A Review on DC-DC Converters Used in

Electric Vehicles
2022 IEEE 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Energy, Signal Processing and Cyber Security (iSSSC) | 978-1-6654-9056-6/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/iSSSC56467.2022.10051498

Rahul Kumar Pandey Prashant Tirkey Sunil Kumar

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
BIT Sindri BIT Sindri BIT Sindri
Dhanbad, India Dhanbad, India Dhanbad, India
rahulpandey7122@gmail.com talk2prashant225@gmail.com skumar.me@bitsindri.ac.in

Jitendra Nath Mahto

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
BIT Sindri
Dhanbad, India
jnmahto.me@bitsindri.ac.in

Abstract—Electric cars are gaining popularity across the The main barriers against the adoption of these cars are
globe owing to their better performance and zero carbon theirnegative effects on the grid's power factor, battery life,
dioxide emission. Other advantages of EVs include high cost, and also issues with chargers. Other problems include the
efficiency, less vibration and noise, and low maintenance cost. lack of proper charging infrastructure and the absence of
Various studies are being performed to enhance the technologies storage solutions supported by the government for the energy
related to electric vehicles like battery management systems,
needed to power these vehicles [2]. Power converters are
power electronics, and energy storage devices. However, energy
storage systems like batteries, fuel cells, or supercapacitors essential components in EVs, HEVs, or PHEVs as they are
exhibit unregulated and unsteady power output with significant used in thecharging process and other applications such as
voltage drops. Converters are needed to transfer power to the transferring power from battery to motor or charging
load from energy storage systems at the required voltage and auxiliary battery. Energy storage systems are recharged using
current. However, converters used in electric cars also have electricity tapped from the grid utility network or by
drawbacks such as high current stress, sluggish dynamic connecting to an electrical charging station using AC-DC
response, high switching loss, and a large number of converters. The energy storage devices then provide the
components. Therefore, in this review paper, a brief required quantity of electrical powerto accelerate the vehicle.
introduction about different types of DC-DC bidirectional However, the provided energy is consistently observed to be
converters used in an electric vehicle is done and for comparing
unstable and has a significant amount of voltage drop [3-5].
their benefits and drawbacks, a tabular presentation is made.
But before that, anintroduction about the electric vehicle with a Hence, high voltage gain and high-efficiency topologies of
brief discussion about components like energy storage devices, dc-dc boost converter are required in converting the unstable
motors, converters control, and modulation techniques is done. power supply to a normalized one. Optimizing power flow
may lower the reliance on the grid to power EVs or PHEVs
Keywords—Electric vehicles, DC-DC converters, Energy in the case of anexisting residential photovoltaic system [6]. In
storage systems and Electric motors. this paper first, an overview and types of electric vehicles are
discussed. After this, a brief introduction of power converters
and controller configuration for an electric vehicle is done.
I. INTRODUCTION Comparison between different types of converters is done
Due to rising middle-class income and a very large with the help of a table. At last various challenges related to
population of youth the demand for automobiles is also converters are discussed with their possible solutions.
growing. But because of this large number of vehicles on
roads, the pollution level is very high in urban environments.
II. ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND THEIR COMPONENTS
Also, most of the vehicles used today, are powered by fossil
fuel which makes our transportation sector over-dependent An electric vehicle uses an electric motor for propulsion
on it. Switching to Electric vehicles and Battery Electric and an energy storage system to power the motor and other
vehicles can help in mitigating the above issues [1]. The components [7]. It can be classified into an all-electric vehicle
electric vehicle possesses advantages like low cost per and a hybrid electric vehicle based on the fact that there is an
kilometre than combustion engine vehicles because electricity IC engine present in the vehicle or not. All electric vehicles
cost is less per unit than gasoline or diesel. Also, there are very can be further divided into Battery electric vehicles (BEV),
fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), and Fuel cell hybrid electric
few moving parts in EVs than in IC engines therefore, their
vehicles (FCHEV). Whereas in a hybrid electric vehicle an IC
maintenance cost is also less. There is no emission of
engine is used either to charge the battery which powers the
greenhouse gases and other air pollutants such as NO2, and SO2
traction motor or can be used in parallel with the motor to run
through the tailpipe but battery manufacturing has a large the vehicle. Based on this, HEVs are divided into Series hybrid
carbon footprint. Electric vehicles are more comfortable EVs, Parallel hybrid EVs, Series-Parallel EVs, and plug-in
because of less vibration and noise. Another advantage is that hybrid EVs. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a parallel
there are not any restrictions on electric vehicles in locations hybrid electric vehicle configuration. In Series hybrid
where IC engine vehicles are not allowed due to emission electric vehicle (SHEV), battery is charged with the help of
problems in low-emission areas. I.C. engine coupled with a generator.

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 their surface and have high power density and a very
long charging/ discharging cycle life. But their
limitation is having low energy density as compared to
batteries. Ultra-capacitors are used in applications
requiring frequent charge/discharge cycles. An example
can be seen in regenerative braking in automobiles.

IV. TYPES OF MOTORS USED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Depending on the usage, such as "on" or "off" highway
vehicles, heavy or medium, or light-duty vehicles, etc., the
type of generator or motor that is used in an EV will vary
[12]. On the road, the EV may need to alter the speed, boost
torque on hills, and apply the brakes suddenly. Which is not
common in industries where the majority of loads are steady
and categorized. The main requirements for an electrical
Fig. 1. Plug-in hybrid EV configuration [8] motor used for traction include fast torque response, the
substantial power density at low speeds like during starting
III. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS and climbing steep roads, high efficiency over a wide range
of speeds, overload capacity, typically twice the rated engine
ESSs are in charge of providing the motor with steady and
torque for brief periods, small size, lighter weight, a lower
consistent power, but they struggle with unregulated
behaviour, voltage drops, and sluggish dynamic responses. moment of inertia, and affordable cost, as well as more
The battery has a high energy density and can be very reliable reliable and robust [13]. Fig. 2 shows a categorization of
with the support of an appropriate battery management system different types of electric motors used in EVs.
[9]. Supercapacitors (SCs) have high power density and a
very rapid charging and discharging rate, which can be useful
during the requirement of a sudden burst of energy as in the
case of accelerating a vehicle [10]. Therefore, a hybrid system
of battery and SCs as energy storage can have benefits of both
like long cycle time between charging and discharging, rapid
response, and less load on batteries. But this system
significantly increases the overall cost of the vehicle [11].
Below given some energy storage devices with explanation
and their applications.
1. Fuel cell: A fuel cell produces electricity efficiently by
utilizing the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels.
Compared to combustion engines, fuel cells run more
efficiently and are capable of directly converting the
chemical energy in fuel into electrical energy at
efficiencies of more than 60%. In a hydrogen fuel cell,
the main inputs are hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), so
there is no emission issue. Among many FC
technologies, the PEMFC is the one used in automotive
applications due to its low operating temperature,
compact design, high power density, and quick start-up.
2. Battery: It is an electrochemical device that stores
chemical energy and delivers electrical energy when
required by using chemical reactions. A battery is Fig. 2. Different electric motors used in electric vehicles. [14]
composed of many cells which are arranged in a way to
fulfil the required voltage and capacity. It should have a V. POWER CONVERTERS AND CONTROLLERS’
high energy density, be modular, adaptable, and CONFIGURATIONS
affordable, require less maintenance, and have a long
useful life. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly Technically speaking, an electric vehicle's drivetrain is
preferred in electric vehicles because of their high madeup of an electric motor, energy storage devices, power
energy density, long life cycle, and low self-discharge converters, modulation mechanisms, controllers, and
rate. optimization techniques. These components are shown in a
3. Ultra-capacitor (UC): These capacitors are named schematic diagram in Fig. 3. A battery pack, fuel cells, and
ultra-capacitors due to their ability to store more supercapacitors make up the energy storage system. A high-
electric charge than normal capacitors. They store voltage DC bus links the DC-DC converter and electric
charge physically through the build-up of charge on motor. The electric motor is powered by a DC/AC converter.

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 Fig. 3. The design of an electric vehicle drivetrain incorporating converters Fig. 4. Categorization of DC-DC steps up converter
with optimal control, modulation techniques, and optimization along with
several energy storage systems. [15] Some isolated converters with coupled inductors and high-
frequency transformers can achieve low- and high-voltage
A. Need for converters, controllers, and modulation conversion ratios [32]. The isolated bidirectional DC-DC
techniques converters are designed in three main phases i.e.,
DC/AC/DC. With the help of the intermediate AC phase, it
Energy storage devices supply power to the drive train,
employs a high-frequency transformer (HFT) to increase the
however, the power delivered has unsteady behaviour and a
input voltage to a greater level. As shown in Fig. 5, Push-Pull
noticeable voltage drop is seen [16, 17]. To transform the
Converter (PPC), Flyback Converter (FC) and Resonant
unregulated flow of power into a regulated one, DC-DC
Converter (RC) are a few examples of the isolated converter.
converters are needed [18, 19]. Each DC-DC converter needs
Interleaved DC-DC converters and typical DC-DC
precise requirements and specifications to be connected to the
converters are further classifications for non-isolated
ESS followed by the HV DC link of the drive train. SCs prefer
bidirectional DC-DC converters. Due to their improved
a DC-DC converter layout with fewer passive components as
performance and efficiency, interleaved DC-DC converters
they require fast dynamic control, unlike BSSs which have
are more popular and well-known, whereas conventional DC-
long-duration charging profiles [20-22]. A DC-DC converter
DC converters are used mostly because of their simple
with high voltage gain and high-power output is preferred for
architecture and control mechanism, they are also cost-
an EV drive train. An excellent DC-DC converter offers
effective. Cuk Converter (CC) and Switched- Capacitor
several advantages, which are greatly desired in the EV
Bidirectional Converter (SCBC) are a few examples of non-
automobile industry, including cheap cost, lightweight,
isolated DC-DC converters.
compact size, high efficiency, scalability, and controllability
[23-25].
To improve performance and resilience, multiple controllers
and modulation techniques are incorporated with the converter.
To properly coordinate and manage ESSs, an effective
controller is essential. Additionally, it facilitates quick
tracking, dependable power distribution, and decreased
steady-state inaccuracy [26, 27]. The modulation mechanism
determines the output voltage/current controllability,
harmonic distortion minimization, and switching losses. The
purpose of converter optimization is to reduce development time,
converter loss, and component count while achieving a low
ripple current [28, 29].

B. EV converters classification
The DC-DC converter architecture for an electric vehicle
can be divided into two categories: isolated and non-isolated
converters as shown in Fig. 4. Non-isolated converters are
light in weight, compact and simple in construction. These
converters have extensive applications in renewable energy
systems [30]. Isolated converter designs like full bridge and
half bridge structures use a transformer [31]. These converters
are intricate and make use of a greater number of parts.
FIG. 5. Electric vehicle converter topologies

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TABLE I. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT DC-DC BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTERS IN THEIR APPLICATIONS, OUTCOMES, BENEFITS,
AND PROBLEM

Sl. DC-DC Purpose of Outcomes Benefits Voltage Gain Problems

No. converter utilization

Isolated converters

1. Push-Pull x To regulate the input x Achieves low x Better use of a ݊‫ܦ‬

x No proper utilization of
converter [33] voltage from the primaryside current transformer. the switches in the flux
battery and fuel cell. and voltage. x Decreases EMI. (Where, n is walking mechanism.
x Less filtering is transformer’s turn
needed ratio and D is duty x Central tap transformer.
cycle.)
2. Flyback x To make it possible x Achieves decreased x Different outputvoltages x Ripple current is
converter [34] to accommodate a leakage inductance can be obtained. ݊‫ܦ‬ significant.
broad input voltage within a tolerable x The ability to control ͳെ‫ܦ‬ x Losses are high.
range. range. different output x Requires more input
voltages. andoutput capacitance.

3. Resonant x Reducing the use of x A wide range of x Very economic. x Controllers are
converter [35] passive filters and voltage levels is x Low switching losses. ݊ȁ݆ʹߨ݂௦௪ ȁ expensive.
magnetic achieved. x More conversion ratio. x Complicated integral
components. x Highly efficient. (Where ݂௦௪ is transformer.
x High step-up/down frequency of
capability is switching.)
attained.

4. Multiport x To optimize system x The dynamic x Achieves high voltage x A large number of
converter performance by response is gain. ݊൅ͳ components are
(MPC) [36] controlling the duty improved. x Less ripple current on ͳെ‫ܦ‬ required.
cycle. x Produces good the output voltage. x Analysis of the system
x To minimize total efficiency using at steady-state and
losses, present in the phase shift control transient conditions is
system. and duty cycle difficult.
control. x Proper synchronization
is difficult.

Non-isolated converters

Cuk converter x To avoid x Offers a steady x Continuous current ‫ܦ‬ x Attaining stability is
1. (CC) [37] significantly output without a input ͳെ‫ܦ‬ difficult.
energy losses. ripple. and output. x Uncontrolled resonance.

Switched x To achieve higher x An efficiency of x The cost is less. x A large amount of ripple
2. capacitor voltage gain and more than 90% is x Output current has a ʹ current.
bidirectional efficiency. achieved. maximum limit. ͳെ‫ܦ‬ x Fails to keep efficiency
converter higher for a range of
(SCBC) [38] input-to-output voltage
ratios.

3. Coupled x To decrease output x Increases coupling x It is cheap and x Little scope for further
inductor and inductor ripple coefficient, hence affordable. ʹ൅݊െ‫ܦ‬ improvement.
converter [39] current. efficiency increases. x Reduction in ripples. ͳെ‫ܦ‬ x Voltage ripples are not
x Smaller size. considered.

4. Quasi Z-source x To achieve a wide x The maximum x Switching stress is less. x Discontinuous Input
converter [40] voltage gain range. efficiency obtained x Components with a low ͳ൅‫ܦ‬ current.
is 96.44% and the rating. ͳെ‫ܦ‬ x High voltage stress in
minimum is the c
88.17%.

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