Part-1

Unit-4
Knowledge Representation

What is Knowledge Representation?

Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation of knowledge. Basically, it is a study of how the beliefs, intentions,
and judgments of an intelligent agent can be expressed suitably for automated reasoning. One of the primary purposes of Knowledge
Representation includes modeling intelligent behavior for an agent.

Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents information from the real world for a computer to understand and
then utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-life problems like communicating with human beings in natural language.
Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a database, it allows a machine to learn from that knowledge and
behave intelligently like a human being.

The different kinds of knowledge that need to be represented in AI include:

 Objects
 Events
 Performance
 Facts
 Meta-Knowledge
 Knowledge-base

Now that you know about Knowledge representation in AI, let’s move on and know about the different types of Knowledge.
Why is knowledge representation important?

Knowledge representation is important in AI because it allows

computers to understand, store, and manipulate human knowledge,
enabling them to solve complex problems, make decisions, and
perform tasks that require intelligence.
What are the Different Types of Knowledge in AI?
In simple terms, knowledge is what we know from our experiences, facts, data, and situations. In artificial intelligence, there are
various types of knowledge that need to be represented.

1. Declarative Knowledge (The “What” Knowledge)

It’s all about facts and concepts, helping describe things in simple terms.
2. Structural Knowledge (The “How Things Relate” Knowledge)

This knowledge helps AI understand relationships between concepts and objects, aiding problem-solving.
3. Procedural Knowledge (The “How-To” Knowledge)

This is like a manual for tasks, with specific rules and strategies to follow.
4. Meta Knowledge (What We Already Know)

It’s knowledge about knowledge, including categories, plans, and past learning.
5. Heuristic Knowledge (Learning from Experience)

This type helps AI make decisions based on past experiences, like using old techniques to solve new problems.
These types of knowledge equip AI to understand and solve problems, follow instructions, make informed decisions, and adapt to
different situations.

What Makes a Good Knowledge Representation(properties) System?

A good knowledge representation system should have these qualities:
Representational Adequacy: It must be able to represent all types of knowledge so the AI understands them.
Inferential Adequacy: The system should be flexible, allowing it to adjust old knowledge to fit new information.
Inferential Efficiency: It should guide AI to make smart decisions quickly by pointing it in the right direction.
Acquisitional Efficiency: The system should easily learn new information, add it to its knowledge, and use it to work better.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
 2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules

1 . Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and
has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on
various conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It
consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each
sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in
the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.
Semantics:

o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the
logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

 Propositional Logics
 Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

 1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.

Semantic Network is a directed or undirected graph consisting of vertices. These vertices represent concepts and edges, which further
represent semantic relations between concepts, mapping or connecting semantic fields. Moreover, it is termed as Associative Networks,
as it processes the knowledge about accepted meanings in adjacent regions.

Or
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks, we can represent our
knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the
relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects.
Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

COMPONENTS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS:

Semantic Networks can further be defined by specifying its fundamental components, which are:

 Lexical Components - Consists of:

o Nodes represent the object or concept.

o Links: Denoting relation between nodes.
o Labels: Denoting particular objects & relations.
 Structural Component - Here the links and nodes form a directed graph wherein the labels are placed on the link and nodes.
 Semantic Component - The meanings here are related to the links and labels of nodes, whereas the facts are dependent on the
approved areas.
 Procedural Part - The creation of new links and nodes is permitted by constructors, whereas the destructors are responsible for the
removal of links and nodes.

Examples of Semantic Network

These examples illustrate how semantic networks can represent hierarchical relationships and classifications in various domains, from
biology to programming, making them a versatile tool for organizing and understanding complex information.

Animal Classification:
Nodes: Lion, Tiger, Bear, Wolf
Links: “is a” relation
Labels: Mammal, Carnivore, Predator
Food Hierarchy:
Nodes: Fruit, Apple, Banana, Animal, Lion
Links: “eaten by” relation
Labels: Herbivore, Carnivore, Predator
Programming Concepts:
Nodes: Programming Language, Python, Java, Data Types, Integer
Links: “is a” relation, “has” relation
Labels: High-Level Language, Variable, Numeric Type

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements:

a) Jerry is a cat.
b) Jerry is a mammal
c) Jerry is owned by Priya.
d) Jerry is brown colored.
e) All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected
with another object by some relation.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS:

As one of the oldest and the most effective techniques or Knowledge Representation, semantic networks offers various advantages, a
few of which are:
ADVANTAGES:

 These networks are simple and easily understandable.

 Efficient in space requirement.
 Easily clusters related knowledge.
 It is flexible and easy to visualize.
 Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
 Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
DISADVANTAGES:

1. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store the information, but in
practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
2. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
3. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
4. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

APPLICATION OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS:

 With the growing need for intelligent machines, the application of semantic networks is also increasing. Therefore, listed here are
some of the areas where Semantic Networks are applied or used:

 In natural language processing applications like semantic parsing, word sense disambiguation, etc.
 Specialized retrieval tasks, like plagiarism detection.
 Knowledge Graph proposed by Google in 2012 uses semantic networks in the search engines.

Types of Semantic Networks

There are six types of semantic networks, each having different significance in graphic representation for knowledge management and
automated reasoning:

 Definitional Networks: This represents the relationship between concepts and their subtypes. Definitional networks are
fundamental in ensuring clarity and precision in knowledge representation, allowing for a clear delineation of how different
concepts relate to one another within a given domain.
 Assertional Networks: It is used to assert propositions and convey factual information. These networks are particularly useful for
capturing and communicating structured information, making them a cornerstone for knowledge-based systems and databases.
 Implicational Networks: They rely on implications as the primary connections between nodes, emphasizing cause-and-effect
relationships.By emphasizing causal connections, these networks are vital for predictive modeling, risk assessment, and scenario
analysis, enabling the inference of potential outcomes based on established relationships.
 Executable Networks: Contain mechanisms capable of inducing changes within the network itself, allowing for dynamic
adaptations. These networks are essential for systems that require real-time decision-making, as they can autonomously modify
their structure or behavior to optimize performance or adapt to new information.
 Learning Networks: These expand knowledge representations by emphasizing insights from examples and focusing on adaptive
learning. Learning networks are foundational in machine learning and AI applications, as they enable systems to continuously
improve and refine their understanding of the world through exposure to new information.
 Hybrid Networks: This type of network consists of two or more of the above-mentioned techniques, either within a single network
or between closely interacting networks, to fulfill diverse knowledge representation requirements.

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEMANTIC NETS AND FRAMES:

Semantic networks and frames are both knowledge representation techniques. Though they are categorized into the same group, their
functions and working are vastly different from one another. Therefore, to help you understand the differences between the two, we are
here with a detailed comparison of semantic nets and frames.

#WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND

KNOWLEDGE?
Knowledge of real-world environments is critical for intelligence and for developing artificial intelligence. Knowledge is
crucial for AI agents to demonstrate intelligent behavior. An agent can act accurately on input only if they have
knowledge or experience.
Consider the following scenario: If you meet someone speaking a language you do not understand, how will you react?
The same holds for the agents' intelligent behavior. However, if the system doesn't have any knowledge, it won't be able
to act intelligently.

Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a
collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which
divides knowledge into substructures by representing
stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and
slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots
have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. A

frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence.

Example: Consider the example of a book frame.

Slots Filters
Title Operating System
Genre Computer Science
Author Vivek Sahu
Edition Sixth Edition
Year 1999
Page 982
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:

Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an

engineer as a profession, and his age is 25, he lives in city
London, and the country is England. So following is the frame
representation for this:

Slots Filter
Name Peter
Profession Doctor
Age 25
Marital status Single
Weight 78
Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping

the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in
AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

 1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly preceded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

#what is the conceptual dependency artificial intelligence with an example?

Conceptual dependency (CD) is a theory of natural language understanding
(NLU) developed by Roger Schank in the 1970s. CD represents the meaning
of natural language sentences in terms of primitive actions and concepts.
These primitive actions and concepts are thought to be the building blocks
of human thought, and they are used to represent the meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences.
Define script?
A script is a structured representation describing a stereotyped sequence of events
in a particular context. Scripts are used in natural-language understanding systems
to organize a knowledge base in terms of the situations that the system should
understand.
Advantages of Scripts:
 Capable of predicting implicit events / Ability to predict events.
 A single coherent interpretation may be build up from a collection of
observations.
Disadvantages:
 Less general than frames.
 May not be suitable to represent all kinds of knowledge.
Rule-Based Knowledge Representation:
Knowledge is structured and encapsulated in the form of rules, enabling
systematic interpretation and utilization. Inference Engines: AI systems
incorporate specialized inference engines that process rules and data to derive
informed conclusions or actions.

What is a Rule-Based System?

A rule-based system is a type of artificial intelligence that uses a set of pre-defined rules
and logic to make decisions and solve problems. It consists primarily of two
components - a set of rules or inferences, and a database of facts and premises.

How does a Rule-Based System work?

A rule based system consists of two key components - a set of rules or inferences and
a database of facts and premises.

The rules are structured in an IF-THEN format, where the IF part lists the conditions
that must be satisfied, and the THEN part describes the resulting actions or conclusions
if the conditions are met.

For example:

IF the account balance is low

AND transactions exceed $500

THEN alert customer for potential overdraft

The database contains all the facts and assertions that the rules rely on to operate.
Facts can include measurements, sensor data, input data, user profiles, application
state etc.

A rule engine sequences the rules set and applies them to the available facts from the
database. It checks which rule conditions are met based on the current facts. Once a
rule is triggered, the rule engine executes the corresponding action in the THEN part.

This inference process continues until no more rules can be matched or a final goal
state is reached. Chaining together multiple rules enables complex logic and
deductions.

Rule-based systems are commonly used in domains like diagnostics, customer service
chatbots, and business process automation. The modular structure of rules and facts
makes them interpretable, maintainable, and customizable.

Conflict resolution strategies

Conflict resolution strategies are used in production systems in artificial
intelligence, such as in rule-based expert systems, to help in choosing which
production rule to fire. The need for such a strategy arises when the conditions
of two or more rules are satisfied by the currently known facts.

Answer the following questions:

1) Define Semantic Net?
2) Define PTRANS and MTRANS?
3) Define script?
4) Define factes?
5) What are the two problems in Conceptual dependency (CD)?
6) Define RBS?
7) What do you mean by knowledge representation? Explain the characteristics of representation.
8) What is script? How knowledge is represented in script? Illustrate component of script with a example.
9) Represent the following sentences into a semantic network.
 Birds are animals.
 Birds have feathers, fly and lay eggs.
 Albatross is a bird.
 Donald is a bird.
 Tracy is an albatross.
10) Define frame. How knowledge is encoded in a frame? Justify with an example.
 Fuzzy Logic

What is Fuzzy Logic?

The 'Fuzzy' word means the things that are not clear or are vague. Sometimes, we cannot decide in real life that
the given problem or statement is either true or false. At that time, this concept provides many values between
the true and false and gives the flexibility to find the best solution to that problem.

Example of Fuzzy Logic as comparing to Boolean Logic

Fuzzy logic contains the multiple logical values and these values are the truth values of a variable or problem
between 0 and 1. This concept was introduced by Lofti Zadeh in 1965 based on the Fuzzy Set Theory. This
concept provides the possibilities which are not given by computers, but similar to the range of possibilities
generated by humans.

In the Boolean system, only two possibilities (0 and 1) exist, where 1 denotes the absolute truth value and 0
denotes the absolute false value. But in the fuzzy system, there are multiple possibilities present between the 0
and 1, which are partially false and partially true.

The Fuzzy logic can be implemented in systems such as micro-controllers, workstation-based or large network-
based systems for achieving the definite output. It can also be implemented in both hardware or software.

Characteristics of Fuzzy Logic

Following are the characteristics of fuzzy logic:

1. This concept is flexible and we can easily understand and implement it.
2. It is used for helping the minimization of the logics created by the human.
3. It is the best method for finding the solution of those problems which are suitable for approximate or uncertain
reasoning.
4. It always offers two values, which denote the two possible solutions for a problem and statement.
5. It allows users to build or create the functions which are non-linear of arbitrary complexity.
6. In fuzzy logic, everything is a matter of degree.
7. In the Fuzzy logic, any system which is logical can be easily fuzzified.
8. It is based on natural language processing.
9. It is also used by the quantitative analysts for improving their algorithm's execution.
10. It also allows users to integrate with the programming.

Architecture of a Fuzzy Logic System

In the architecture of the Fuzzy Logic system, each component plays an important role. The architecture consists
of the different four components which are given below.

1. Rule Base
2. Fuzzification
3. Inference Engine
4. Defuzzification

Following diagram shows the architecture or process of a Fuzzy Logic system:

1. Rule Base

Rule Base is a component used for storing the set of rules and the If-Then conditions given by the experts are
used for controlling the decision-making systems. There are so many updates that come in the Fuzzy theory
recently, which offers effective methods for designing and tuning of fuzzy controllers. These updates or
developments decreases the number of fuzzy set of rules.

2. Fuzzification

Fuzzification is a module or component for transforming the system inputs, i.e., it converts the crisp number
into fuzzy steps. The crisp numbers are those inputs which are measured by the sensors and then fuzzification
passed them into the control systems for further processing. This component divides the input signals into
following five states in any Fuzzy Logic system:

o Large Positive (LP)

o Medium Positive (MP)
o Small (S)
o Medium Negative (MN)
o Large negative (LN)

3. Inference Engine

This component is a main component in any Fuzzy Logic system (FLS), because all the information is processed
in the Inference Engine. It allows users to find the matching degree between the current fuzzy input and the
rules. After the matching degree, this system determines which rule is to be added according to the given input
field. When all rules are fired, then they are combined for developing the control actions.

4. Defuzzification

Defuzzification is a module or component, which takes the fuzzy set inputs generated by the Inference Engine,
and then transforms them into a crisp value. It is the last step in the process of a fuzzy logic system. The crisp
value is a type of value which is acceptable by the user. Various techniques are present to do this, but the user
has to select the best one for reducing the errors.

Membership Function

The membership function is a function which represents the graph of fuzzy sets, and allows users to quantify
the linguistic term. It is a graph which is used for mapping each element of x to the value between 0 and 1.

This function is also known as indicator or characteristics function.

This function of Membership was introduced in the first papers of fuzzy set by Zadeh. For the Fuzzy set B, the
membership function for X is defined as: μB:X → [0,1]. In this function X, each element of set B is mapped to
the value between 0 and 1. This is called a degree of membership or membership value.

Classical and Fuzzy Set Theory

To learn about classical and Fuzzy set theory, firstly you have to know about what is set.

Set

A set is a term, which is a collection of unordered or ordered elements. Following are the various examples of a
set:

1. A set of all-natural numbers

2. A set of students in a class.
3. A set of all cities in a state.
4. A set of upper-case letters of the alphabet.

Types of Set:

There are following various categories of set:

1. Finite
2. Empty
3. Infinite
4. Proper
5. Universal
6. Subset
7. Singleton
8. Equivalent Set
9. Disjoint Set

Classical Set

It is a type of set which collects the distinct objects in a group. The sets with the crisp boundaries are classical
sets. In any set, each single entity is called an element or member of that set.

Mathematical Representation of Sets

Any set can be easily denoted in the following two different ways:

1. Roaster Form: This is also called as a tabular form. In this form, the set is represented in the following way:

Set_name = { element1, element2, element3, ......, element N}

The elements in the set are enclosed within the brackets and separated by the commas.

Following are the two examples which describes the set in Roaster or Tabular form:

Example 1:

Set of Natural Numbers: N={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ......,n).

Example 2:

Set of Prime Numbers less than 50: X={2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47}.

2. Set Builder Form: Set Builder form defines a set with the common properties of an element in a set. In this
form, the set is represented in the following way:

A = {x:p(x)}

The following example describes the set in the builder form:

The set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18} is written as:
B = {x:2 ≤ x < 20 and (x%2) = 0}

Operations on Classical Set

Following are the various operations which are performed on the classical sets:

1. Union Operation
2. Intersection Operation
3. Difference Operation
4. Complement Operation
1. Union:

This operation is denoted by (A U B). A U B is the set of those elements which exist in two different sets A and
B. This operation combines all the elements from both the sets and make a new set. It is also called a Logical OR
operation.

It can be described as:

A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A OR x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}, then A ∪ B = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

2. Intersection

This operation is denoted by (A ∩ B). A ∩ B is the set of those elements which are common in both set A and B.
It is also called a Logical OR operation.

It can be described as:

A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 14} then A ∩ B = {11, 12}

3. Difference Operation

This operation is denoted by (A - B). A-B is the set of only those elements which exist only in set A but not in
set B.

It can be described as:

A - B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∉ B }.

4. Complement Operation: This operation is denoted by (A`). It is applied on a single set. A` is the set of
elements which do not exist in set A.

It can be described as:

A′ = {x|x ∉ A}.

Properties of Classical Set

There are following various properties which play an essential role for finding the solution of a fuzzy logic
problem.

1. Commutative Property:

This property provides the following two states which are obtained by two finite sets A and B:
A∪B=B∪A
A∩B=B∩A

2. Associative Property:

This property also provides the following two states but these are obtained by three different finite sets A, B, and
C:

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

3. Idempotency Property:

This property also provides the following two states but for a single finite set A:

A∪A=A
A∩A=A

4. Absorption Property

This property also provides the following two states for any two finite sets A and B:

A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

5. Distributive Property:

This property also provides the following two states for any three finite sets A, B, and C:

A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B)∩ (A ∪ C)
A∩ (B ∪ C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)

6. Identity Property:

This property provides the following four states for any finite set A and Universal set X:

A ∪ φ =A
A∩X=A
A∩φ=φ
A∪X=X

7. Transitive property

This property provides the following state for the finite sets A, B, and C:

If A ⊆ B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

8. Ivolution property

This property provides following state for any finite set A:

9. De Morgan's Law

This law gives the following rules for providing the contradiction and tautologies:

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Fuzzy Set

The set theory of classical is the subset of Fuzzy set theory. Fuzzy logic is based on this theory, which is a
generalisation of the classical theory of set (i.e., crisp set) introduced by Zadeh in 1965.

A fuzzy set is a collection of values which exist between 0 and 1. Fuzzy sets are denoted or represented by the
tilde (~) character. The sets of Fuzzy theory were introduced in 1965 by Lofti A. Zadeh and Dieter Klaua. In the
fuzzy set, the partial membership also exists. This theory released as an extension of classical set theory.

This theory is denoted mathematically asA fuzzy set (Ã) is a pair of U and M, where U is the Universe of
discourse and M is the membership function which takes on values in the interval [ 0, 1 ]. The universe of
discourse (U) is also denoted by Ω or X.

Operations on Fuzzy Set

Given à and B are the two fuzzy sets, and X be the universe of discourse with the following respective member
functions:

The operations of Fuzzy set are as follows:

1. Union Operation: The union operation of a fuzzy set is defined by:

μA∪B(x) = max (μA(x), μB(x))

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.6 ), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.4)}

And, B is a set which contains following elements:

B = {( X1, 0.1), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0), (X4, 0.9)}

then,

AUB = {( X1, 0.6), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.9)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1

μA∪B(X1) = max (μA(X1), μB(X1))

μA∪B(X1) = max (0.6, 0.1)
μA∪B(X1) = 0.6

For X2

μA∪B(X2) = max (μA(X2), μB(X2))

μA∪B(X2) = max (0.2, 0.8)
μA∪B(X2) = 0.8

For X3

μA∪B(X3) = max (μA(X3), μB(X3))

μA∪B(X3) = max (1, 0)
μA∪B(X3) = 1

For X4

μA∪B(X4) = max (μA(X4), μB(X4))

μA∪B(X4) = max (0.4, 0.9)
μA∪B(X4) = 0.9

2. Intersection Operation:The intersection operation of fuzzy set is defined by:

μA∩B(x) = min (μA(x), μB(x))

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.3 ), (X2, 0.7), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

And, B is a set which contains following elements:

B = {( X1, 0.8), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.9)}

then,

A∩B = {( X1, 0.3), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.1)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1
μA∩B(X1) = min (μA(X1), μB(X1))
μA∩B(X1) = min (0.3, 0.8)
μA∩B(X1) = 0.3

For X2

μA∩B(X2) = min (μA(X2), μB(X2))

μA∩B(X2) = min (0.7, 0.2)
μA∩B(X2) = 0.2

For X3

μA∩B(X3) = min (μA(X3), μB(X3))

μA∩B(X3) = min (0.5, 0.4)
μA∩B(X3) = 0.4

For X4

μA∩B(X4) = min (μA(X4), μB(X4))

μA∩B(X4) = min (0.1, 0.9)
μA∩B(X4) = 0.1

3. Complement Operation: The complement operation of fuzzy set is defined by:

μĀ(x) = 1-μA(x),

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.3 ), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

then,

Ā= {( X1, 0.7 ), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.9)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1

μĀ(X1) = 1-μA(X1)
μĀ(X1) = 1 - 0.3
μĀ(X1) = 0.7

For X2

μĀ(X2) = 1-μA(X2)
μĀ(X2) = 1 - 0.8
μĀ(X2) = 0.2

For X3
 μĀ(X3) = 1-μA(X3)
μĀ(X3) = 1 - 0.5
μĀ(X3) = 0.5

For X4

μĀ(X4) = 1-μA(X4)
μĀ(X4) = 1 - 0.1
μĀ(X4) = 0.9

Classical Set Theory Fuzzy Set Theory

1. This theory is a class of those sets having 1. This theory is a class of those sets having un-
sharp boundaries. sharp boundaries.

2. This set theory is defined by exact 2. This set theory is defined by ambiguous
boundaries only 0 and 1. boundaries.

3. In this theory, there is no uncertainty 3. In this theory, there always exists uncertainty
about the boundary's location of a set. about the boundary's location of a set.

4. This theory is widely used in the design of 4. It is mainly used for fuzzy controllers.
digital systems.

Bayesian Belief Network in artificial intelligence

Bayesian belief network is key computer technology for dealing with probabilistic events and to
solve a problem which has uncertainty. We can define a Bayesian network as:

"A Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model which represents a set of variables and their
conditional dependencies using a directed acyclic graph."

It is also called a Bayes network, belief network, decision network, or Bayesian model.

Bayesian networks are probabilistic, because these networks are built from a probability
distribution, and also use probability theory for prediction and anomaly detection.

Real world applications are probabilistic in nature, and to represent the relationship between
multiple events, we need a Bayesian network. It can also be used in various tasks
including prediction, anomaly detection, diagnostics, automated insight, reasoning, time
series prediction, and decision making under uncertainty.

Bayesian Network can be used for building models from data and experts opinions, and it consists
of two parts:

o Directed Acyclic Graph

 o Table of conditional probabilities.

The generalized form of Bayesian network that represents and solve decision problems under uncertain knowledge is known as
an Influence diagram.

A Bayesian network graph is made up of nodes and Arcs (directed links), where:

o Each node corresponds to the random variables, and a variable can be continuous or discrete.
o Arc or directed arrows represent the causal relationship or conditional probabilities between random variables. These
directed links or arrows connect the pair of nodes in the graph.
These links represent that one node directly influence the other node, and if there is no directed link that means that
nodes are independent with each other
o In the above diagram, A, B, C, and D are random variables represented by the nodes of the network
graph.
o If we are considering node B, which is connected with node A by a directed arrow, then node A is called
the parent of Node B.
o Node C is independent of node A.

Note: The Bayesian network graph does not contain any cyclic graph. Hence, it is known as a directed acyclic graph or DAG.

The Bayesian network has mainly two components:

o Causal Component
o Actual numbers

Each node in the Bayesian network has condition probability distribution P(Xi |Parent(Xi) ), which
determines the effect of the parent on that node.
 Answer the questions:
1) Define fuzzy logic?
2) Define Fuzziyfication?
3) Define Inference Engine
4) Define Defuzzification
5) Explain architecture or process of a Fuzzy Logic system with diagram
6) Explain the Operations on Fuzzy Set
7) Difference between Classical Set Theory and Fuzzy Set Theory
8) Difference between forward and backward chaining with examples.
9) What is Bayesian Network? Explain how Bayesian Network represents and inference the uncertain
knowledge.
10) Represent the following sentences into a semantic network.
o Birds are animals.
o Birds have feathers, fly and lay eggs.
o Albatros is a bird.
o Donald is a bird.
o Tracy is an albatross

First progress test Questions (try to solved)

Group-A
Very short questions: 7×1=7
1) Define intelligent agent?
2) What is unsupervised learning?
3) What does PEAS means?
4) Why do we need to make the machine learn?
5) Mention any two problems in hill climbing search?
6) Define Quantifier?
7) Define crips sets?

Answer the questions: 5×5=25

1) What is Turing Test? How Turing Test is used to evaluate intelligence of a machine? What properties a
machine should have to pass the Total Turing test?
2) What are intelligent agents? Differentiate Model Based Agents differ from utility Based Agents. Mention
suitable examples of each.
3) Define game playing search? Why alpha beta pruning is better than MIN – MAX algorithm? Justify
with suitable game tree.
4) What are heuristic search? Write A* search algorithm with suitable example.
5) What is script? How knowledge is represented in script? Illustrate component of script with a example.

Answer the Long questions: 1×8=8

Represent the following sentences into a semantic network.
i. Birds are animals.
ii. Birds have feathers, fly and lay eggs.
iii. Albatross is a bird.
iv. Donald is a bird.
v. Tracy is an albatross.
Translate the following sentence into first order logic:
I. “Everyone’s DNA is unique and is derived from their parents’ DNA”.
II. “No dog bites a child of its owner”.
III. “Every gardener likes the sun”.
IV. “All purple mushrooms are poisonous”.
Best of Luck