
4) Check the Cables
In case external speakers are used, ensure that the speakers are
plugged into the electric socket, turned on, and connected to the
correct audio port or a USB port on your system. If your computer
has color-coded ports, the audio output port will usually be green.
5) Check the Sound Using Headphones
Connect headphones to the audio output port of your computer, and
check whether you can hear sound from the headphones. If you can,
that means there is something wrong with your speakers. Contact a
Service Engineer.

4.4 Troubleshooting software problems

1) Common Troubleshooting Technique - Close the Program and

Reopen it. A simple troubleshooting technique would be to close the
application/program and reopen it. If the problem persists, try other
troubleshooting techniques.

2) An application is Running Slow - Check for Available Updates. If

restarting the application does not improve the speed of the
application, check for updates.
 3) An application is Frozen - Sometimes an application may freeze.
When this happens, you will not be able to close the window or click
any button within the application. The following troubleshooting
options may be tried:
a) Forcefully End the Application - On a PC / Laptop keyboard,
press (and hold) Ctrl+Alt+Delete (the Control, Alt, and Delete
keys). This will open the Windows Task Manager. Open the
Applications tab on this screen. You will see a list of applications.
The applications should have the status as Running. An
application that is not responding would have the status as Not
Responding. Select the application which is not responding from
the list and click the End Task button. This forcefully terminates
the application. Now restart the application.
b) Restart the Computer - If you are unable to forcefully end an
application, close all running programs and restart the computer.
c) If you are unable to shutdown/ restart your system, perform a
hard reboot by pressing the Power button, i.e. manually turn off
the computer.

4.5 Troubleshooting networking problems

1) Unable to Connect to the Network

a. Checking for Network Connectivity

Method 1: To check the internet connection, view the Network
icon (triangular). This is on the Task Bar (bottom right of the
screen).
Method 2: An alternate method to check for network
connectivity is to click Start button > Control Panel > Network
and Sharing Centre. The red cross between the USER-PC
and Internet shows that the computer is not connected to the
Internet.

b. Restart router or access point

If you are still unable to connect to the internet, check the
router if its On or not. Try to restart it.

c. Check for the Validity of IP Address

In the Run box type CMD and press Enter .
 The COMMAND PROMPT (an MS-DOS window) will open.
Type IPCONFIG and press Enter. The results should show the
Connection-specific DNS Suffix, IP Address, etc., information
will only show if your system is connected to the internet, else,
it will show Media State: Media disconnected.

d. Check the Network Fly Lead (Network Cable)

A non-operational network fly lead could also cause failure in
the internet connection. Ensure that the fly lead is plugged
securely into the network point on the wall/router. Check
whether the cable or point has been damaged. If so, seek
assistance from a network administrator.
Your fly lead could be faulty or damaged. To check if your fly
lead is faulty, borrow a working fly lead from someone and
repeat the previous steps with the borrowed fly lead.

e. The network card is not working

A working network card is essential to connect to the Internet.
The network card lights must be flashing or lit up. If there are
no lights, either the network card is broken, or there is no
network to connect to. A broken network card needs repair or
replacement.

Exercises
1) List some common troubleshooting steps that you should keep in
mind.
2) What steps would you take if the monitor is not showing any display,
or the screen is blank?
3) What would you do when your keyboard or mouse is not responding/
working properly?
4) What troubleshooting step will you take when the printer is not
responding?
5) What could be the reasons for the print jobs being sent to the wrong
printer?
6) What checks would you undertake when the speaker is not working?
7) What are the troubleshooting steps taken when an application
freezes?
8) What could be the possible cause for all the applications to be
running slow?
9) How can we check the network connectivity of your system?
10) Explain how you would check the validity of the IP address.
Chapter 5: Understand the Importance of Utilities

Utilities are the special programs that help computer systems to work
more smoothly, efficiently, and effectively. Utility software programs help
in :

– improving the performance of computer

– provide security from virus,
– manage disk space
– free disk space on hard Disk – provide backup etc.

5.1 Disk Space Management

On your system, there should be enough free hard drive space. The
lack of available free space inhibits the computer’s operation.
Open the Windows Explorer application and select My Computer to
see the available disc space. This will display the various hard disc
partitions, including C and D.

5.2 Disk Cleanup

Disk Cleanup is a Microsoft software utility first introduced
with Windows 98. It allows users to remove files that are no longer
needed or that can be safely deleted. Removing unnecessary files,
including temporary files, helps speed up and improve the performance
of the hard drive and computer.

Microsoft Disk Cleanup can be opened by following these steps.

Method 1: Open the Start menu. In the search box type “Disk Cleanup”
and open it.

Method 2: Open Run Box. In the Run box, type cleanmgr and
press Enter.

5.3 Managing Recycle Bin

The Recycle Bin is an area where deleted files or folders are
temporarily saved. Users can retrieve files that have been deleted in
Windows by using the Recycle Bin.

To empty the Recycle Bin, right-click the Recycle Bin icon and select
Empty Recycle Bin from the drop-down menu.
5.4 Disk defragmentation

Defragmentation, also known as defragging or defrag, is the process

of rearranging the data on a storage medium, such as a hard disk drive
(HDD), for efficient storage and access. Defragmenting a hard drive
can improve a computer's or laptop's performance and speed.

Ways to open Defrag in windows:

Method 1: Go to the search bar on the Start menu and type defrag. On
the Defragment and Optimize Drives option, select the drive that needs
to be defragmented and click on Optimize.

Method 2: Open Run box and type “dfrgui”.

5.5 Removing unused programs

Delete unnecessary files and programmes on a regular basis. Your
disk’s free space will rise as a result, improving computer performance.
Images and movies occupy a large amount of storage. You can transfer
these to an external drive.

Exercises

1) How can one free disk space on the computer?

2) How do we remove temporary files?
3) Why is disk defragmentation required? How can we achieve disk
defragmentation?
4) What steps do we take to remove unused shortcuts and program
services?
Unit -2: NETWORKING AND INTERNET

Chapter 1: Understand Computer Networking

1.1Introduction

Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other

through wires, wireless or optical fibres so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network. The aim of the computer
network is the sharing of resources among various devices.

ARPANET – 1969

- First network came into existence known as ARPANET

(Advanced Research Project Agency Network), to connect
computers at U.S. defense and different universities.
- The first message was communicated between the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute
(SRI).

NSFNET – 1980

- In 1980 the U.S. National Science Foundation created NSFNET

(National Science Foundation Network) a high-capacity network
to be used strictly for academic and engineering research.

INTERNET - 1990

- The internetworking of ARPANET, NSFnet and other private

networks called Internet.
- Internet is the network of networks.
1.2 Need and benefits of networking

The main benefits of networks include:

a) File sharing - you can easily share data and files between different
users, or access it from anywhere.

b) Resource sharing - using network-connected peripheral devices

like printers, scanners, storage or sharing software between multiple
users, saves money.

c) Sharing a single internet connection - it is cost-efficient and can

help protect your systems if you properly secure the network.

d) Increasing storage capacity - you can access files and

multimedia, such as images and music, which you store remotely
on other machines or network-attached storage devices.

1.3 Components of a network

Electronic equipment that exchanges data or messages with one

another, such as computers, printers, fax machines, and
telephones, are referred to as nodes or stations. The following are
the components of a Computer Network.

a) Sender
A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of
sending data over a network. It can be a computer, mobile phone,
smartwatch, walkie-talkie, video recording device, etc.

b) Receiver
A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of
receiving data from the network. It can be any computer, printer,
laptop, mobile phone, television, etc.

c) Message
It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the
sender and the receiver. Messages can be in the form of text,
numbers, images, audio, video, multimedia, etc.
 d) Communication media/Channel
It is the path through which the message travels between source
and destination. It is also called medium or link which is either wired
or wireless. For example, a television cable, telephone cable,
ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc.

1.4 Transmission Medium

The channel of transmission through which data can be sent as a signal

from one node to another is referred to as a transmission medium.

There are two types of transmission medium –

1. Guided Medium / Wired

2. Unguided Medium / Wireless

Guided Transmission Media/ Channel

In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable

through which data in terms of signals are propagated between the
nodes. These are usually metallic cable, fiber-optic cable, etc.
They are also known as wired media.

Below are the different types of Guided Transmission Media.

a. Twisted Pair
b. Coaxial Cable
c. Optical Fiber
Unguided Transmission Media/channel

In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of

electromagnetic waves using an antenna. They are also known as
wireless media.

Below are the different types of Unguided Transmission Media.

a. Radio Wave – used in TV, Radio, Wi-FI, Bluetooth
b. Microwave – used in Satelites, D2H
c. Infrared Waves – used in Device Remote

1.5 Networking Devices

1) RJ45 connector
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-
pin connector that is used with Ethernet
cables for networking. It is a standard
networking interface that is used with
Twisted Pair Cable. Basically, it is a
small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45
jacks of the Ethernet cards.
2) Modem

Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’. It is used for

conversion between analog signals and digital signals. It allows to
connect and communicate with other computers or the Internet via
telephone lines.
Modem comes in two varieties
a. Internal modem
b. External modem

3) Repeater

Over distance, the cable connecting a network lose the signal

transmitted. A Repeater amplifies (boosts) a signal being
transmitted on the network. It is used in long network lines.
Repeaters can be installed along the way to ensure the data packets
reach their destinations.
4) Hub

An Ethernet hub is used to connect different devices through wires.

Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The
limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices at the same time,
they will collide. Hubs usually can support 8,12,24 RJ-45 ports.

5) Switch

A network switch is used to connect multiple computers or

communicating devices. When data arrives, the switch extracts the
destination address from the data packet and looks it up in a table
to see where to send the packet. It sends signals to only selected
devices instead of sending to all. Switches are used in offices to
connect multiple devices to access the Internet.
6) Bridge

A bridge is a multiport device used for connecting two or more local

area networks (LAN), possibly operating at different speeds as
shown in Figure 2.5. Thus, a bridge may be used to produce bigger
LAN by combining smaller LANs. A bridge enables devices on one
LAN segment to communicate with the devices on another LAN
segment. Unlike hubs, they are intelligent devices which exercise
discretion while forwarding data to the outgoing line leading to the
destination

7) Gateway

Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network. All data
coming in or going out of a network must first pass through the
gateway. At home, the Gateway is the ISP that connects the user
to the Internet. Generally, a router is configured to work as a
gateway device in computer networks. A gateway can be
implemented completely in software, hardware, or a combination of
both.
 8) Routers

A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyze it

and transmit it to other networks. A router connects a local area
network to the internet. A router can be wired or wireless. These
days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a
modem/ switch.

1.6 Network Topology

Network topology refers to the positioning of nodes in a network,

often known as their layout. or the arrangement of nodes in a network
is called network topology.
1) Bus Topology
In a bus topology, several nodes are connected by a lengthy cable
known as the backbone cable (or just the backbone) using a
connector known as the tap. This topology requires less cabling and
is easy to install and extend the network laid using it. However, fault
detection and isolation is difficult.

2) Star Topology

All of the devices in a star topology are connected to the hub, which
serves as the central controller. Any two devices can communicate
with each other through the hub that relays messages. Installation
and configuration of the star network are simple.
3) Ring Topology

In a ring topology, all devices are connected by a cable that forms

a ring. The intended recipient of the message is reached by way of
a one-way transmission of the intended message. The problem of
network is it take longer time to send a message from one node to
another node.

4) Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every node in the network is linked to every

other node. The topology offers secure data transfer without any
traffic issues because every conceivable pair of nodes has a
dedicated point-to-point connection.
1.7Types of Networking

On the basis of geographical span, network can be broadly

categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN, and WAN.

1) Personal area network – An individual’s workspace can be

connected to a computer network called a personal area network
(PAN) . for example, connection between PCs and smartphone, PCs
and tables, PCs and printer etc.
2) Local area network – Local Area networks are private networks and
can span a radius of up to 1 Km. They are generally established within
a building or campus. LANs operate at a speed in the range 10 Mbps
to 1 Gbps.

3) Metropolitan Area Network – These networks, which have a radius

of up to 50 km, are used to create connections within cities. Resources
can be shared more easily because to MANs, which link different local
area networks. a city-based cable television network, as an example.
4) Wide Area Network – A WAN typically covers a distance of roughly
1000 km. They are useful for linking isolated places and for long-
distance communication. They create connections inside a nation or
continent. A WAN may be owned and operated by a number of
different companies. It links numerous metropolitan and local area
networks.

1.8 Identification of computers and users over a network

1) MAC Address
MAC address is the physical address, which uniquely identifies each
device on a given network. To make communication between two
networked devices, we need two addresses: IP address and MAC
address. It is assigned to the NIC (Network Interface card) of each
device that can be connected to the internet.

It stands for Media Access Control, and also known as Physical

address, hardware address, or BIA (Burned In Address).

It is globally unique; it means two devices cannot have the same

MAC address. It is represented in a hexadecimal format on each
device, such as 00:0a:95:9d:67:16.
2) IP Address

Every machine in a network has another unique identifying number,

called its IP Address. An IP address is a group of four bytes (or 32
bits) each of which can be a number from 0 to 255. A typical IP
address looks like this: 59.177.134.72

Ip address has two versions. Ipv4 and IPv6

Example of IPV6 : 2001:db8:3333:4444:5555:6666:7777:8888

( 8 Groups of 4 characters)

3) Domain Name

The domain name is unique name of a Website. The actual address

of a website is a numerical IP address. It is difficult for humans to
remember strings of numbers. Because of this, domain names were
developed and used to identify websites on the Internet.

Generic Domain Names:

·com - commercial business
·edu - Educational institutions
·gov - Government agencies
·mil - Military
·net - Network organizations
·org - Organizations (nonprofit)

Country Specific Domain Names:

.in - India
 ·au - Australia
·ca - Canada
.ch - China
.nz - New Zealand
.jp - Japan
.us - United States of America

4) Domain Name Resolution

The process of turning a domain name into an IP address is known

as domain name resolution. Since one IP address can correlate to
many domain names and one domain name to one IP address,
multiple domain names can simultaneously be resolved to the same
IP address.
Chapter 2: To understand the Internet and its terminology

2.1 Introduction and Use of the Internet

Internet is a global communication system that links together

thousands of individual networks. It allows exchange of information
between two or more computers on a network. Thus internet helps in
transfer of messages through mail, chat, video & audio conference, etc.
It has become mandatory for day-to-day activities: bills payment, online
shopping and surfing, tutoring, working, communicating with peers, etc.

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

1) Online Business (E Commerce)
2) Cashless Transaction ( Payment and Money Transfer)
3) Education
4) Social Networking
5) Entertainment

2.2 Digital Literacy

The capacity to use reading, writing, technological expertise, and
critical thinking to navigate our digital world is known as digital literacy.
It involves using technology to find, assess, and transmit information,
including devices like a smartphone, PC, e-reader, and more.

2.3 Terminology (Channels, Bandwidth, ISP)

1) Channels
2) Bandwidth
Bandwidth, or network bandwidth, is the maximum data transfer rate
of a network or Internet connection. It determines how much
information can be sent over a particular connection in a certain
amount of time. The higher bandwidth of a network, the larger
amount of data it can send to and from across its path.

3) ISP
The term “internet service provider (ISP)” refers to a company that
provides access to the internet to both personal and business
customers. ISPs make it possible for their customers to access the
web, shop online, conduct business, and connect with family and
friends—all for a fee.

ISPs may also provide other services, including email services,

domain registration, web hosting, and browser packages.
 Jio, Airtel, MTNL, VI are few Internet Service Provider in India.

2.4 Data Transfer Rate (bps, Kbps, KBps, Mbps, MBPS, Gbps,
GBPS)
The data transfer rate is the amount of data that is transferred from
one device to another over a channel within a certain time frame. For
this reason, it is often also referred to as data rate, transmission
speed or connection speed.

The smallest unit of measurement in data transmission is the bit, so

the speed is specified in bits per second (bit/s).

Overview of data transfer rates in the unit bits per second:

1 bps ⇒ 1 bit per second

1 Kbps (corresponds to 1,000 bit/s) ⇒ 1 kilobit per second
1 Mbps (corresponds to 1,000 kbit/s) ⇒ 1 megabit per second
1 Gbps (corresponds to 1,000 Mbit/s) ⇒ 1 Gigabit per second

2.5 Network Protocols

Protocol is a set of standard rules that all devices need to follow.

Protocols are needed for different reasons such as flow control,
access control, addressing, etc.

Protocol defines:

- How computers identify one another.

- How data should be converted for transit.
- How to forward data to the destination
- Ensuring that all the data have reached the destination.

1. TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.

TCP provides reliable delivery of data between networked
computers. TCP ensures that the data is broken into smaller
packets. Each of these packets are routed (transmitted) through the
 Internet until it reaches the destination. When all the packets reach
the destination, they are reassembled into the original message.
The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to
the Internet is assigned an IP address.

2. FTP

FTP is used for transferring files from one machine to another. FTP
creates a connection between the two nodes for accessing the file.
FTP also allows the user to use user ID and password. Some
servers provide FTP service without authentication for accessing
files.

In FTP, user specifies the file name and location of the desired file.
After that, another connection sets up and the file transfer happens
directly between the two machines.

3. HTTP
It stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. HTTP is for transferring
Hypertext (i.e, text, graphic, image, sound, video etc) on web. The
use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a web server.
HTTP defines how information are formatted and transmitted from
web server to client.

Once a user opens a web browser and types in the URL of the any
web page, a link between the client and the web server is created.
4. SMTP

SMTP is a protocol used for sending emails across the Internet.

Most email software is designed to use SMTP for communication
purposes when sending an email. SMTP is used by email client for
sending email to smtp mail server.

5. POP3
It is a standard mail protocol for receiving emails from server to
email client. It also allows the user to download their received email
on their computer so that they can read them offline. POP3 protocol
is suitable if you accessing your emails using a single application or
from a single location. By default, POP3 deletes emails on the
server after downloading them to your local email client.
6. PPP

PPP establishes a dedicated and direct connection between two

communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices will
authenticate each other and establish a direct link between them to
exchange data.

For example, two routers with direct connections communicate

using PPP.

7. UDP

The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is a communication protocol

used across the Internet for especially time-sensitive transmissions
such as video playback or DNS lookups. It speeds up communications
by not formally establishing a connection before data is transferred.
Chapter 3: Understand cybercrime and the need of
CyberSecurity

3.1 Network safety concerns:

With the increase in use of the network for accessing data and resource
sharing, security is becoming a prime concern. The Internet represents
an insecure channel for exchanging information, which leads to a high
risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing,[viruses, trojans, worms and
more.

1) Digital Footprints

Whenever we use the Internet, we leave a trail of data reflecting the

activities performed by us online known as digital footprint. Digital
footprints can be created and used with or without our knowledge.
They include websites we visit,
email we send, and information we
share online, Ip address, location
and device detail.

Footprint data could be used for

advertisements or could also be
misused or exploited. Most of our
digital footprints are stored in
servers. We may not have access to
remove or erase that data neither do
we have any control on how that
data will be used. Once a digital
footprint is generated, even if we try
later to erase , digital footprints still
remain.

2) Malware

The term malware refers to malicious software (programs) designed

with the intention to affect normal functionality by causing harm to
the system, or with the intention of getting unauthorized access to
the system or denying access to legitimate users of computing
resources. Malware may be a virus, worm, Trojan horse.
 a. Viruses
A virus is a software code that may harm your system by
overwriting or corrupting the system files. A computer virus is
similar in action to viruses in our body which replicate
themselves and affect body cells. The affected part is called
the infected area. A computer virus may make several copies
of it by inserting its code onto the system programs, files or
boot sector of hard drives and thereby may corrupt them. This
causes the system to slow down or even stop functioning like
boot sector virus, file infector virus, and macro virus.

b. Worm
worm is often received via network, and it automatically keeps
on creating several copies of itself on the hard disk thereby
flooding the hard disk. When a worm is received as an email
attachment, it is automatically forwarded to the recipients
leading to network congestion. Thus, a worm may crash the
system and entire network. No host application is required for
worms to replicate themselves e.g. Code Red Worm which
makes more than 2,50,000 copies of itself in approximately 9
hours.

c. Trojan Horse
Trojan Horse is a code that appears to be desirable and useful
but ends up harming the system.
Trojan horse can attach itself with a safe application. For
example, it may be attached to any game downloaded over
the Internet. Such an application when executed creates a
backdoor in the system through which a hacker can access
the system. The hacker can monitor all the activity performed
on the system. He can also control the infected system by
harming the data on the system. For example, in the late
1990s, Trojan Horse named Sub7 was created which took
advantage of security flaws of earlier version browsers such
as Internet Explorer and Chrome to illegally access the host
computer.

3) Spam
Spam is any kind of unwanted, unsolicited digital communication
that gets sent out in bulk. Often spam is sent via email, but it can
also be distributed via text messages, phone calls, or social media.
4) DoS Attacks
A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the
machine or network resource becomes unavailable to its users by
temporarily or indefinitely disrupting services. Denial of service is
typically accomplished by flooding the targeted machine or resource
with superfluous requests to overload systems and prevent requests
from being fulfilled. A DoS attack is like a group of people crowding
the entry door of a shop, making it hard for legitimate customers to
enter.

5) Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping is the act of secretly or stealthily listening to the
private conversations or communications of others without their
consent. Eavesdropping is done through telephone lines, cellular
networks, email, and instant messaging.

6) Adware
Adware is a type of malware or unwanted software designed to
deliver targeted advertisements on infected computers. Adware can
serve ad pages and collect information about users to target them
better with customized ads.

7) Spyware
Spyware is software with malicious behaviour that aims to gather
information about a person or organization and send it to another
entity in a way that harms the user by violating their privacy,
endangering their device's security, or other means. This behaviour
may be present in malware and in legitimate software.
 8) Snooping
Snooping is a broad term that can include casual observance of an
email that appears on another person's computer screen or
watching what someone else is typing. More sophisticated snooping
uses software to remotely monitor activity on a computer or as
communications data traverses a network.

3.2 Networking Security Measures

1) Antivirus

Anti-virus is software that aims to protect your system against

malicious and potentially unwanted programs. It is responsible for
detecting these malicious programs by searching for them, and
removing them to keep the system protected. The software operates
by maintaining a database of malware definitions, which are
automatically updated. It searches for any malicious program by
scanning the files against the stored malware definitions for a match.
In case of a match, they are declared as potentially harmful, and are
disabled and removed depending upon anti-virus software settings.

2) Firewall

A firewall aims to protect the internal network of an organization,

home, or individual from malicious traffic from external networks. A
router or a computer (often dedicated to serve as a firewall) may be
installed between external network and internal network for this
purpose. Firewall inspects the network traffic and allows only that
data to pass through the network that does not violate the security
constraint. Hardware firewalls in the form of a router prevents
 malicious software from entering your network from outside the
network. However, software firewalls installed on personal
computers prevent unauthorized access or malwares from gaining
access to personal computers. Network firewalls may also encrypt
the incoming data by converting it to non-readable format, thus,
adding further protection.

3) Login ids and Password

A login credential is a set of unique identifiers–such as a username
and password–that enables a user to verify identity in order to log
in to an online account.

3.3 Cyber Crime

1) Phishing
It is an unlawful activity, where fake websites or emails that look
original or authentic are presented to the user. It is performed to
fraudulently collect sensitive and personal details, particularly
usernames, passwords, banking and credit card details. Most
common phishing method is email spoofing where a fake emails is
used and the user presumes it to be from authentic source.

2) Pharming
Pharming is a type of social engineering cyberattack in which
criminals redirect internet users trying to reach a specific website to
 a different, fake site. These “spoofed” sites aim to capture a victim’s
personally identifiable information (PII) and log-in credentials, such
as passwords, social security numbers, account numbers, and so
on, or else they attempt to install pharming malware on their
computer.

3) Spoofing

Spoofing is a technique through which a cybercriminal disguises

themselves as a known or trusted source. Spoofing can take many
forms, such as spoofed emails, IP spoofing, DNS Spoofing, GPS
spoofing, website spoofing, and spoofed calls.

4) Cyber Bullying

Cyberbullying is an attack on an individual or a group with the intent

to abuse, intimidate or overpower.
Types of Cyberbullying
1. Posting humiliating content
2. Hacking the victim’s account
3. Sending or posting vulgar message
4. Threatening to commit acts of violence
5. Stalking by means of call, messages

5) Hacking

Hacking is the act of unauthorized access to a computer, computer

network or any digital system. Hackers usually have technical
expertise of hardware and software. They look for bugs to exploit
and break into the system.

Hacking when done with positive

intent, is called ethical hacking
also known as White Hat Hacker.
White Hat hackers help in
improving the security of
software.

Non-Ethical or Black Hat Hacker

Tries to gain unauthorized
access to computers or networks
 to steal sensitive data with the intent to damage or bring down. Their
primary focus is on security cracking and data stealing.

6) Cracking

Cracking is a technique used to breach computer software or an

entire computer security system, and with malicious intent. Though
functionally the same as hacking, cracking is strictly used in a
criminal sense.
A cracker is someone who breaks into a network; bypasses
passwords or licenses in computer programs.

7) Identity Theft

In Identity Theft Personal information is stolen from computers or

computer networks, to commit fraud. A users identifiable personal
data like – demographic details, email ID, banking credentials,
passport, PAN, Aadhaar etc are stolen and misused by the hacker.
It is a type of phishing attack where the intention is mostly for
monetary gain.

8) Cyber Stalking

Use of electronic communication by a person to follow a person or

attempts to contact a person to foster personal interaction
repeatedly despite a clear indication of disinterest by such person.

9) Cyber Trolling

A cyber troll is a person who start quarrels or upset people on the

internet by posting inflammatory, digressive, extraneous or off topic
message.
Cyber trolling is a form of cyberbullying.

3.4 Cyber Safety

1) Netiquette

Netiquettes is the short form of “Internet Etiquette” which means

communication etiquettes over the internet. Netiquette is a code of
good behavior while working on the Internet.
 It includes Social media, email, online chat, web forms, website
comments, online gaming etc. Netiquettes revolve around the
general idea of respecting others online.

2) IT Act
Information Technology Act or IT Act in India was notified on 17
October 2000. It is primary law in India dealing with Cybercrime and
electronic commerce. A major amendment was made in 2008.
Exercises
1. Give the full form of the following terms:
(a) ARPANET
(b) LAN
(c) MAN
(d) WAN
(e) WWW
(f) TELNET

2. Differentiate between the following:

(a) Bus and Star Topology
(c) Star and Mesh Topology
(d) Ring and Bus Topology
(e) LAN and WAN
(f) LAN and MAN
(g) MAN and WAN
(h) Internet and WWW

3. What is the purpose of network devices? Explain the following

network devices.
(a) Bridge
(b) Router
(c) Repeater
(d) Switch
4. Which of the following listed acts are cyber-crimes?
(a) Copying data from someone’s computer without his permission.
(b) Stealing someone’s device.
(c) Accessing one’s bank account for carrying online transactions.
(d) Modifying the official documents without permission.
(e) Creating a fake identity and posting on someone’s behalf.
(f) Sending friend request to someone on a social networking site.

5. What is the difference between Email and Chat?

6. Differentiate between firewall and antivirus. How both contribute to the
security of the system?
7. Define protocol.
8. What is the significance of cyber law?
9. List the various security issues concerned with using the Internet.
Explain each of them by giving proper examples.
10. List various protective measures that can be taken for network
security.
11. Define cybercrime and cyber law.
12. Define Digital Literacy.